Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2

Routing Associate (MNCS201)

Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

Study Material
(Windows Server Infrastructure MNCS104)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Table of Contents

Topic
1. Module 1- Characteristics of Routing Protocols
2. Module 2- Fundamentals of EIGRP Concepts
3. Module 3- Advanced EIGRP Concepts
4. Module 4- Fundamentals of OSPF Concepts
5. Module 5- Advanced OSPF Concepts

Module 1- Characteristics of Routing Protocols

Table of Content
Topic

1. Routing Protocol Fundamentals

2. The Role of Routing in an Enterprise Network
3. Routing Protocol Selection
4. Type of routing protocol
5. Network Technology Fundamentals
6. TCP/IP Fundamentals
7. Questions

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 1
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

Routing Protocol Fundamentals

Routing occurs when a router or some other Layer 3 device (for example, a multilayer switch) makes a
forwarding decision based on network address information (that is, Layer 3 information).

A router could know how to reach a network by simply having one of its interfaces directly connect that
network. Perhaps you statically configured a route, telling a router exactly how to reach a certain
destination network. However, for large enterprises, the use of static routes does not scale well.
Therefore, dynamic routing protocols are typically seen in larger networks (and many small networks,
too). A dynamic routing protocol allows routers configured for that protocol to exchange route
information and update that information based on changing network conditions.

The Role of Routing in an Enterprise Network

An enterprise network typically interconnects multiple buildings, has connectivity to one or more remote
offices, and has one or more connections to the Internet.

Building Access: This layer is part of the Campus network and is used to provide user access to the
network. Security (especially authentication) is important at this layer, to verify that a user should have
access to the network. Layer 2 switching is typically used at this layer, in conjunction with VLANs.

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 2
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

Building Distribution: This layer is part of the Campus network that aggregates building access switches.
Multilayer switches are often used here.

Campus Backbone: This layer is part of the Campus network and is concerned with the high-speed
transfer of data through the network. High-end multilayer switches are often used here.

Edge Distribution: This layer is part of the Campus network and serves as the ingress and egress point
for all traffic into and out of the Campus network. Routers or multilayer switches are appropriate devices
for this layer.

Internet Gateways: This layer contains routers that connect the Campus network out to the Internet.
Some enterprise networks have a single connection out to the Internet, while others have multiple
connections out to one or more Internet Service Providers (ISP).

WAN Aggregation: This layer contains routers that connect the Campus network out to remote offices.
Enterprises use a variety of WAN technologies to connect to remote offices (for example, Multiprotocol
Label Switching [MPLS]).

Routing Protocol Selection

As you read through this book, you will learn about the RIPv2, RIPng, OSPFv2, OSPFv3, EIGRP, BGP, and
MP-BGP routing protocols. With all of these choices (and even more) available, a fundamental network
design consideration becomes which routing protocol to use in your network.

As you learn more about these routing protocols, keeping the following characteristics in mind can help
you do a side-by-side comparison of protocols:

■ Scalability
How large is your network now, and how large is it likely to become? The answers to
those questions can help determine which routing protocols not to use in your network.
For example, while you could use statically configured routes in a network with just a
couple of routers, such a routing solution does not scale well to dozens of routers.

■ Vendor interoperability

■ IT staff’s familiarity with protocol

Choosing the routing protocol with which the IT staff is more familiar could reduce downtime
(because of faster resolutions to troubleshooting issues). Also, if the IT staff is more familiar with the

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 3
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

inner workings of one routing protocol, they would be more likely to take advantage of the protocol’s
nontrivial features and tune the protocol’s parameters for better performance.

■ Speed of convergence
After failover occurs, and the network reaches a steady-state condition (that is, the
routing protocol is aware of current network conditions and forwards traffic based on
those conditions), the network is said to be a converged network. The amount of time
for the failover to occur is called the convergence time.

■ Capability to perform summarization

Network summarization allows multiple routes to be summarized in a single route advertisement.

Not only does summarization reduce the number of entries in a router’s routing
table, but it also reduces the number of network advertisements that need to be sent.

■ Interior or exterior routing

What is an autonomous system?

An Autonomous System is a group of networks that is governed and controlled by a single administrative
entity. For example, a network created by a single company, organization, corporation, or ISP is a single
AS.
What are AS numbers?

An AS number is a unique identity of the AS on the Internet. If you want to connect your AS to the
Internet, you must obtain an AS number. Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) has the worldwide
right to assign AS numbers. It delegates that right to the organizations that assign public IP addresses.
For example, in Asia, the Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC) assigns both IP addresses and
AS numbers.

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 4
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

IGP: An IGP exchanges routes between routers in a single AS. Common IGPs include
OSPF and EIGRP. Although less popular, RIP and IS-IS are also considered IGPs.
you can use interior BGP (iBGP) within an AS.

EGP: An EGP protocol provides connectivity between different autonomous systems. Today, the only
EGP in use is BGP. However, from a historical perspective, be aware that there was once another EGP,
which was actually named Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP).

Type of routing protocol

Distance-Vector
A distance-vector routing protocol sends a full copy of its routing table to its directly
attached neighbors. This is a periodic advertisement, meaning that even if there have been
no topological changes, a distance-vector routing protocol will, at regular intervals, readvertise
its full routing table to its neighbors. Another drawback to distance-vector routing protocols is the time
they take to converge.

Link-State

Rather than having neighboring routers exchange their full routing tables with one another,
a link-state routing protocol allows routers to build a topological map of a network.
Then, similar to a global positioning system (GPS) in a car, a router can execute an algorithm
to calculate an optimal path (or paths) to a destination network.
Routers send link-state advertisements (LSA) to advertise the networks they know how to
reach. Routers then use those LSAs to construct the topological map of a network. The
algorithm run against this topological map is Dijkstra’s Shortest Path First algorithm.

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 5
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

Unlike distance-vector routing protocols, link-state routing protocols exchange full

routing information only when two routers initially form their adjacency. Then, routing
updates are sent in response to changes in the network, as opposed to being sent periodically.

Routing protocols that can be categorized as link-state routing protocols include

■ Open Shortest Path First (OSPF): A link-state routing protocol that uses a metric of
cost, which is based on the link speed between two routers. OSPF is a popular IGP, because of its
scalability, fast convergence, and vendor interoperability.

■ Intermediate System–to–Intermediate System (IS-IS): This link-state routing protocol

is similar in its operation to OSPF. It uses a configurable, yet dimensionless, metric associated with an
interface and runs Dijkstra’s Shortest Path First algorithm. Although using IS-IS as an IGP offers the
scalability, fast convergence, and vendor interoperability benefits of OSPF, it has not been as widely
deployed as OSPF.

Path-Vector

A path-vector routing protocol includes information about the exact path packets take to
reach a specific destination network. This path information typically consists of a series
of autonomous systems through which packets travel to reach their destination. Border
Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the only path-vector protocol you are likely to encounter in a
modern network.
Also, BGP is the only EGP in widespread use today. In fact, BGP is considered to be the
routing protocol that runs the Internet, which is an interconnection of multiple autonomous
systems.

Network Technology Fundamentals

Network Traffic Types

Unicast

Most network traffic is unicast in nature, meaning that traffic travels from a single source
device to a single destination device.

Broadcast

Broadcast traffic travels from a single source to all destinations in a subnet (that is, a broadcast domain).
A broadcast address of 255.255.255.255 might seem that it would reach all hosts on an interconnected

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 6
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

network. However, 255.255.255.255 targets all devices on a single network, specifically the network local
to the device sending a packet destined for 255.255.255.255. Another type of broadcast address is a
directed broadcast address, which targets all devices in a remote network. For example, the address
172.16.255.255 /16 is a directed broadcast targeting all devices in the 172.16.0.0 /16 network.

Multicast

Multicast technology provides an efficient mechanism for a single host to send traffic
to multiple, yet specific, destinations. For example, imagine a network with 100 users.
Twenty of those users want to receive a video stream from a video server. With a unicast
solution, the video server would have to send 20 individual streams, one stream for each
recipient. Such a solution could consume a significant amount of network bandwidth and
put a heavy processor burden on the video server.
With a broadcast solution, the video server would only have to send the video stream
once; however, the stream would be received by every device on the local subnet, even
devices not wanting to receive it. Even though those devices do not want to receive the
video stream, they still have to pause what they are doing and take time to check each of
these unwanted packets.

Anycast

With anycast, a single IPv6 address is assigned to multiple devices.

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 7
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

In Figure 1-11 , a client with an IPv6 address of 2100::1 wants to send traffic to a destination
IPv6 address of 2200::1. Notice that two servers (Server A and Server B) have an
IPv6 address of 2200::1. In the figure, the traffic destined for 2200::1 is sent to Server A
through Router R2, because the network on which Server A resides appears to be closer
than the network on which Server B resides, from the perspective of Router R1’s IPv6
routing table.

Note Anycast is an IPv6 concept and is not found in IPv4 networks. Also, note that IPv6
anycast addresses are not unique from IPv6 unicast addresses.

Network Architecture Types

Another set of network technologies that impact routing, and determine traffic flow, deal
with network architecture types (for example, point-to-point, broadcast, and NBMA). For
design and troubleshooting purposes, you should be familiar with the characteristics of
each.

Point-to-Point Network

A very basic network architecture type is a point-to-point network. As seen in Figure

1-12 , a point-to-point network segment consists of a single network link interconnecting
two routers. This network type is commonly found on serial links.

Broadcast Network

A broadcast network segment uses an architecture in which a broadcast sent from one of
the routers on the network segment is propagated to all other routers on that segment.
An Ethernet network, as illustrated in Figure 1-13 , is a common example of a broadcast
network.

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 8
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

NBMA

As its name suggests, a nonbroadcast multiaccess (NBMA) network does not support
broadcasts. As a result, if an interface on a router connects to two other routers, as depicted
in Figure 1-14 , individual messages must be sent to each router.

The absence of broadcast support also implies an absence of multicast support. This
can lead to an issue with dynamic routing protocols (such as OSPF and EIGRP) that
dynamically form neighborships with neighboring routers discovered through multicasts.
Because neighbors cannot be dynamically discovered, neighboring IP addresses must be
statically configured. Examples of NBMA networks include ATM and Frame Relay.

TCP/IP Fundamentals

IP Characteristics

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 9
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

The functions of the fields in an IPv4 header are as follows:

■ Version field: The Version field indicates IPv4 (with a value of 0100).
■ Header Length field: The Header Length field (commonly referred to as the Internet
Header Length (IHL) field) is a 4-bit field indicating the number of 4-byte words in
the IPv4 header.
■ Type of Service field: The Type of Service (ToS) field (commonly referred to as
the ToS Byte or DHCP field) has 8 bits used to set quality of service (QoS) markings.
Specifically, the 6 leftmost bits are used for the Differentiated Service Code
Point (DSCP) marking, and the 2 rightmost bits are used for Explicit Congestion
Notification (an extension of Weighted Random Early Detection (WRED) , used for
flow control).
■ Total Length field: The Total Length field is a 16-bit value indicating the size of the
packet (in bytes).
■ Identification field: The Identification field is a 16-bit value used to mark fragments
that came from the same packet.
■ IP Flags field: The IP Flags field is a 3-bit field, where the first bit is always set to a
0. The second bit (the Don’t Fragment [DF] bit) indicates that a packet should not
be fragmented. The third bit (the More Fragments [MF] bit) is set on all of a packet’s
fragments, except the last fragment.
■ Fragment Offset field: The Fragment Offset field is a 13-bit field that specifies the
offset of a fragment from the beginning of the first fragment in a packet, in 8-byte
units.
■ Time to Live (TTL) field: The Time to Live (TTL) field is an 8-bit field that is decremented
by 1 every time the packet is routed from one IP network to another (that is, passes through a router). If
the TTL value ever reaches 0, the packet is discarded

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 10
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

from the network. This behavior helps prevent routing loops.

■ Protocol field: The Protocol field is an 8-bit field that specifies the type of data
encapsulated in the packet. TCP and UDP are common protocols identified by this
field.
■ Header Checksum field: The Header Checksum field is a 16-bit field that performs
error checking for a packet’s header. Interestingly, this error checking is performed
for UDP segments, in addition to TCP segments, even though UDP is itself an “unreliable”
protocol.
■ Source Address field: The 32-bit Source Address field indicates the source of an
IPv4 packet.
■ Destination Address field: The 32-bit Destination Address field indicates the destination
of an IPv4 packet.
■ IP Option field: The IP Option field is a seldom-used field that can specify a variety
of nondefault packet options. If the IP Option field is used, its length varies based on
the options specified.

TCP Characteristics

TCP is commonly touted as being a reliable transport mechanism, as compared to its

unreliable counterpart, UDP. Examination of the TCP segment header format.

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 11
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

The purposes of the fields found in a TCP segment header are as follows:
■ Source Port field: The Source Port field is a 16-bit field indicating the sending port
number.
■ Destination Port field: The Destination Port field is a 16-bit field indicating the
receiving port number.
■ Sequence Number field: The Sequence Number field is a 32-bit field indicting the
amount of data sent during a TCP session. The sending party can be assured that
the receiving party really received the data, because the receiving party uses the
sequence number as the basis for the acknowledgment number in the next segment
it sends back to the sender. Specifically, the acknowledgment number in that
segment equals the received sequence number plus 1. Interestingly, at the beginning
of a TCP session, the initial sequence number can be any number in the range
0–4,294,967,295 (that is, the range of numbers that can be represented by 32 bits).
However, when you are doing troubleshooting and performing a packet capture of
a TCP session, the initial sequence number might appear to be a relative sequence
number of 0. The use of a relative sequence number can often make data easier to
interpret while troubleshooting.
■ Acknowledgment Number field: The 32-bit Acknowledgment Number field is used
by the recipient of a segment to request the next segment in the TCP session. The
value of this field is calculated by adding 1 to the previously received sequence
number.
■ Offset field: The Offset field is a 4-bit field that specifies the offset between the
data in a TCP segment and the start of the segment, in units of 4-byte words.
Reserved field: The 3-bit Reserved field is not used, and each of the 3 bits are set to
a value of 0.
■ TCP Flags field: The TCP Flags field is comprised of 9 flag bits (also known as control
bits ), which indicate a variety of segment parameters.
■ Window field: The 16-bit Window field specifies the number of bytes a sender is
willing to transmit before receiving an acknowledgment from the receiver.
■ Checksum field: The Checksum field is a 16-bit field that performs error checking
for a segment.
■ Urgent Pointer field: The 16-bit Urgent Pointer field indicates that last byte of a
segment’s data that was considered urgent. The field specifies the number of bytes
between the current sequence number and that urgent data byte.
■ TCP Options field: The optional TCP Options field can range in size from 0 to 320
bits (as long as the number of bits is evenly divisible by 32), and the field can contain
a variety of TCP segment parameters.

Three-Way Handshake

The process of setting up a TCP session involves a three-way handshake, as listed in the

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 12
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

following steps and as illustrated in Figure 1-26 .

Step 1. The session initiator sends a Synchronization (SYN) message to the target
host.
Step 2. The target host acknowledges receipt of the SYN message with an
Acknowledgment (ACK) message and also sends a SYN message of its own.
Step 3. The session initiator receives the SYN messages from the target host and
acknowledges receipt by sending an ACK message.

UDP Characteristics

Figure 1-28 presents the structure of a UDP segment header. Because UDP is considered
to be a connectionless, unreliable protocol, it lacks the sequence numbering, window
size, and acknowledgment numbering present in the header of a TCP segment. Rather
the UDP segment’s header contains only source and destination port numbers, a UDP
checksum (which is an optional field used to detect transmission errors), and the segment
length (measured in bytes).

Figure 1-28 UDP Segment Header Format

Because a UDP segment header is so much smaller than a TCP segment header, UDP
becomes a good candidate for the transport layer protocol serving applications that need
to maximize bandwidth and do not require acknowledgments (for example, audio or
video streams). In fact, the primary protocol used to carry voice and video traffic, Realtime
Transport Protocol (RTP) , is a Layer 4 protocol that is encapsulated inside of UDP.

Routing Process- Follow CCNP Routing and Switching ROUTE 300-101 Official Cert Guide Page no 24.

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 13
 Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

QUESTIONS
MCQ

CORRECT
QUESTION ANSWER 1 ANSWER 2 ANSWER 3 ANSWER 4
ANSWER
In which type of routing protocol does each
router broadcast routing updates to all other Distance
Link State Path Vector Hybrid 3
routers in the network, leading to potential Vector
routing loops and convergence issues?
Which routing protocol is designed specifically
for large-scale networks, using hierarchical
structure and area concept to improve RIP OSPF EIGRP BGP 2
scalability and reduce the size of routing
updates?
What category of network technology refers to
networks where multiple devices are
Point-to-
connected in a broadcast manner, allowing NBMA Broadcast Multicast 3
Point
any device to communicate directly with
others?
What type of routing protocol relies on the
concept of advertising paths rather than
Distance
exchanging detailed routing information, Link State Path Vector Hybrid 2
Vector
commonly used in Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP)?
In which routing protocol does each router
maintain multiple routing tables
corresponding to different Autonomous OSPF BGP RIP EIGRP 2
Systems (AS), making it suitable for inter-
domain routing?
What routing protocol is commonly used in
small to medium-sized networks and is
characterized by its simplicity and ease of OSPF BGP RIP EIGRP 3
configuration but may suffer from slow
convergence?
What category of network technology refers to
networks where multiple devices are Point-to-
NBMA Broadcast Multicast 2
connected in a manner where communication Point
paths are not always straightforward?
In which type of routing protocol does each router
know only about its directly connected neighbors Path Distance
Link State Hybrid 4
and relies on them to propagate routing Vector Vector
information further?

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 14
 Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

Which routing protocol uses a sophisticated

algorithm called DUAL (Diffusing Update
OSPF RIP EIGRP BGP 3
Algorithm) to provide loop-free routing and fast
convergence in networks with multiple paths?
What type of routing protocol is characterized by
routers exchanging routing information with their Distance
Link State Hybrid Path Vector 2
neighbors in a periodic manner, often using Vector
Bellman-Ford algorithm?
In which routing protocol does each router
maintain multiple routing tables, allowing it to
RIP OSPF EIGRP BGP 3
calculate routes based on different criteria such as
bandwidth or delay?
What category of network technology refers to
networks where multiple devices are connected in a Point-to-
NBMA Broadcast Multicast 2
non-broadcast manner, requiring a central device Point
to manage communication?
Which routing protocol uses TCP as its transport
protocol and is commonly used to exchange
OSPF BGP RIP EIGRP 2
routing information between Autonomous Systems
(AS) in the Internet?

What type of routing protocol maintains routes to

Distance
different destinations with associated metrics and Link State Path Vector Hybrid 3
Vector
selects the best path based on these metrics?

In which type of routing protocol does each router

broadcast routing updates to all other routers in Distance
Link State Path Vector Hybrid 3
the network, leading to potential routing loops and Vector
convergence issues?
Which routing protocol is designed specifically for
large-scale networks, using hierarchical structure
RIP OSPF EIGRP BGP 2
and area concept to improve scalability and reduce
the size of routing updates?
What category of network technology refers to
networks where multiple devices are connected in a Point-to-
NBMA Broadcast Multicast 3
broadcast manner, allowing any device to Point
communicate directly with others?
What type of routing protocol relies on the concept
of advertising paths rather than exchanging Distance
Link State Path Vector Hybrid 2
detailed routing information, commonly used in Vector
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)?
In which routing protocol does each router
maintain multiple routing tables corresponding to
OSPF BGP RIP EIGRP 2
different Autonomous Systems (AS), making it
suitable for inter-domain routing?

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 15
 Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

What routing protocol is commonly used in small

to medium-sized networks and is characterized by
OSPF BGP RIP EIGRP 3
its simplicity and ease of configuration but may
suffer from slow convergence?
What category of network technology refers to
networks where multiple devices are connected in a Point-to-
NBMA Broadcast Multicast 2
manner where communication paths are not always Point
straightforward?
Ensuring Managing
What is the primary function of IP in a TCP/IP Routing Establishing
reliable flow A
network? packets connections
delivery control

Which protocol is connection-oriented and

TCP UDP ICMP IP A
provides reliable data delivery?

Which protocol is used for real-time

applications where a few lost packets are UDP TCP IP ARP A
acceptable?

In which layer of the OSI model does TCP

Transport Network Data link Application A
operate?

Which protocol is responsible for IP address

ARP ICMP TCP UDP A
resolution to MAC addresses?

What is the size of an IPv4 address in bits? 32 16 64 8 A

Which protocol is connectionless and does not

UDP TCP ICMP IP A
guarantee delivery of packets?

Which protocol is responsible for error

ICMP TCP UDP ARP A
detection and reporting in IP networks?

What is the maximum number of ports

65535 256 1024 1023 A
available in TCP and UDP?

To ensure To To provide
What is the function of TCP's sequence To identify
reliable manage source and A
numbers? packets
data window destination

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 16
 Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

delivery size port

numbers

Which protocol is used for network diagnostics

ICMP TCP UDP ARP A
and troubleshooting?

To To To To detect
In TCP, what is the purpose of the three-way
establish a terminate a exchange network A
handshake?
connection connection data congestion

Error Data Flow Address

What is the function of UDP checksum? A
detection encryption control resolution

Which protocol is responsible for addressing

IP TCP UDP ICMP A
and packet delivery?

In TCP, what mechanism is used to control Congestion Error Flow

Routing A
congestion? Avoidance Detection Control

Which protocol is used by routers to

ICMP ARP TCP UDP A
communicate with each other?

What is the size of an IPv6 address in bits? 128 64 32 256 A

Which protocol is used for multicasting? UDP TCP IP ICMP A

Which protocol is used for routing and

IP TCP UDP ICMP A
forwarding decisions?

To To assign a
To limit the To
What is the purpose of the TTL field in an IP encrypt port
lifespan of authenticate A
header? the number to
a packet the packet
packet the packet

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 17
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

3 Marks
1. What are the characteristics of Distance vector routing protocol?
2. What are the characteristics of Link state routing protocol?
3. What are the characteristics of path vector routing protocol?
4. What is an anycast address?
5. What is a NBMA network?
6. What is the function of routing in a network.
7. Different types of IP address class.
8. What is subnetting? Why we use subnetting?
9. What is Time to Live (TTL) field in IP header?
10. Illustrate the significance of Administrative Distance (AD).

5 Marks
1. Which characteristics will you consider when choosing any routing protocol?
2. What are IGP and EGP? Write examples.
3. Discuss different Network Traffic Types.
4. Differentiate between broadcast and multicast traffic with example.
5. Write about different types of Routing. (Static, Default, Dynamic)
6. What are the different types of router memories?
7. What is the difference between Private and Public address.
8. What are Sequence Number field and Acknowledgment Number field in TCP header?

Module 2- Fundamentals of EIGRP Concepts

Table of Content
Topic

1. Fundamentals
2. EIGRP Neighborships
3. Preventing Unwanted Neighbors Using Passive Interfaces
4. Controlling Neighborships with Static Configuration
5. EIGRP Metric Components (K-values)
6. Questions

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 18
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

Fundamentals

EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)

EIGRP is a Cisco-proprietary Hybrid routing protocol, incorporating features of both Distance-Vector and
Link-State routing protocols. EIGRP adheres to the following Hybrid characteristics:

• EIGRP uses Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) to determine the

best path among all “feasible” paths. DUAL also helps ensure a loopfree
routing environment.

• EIGRP will form neighbor relationships with adjacent routers in the

same Autonomous System (AS).

• EIGRP traffic is either sent as unicasts, or as multicasts on address

224.0.0.10, depending on the EIGRP packet type.

• Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP) is used to ensure delivery of most

EIGRP packets.

• EIGRP routers do not send periodic, full-table routing updates.

Updates are sent when a change occurs, and include only the change.

• EIGRP is a classless protocol, and thus supports VLSMs.

Other characteristics of EIGRP include:

• EIGRP supports IP, IPX, and Appletalk routing.

• EIGRP applies an Administrative Distance of 90 for routes originating within the local Autonomous
System.
• EIGRP applies an Administrative Distance of 170 for external routes coming from outside the local
Autonomous System
• EIGRP uses Bandwidth and Delay of the Line, by default, to calculate its distance metric. It also
supports three other parameters to calculate its metric: Reliability, Load, and MTU.
• EIGRP has a maximum hop-count of 255, though the default maximum hop-count is set to 100.

EIGRP, much like OSPF, builds three separate tables:

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Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

• Neighbor table – list of all neighboring routers. Neighbors must belong to the same Autonomous
System
• Topology table – list of all routes in the Autonomous System
• Routing table – contains the best route for each known network

Neighbor Discovery

Before EIGRP routers are willing to exchange routes with each other, they must become neighbors. There
are three conditions that must be met for neighborship establishment:

● Hello or ACK received

● AS numbers match
● Identical metrics (K values)

Link-state protocols tend to use Hello messages to establish neighborship (also called adjacencies)
because they normally do not send out periodic route updates and there has to be some mechanism to
help neighbors realize when a new peer has moved in or an old one has left or gone down. To maintain
the neighborship relationship, EIGRP routers must also continue receiving Hellos from their neighbors.
EIGRP routers that belong to different autonomous systems (ASes) don’t automatically share routing
information and they don’t become neighbors.
The only time EIGRP advertises its entire routing table is when it discovers a new neighbor and forms an
adjacency with it through the exchange of Hello packets. When this happens, both neighbors advertise
their entire routing tables to one another. After each has learned its neighbor’s routes, only changes to
the routing table are propagated from then on.

Let’s define some terms before we move on:

Feasible distance: This is the best metric along all paths to a remote network, including the metric to the
neighbor that is advertising that remote network. This is the route that you will find in the routing table
because it is considered the best path. The metric of a feasible distance is the metric reported by the
neighbor (called reported or advertised distance) plus the metric to the neighbor reporting the route.

Neighbor table: Each router keeps state information about adjacent neighbors. When a newly
discovered neighbor is learned, the address and interface of the neighbor are recorded, and this
information is held in the neighbor table, stored in RAM.

Topology table: The topology table is populated by the protocol-dependent modules and acted upon by
the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL). It contains all destinations advertised by neighboring routers,
holding each destination address and a list of neighbors that have advertised the destination.

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Brainware University, Kolkata 20
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP): EIGRP uses a proprietary protocol called Reliable Transport Protocol
(RTP) to manage the communication of messages between EIGRP-speaking routers.

Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL): EIGRP uses Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) for selecting and
maintaining the best path to each remote network. This algorithm allows for the following:

● Backup route determination if one is available

● Support of VLSMs
● Dynamic route recoveries
● Queries for an alternate route if no route can be found

EIGRP Metrics: Another really sweet thing about EIGRP is that unlike many other protocols that use a
single factor to compare routes and select the best possible path, EIGRP can use a combination of four:

1. Bandwidth (K1=1)
2. Load (K2=0)
3. Delay (K3=1)
4. Reliability (K4=0)
5. Maximum Transmission Unit (K5=0)

By default, EIGRP only uses Bandwidth (K1) and Delay(K3) to calculate metrics.

Configuring EIGRP

Router # config t
Router(config) # router eigrp 20
Router(config-router) # network 172.16.0.0
Router(config-router) # network 10.0.0.0
Router(config-router) # no auto-summary

Cisco IOS uses the router eigrp asn command (where asn is an autonomous system number
[ASN]), plus one or more network net-id wildcard-mask subcommands, to enable
EIGRP on the router and on router interfaces. The rules for these commands are as
follows:

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Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 21
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

1. Neighboring routers’ router eigrp asn commands must be configured with the same
ASN parameter to become neighbors.
2. Cisco IOS enables only EIGRP on interfaces matched by an EIGRP network command.
When enabled, the router does the following:
a. Attempts to discover EIGRP neighbors on that interface by sending multicast
EIGRP Hello messages
b. Advertises to other neighbors about the subnet connected to the interface
3. If no wildcard mask is configured on the EIGRP network command, the command’s
single parameter should be a classful network number (in other words, a class A, B,
or C network number).
4. If no wildcard mask is configured on the EIGRP network command, the command
enables EIGRP on all of that router’s interfaces directly connected to the configured
classful network.
5. If the network command includes a wildcard mask, the router performs access control
list (ACL) logic when comparing the net-id configured in the network command
with each interface’s IP address, using the configured wildcard mask as an ACL wildcard
mask.
EIGRP supports automatic summarization which as the name implies means that it will automatically
advertise summary routes to other EIGRP routers. To stop this we use no auto-summary command.

Key EIGRP Verification Commands

show ip eigrp interfaces -Lists the working interfaces on which EIGRP is enabled (based
on the network commands); it omits passive interfaces.

show ip protocols- Lists the contents of the network configuration commands for
each routing process, and a list of neighbor IP addresses.

show ip eigrp neighbors- Lists known neighbors; does not list neighbors for which some
mismatched parameter is preventing a valid EIGRP neighbour relationship.

show ip eigrp topology- Lists all successor and feasible successor routes known to this
router. It does not list all known topology details.

show ip route- Lists the contents of the IP routing table, listing EIGRP-learned
routes with a code of D on the left side of the output.

EIGRP Neighborships
EIGRP follows three general steps to add routes to the IP routing table, as follows:

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 22
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

Step 1. Neighbor discovery: EIGRP routers send Hello messages to discover potential
neighboring EIGRP routers and perform basic parameter checks to determine
which routers should become neighbors.
Step 2. Topology exchange: Neighbors exchange full topology updates when the
neighbor relationship comes up, and then only partial updates as needed
based on changes to the network topology.
Step 3. Choosing routes: Each router analyzes its respective EIGRP topology table,
choosing the lowest-metric route to reach each subnet.

EIGRP forms neighbor relationships, called adjacencies, with other routers

in the same AS by exchanging Hello packets. Only after an adjacency is
formed can routers share routing information. Hello packets are sent as
multicasts to address 224.0.0.10.

By default, on LAN and high-speed WAN interfaces, EIGRP Hellos are sent
every 5 seconds. On slower WAN links (T1 speed or slower), EIGRP Hellos
are sent every 60 seconds by default.

The EIGRP Hello timer can be adjusted on a per interface basis:

Router(config-if)# ip hello-interval eigrp 10 7
The above command allows us to change the hello timer to 7 seconds for
Autonomous System 10.

In addition to the Hello timer, EIGRP neighbors are stamped with a Hold
timer. The Hold timer indicates how long a router should wait before
marking a neighbor inactive, if it stops receiving hello packets from that
neighbor.

By default, the Hold timer is three times the Hello timer. Thus, on highspeed

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 23
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

links the timer is set to 15 seconds, and on slower WAN links the
timer is set to 180 seconds.

The Hold timer can also be adjusted on a per interface basis:

Router(config-if)# ip hold-interval eigrp 10 21
The above command allows us to change the hold timer to 21 seconds for
Autonomous System 10.

Changing the Hello timer does not automatically change the Hold timer.
Additionally, Hello and Hold timers do not need to match between routers
for an EIGRP neighbor relationship to form.

Preventing Unwanted Neighbors Using Passive Interfaces

There are two ways to prevent unwanted EIGRP neighbors, one is using passive interface command and other is
enabling EIGRP authentication method.

Passive interface
With EIGRP the passive interface command will neither send or nor receive any route updates. The door is
absolute closed!!

When we configure EIGRP routing protocol on the interfaces with the network command, the network command
does two things:

1. Attempt to find potential neighbours by sending Hello to the 224.0.0.10 multicast address.

2. Advertises about the knows subnet connected to that interface.

Hence, we enable passive interface on the interfaces where no legitimate EIGRP neighbors exist or from security
point of view. This stops not only routing updates from being advertised, but it also suppresses incoming routing
updates. Otherwise, with most routing protocols, the passive-interface command restricts outgoing.

Configuration:

R1(config)# router eigrp 1

R1(config-router) # passive-interface s0/1

R1(config-router) # end

When the passive-interface command is used in EIGRP, the router cannot form neighbor adjacencies on the
interface, or send or receive routing updates.

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 24
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

Controlling Neighborships with Static Configuration

EIGRP Static Neighbor

EIGRP by default uses multicast for neighbor discovery but it also allows you to configure EIGRP neighbors
statically. Once you do this, EIGRP will only use unicast and disables EIGRP multicast on the selected interface.

This could be useful in certain scenarios where multicast is not supported or when you want to reduce the
overhead of multicast traffic. Here’s an example:

Above we have a frame-relay hub and spoke network. The hub and spoke1 routers are the only two routers that
are running EIGRP. When the hub router sends an EIGRP multicast packet, it will be replicated on all PVCs. All 4
spoke routers will receive this multicast traffic even though only spoke1 is interested in it.

R1 and R2 are connected through frame-relay. Here’s the configuration of the interfaces:

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 25
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

R1#show run | begin Serial0/0

interface Serial0/0
ip address 192.168.12.1 255.255.255.0
encapsulation frame-relay
clock rate 2000000
frame-relay map ip 192.168.12.2 102
no frame-relay inverse-arp
R2#show run | begin Serial0/0

interface Serial0/0
ip address 192.168.12.2 255.255.255.0
encapsulation frame-relay
clock rate 2000000
frame-relay map ip 192.168.12.1 201
no frame-relay inverse-arp

Above you can see that frame-relay Inverse ARP has been disabled, two static frame-relay maps are used
for our mappings. This means that we are unable to send any broadcast or multicast traffic through this
PVC.
As you can see the frame-relay mappings are there but the broadcast keyword is missing. Let’s configure
EIGRP to use static neighbors:
R1(config)#router eigrp 12
R1(config-router)#network 192.168.12.0
R1(config-router)#neighbor 192.168.12.2 Serial 0/0

R2(config)#router eigrp 12
R2(config-router)#network 192.168.12.0
R2(config-router)#neighbor 192.168.12.1 Serial 0/0

You only have to use the neighbor command to specify the remote neighbor and the interface to reach
it. After a few seconds the neighbor adjacency will appear:
R1#
%DUAL-5-NBRCHANGE: IP-EIGRP(0) 12: Neighbor 192.168.12.2 (Serial0/0) is up: new adjacency
R2#
%DUAL-5-NBRCHANGE: IP-EIGRP(0) 12: Neighbor 192.168.12.1 (Serial0/0) is up: new adjacency

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 26
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

EIGRP Metric Components (K-values)

EIGRP calculates its integer metric, by default, using a formula that uses constraining
bandwidth and cumulative delay. You can change the formula to use link reliability and
link load, and even disable the use of bandwidth and/or delay. To change the formula, an
engineer can configure five weighting constants, called K-values, which are represented in
the metric calculation formula as constants K1, K2, K3, K4, and K5.

EIGRP can utilize 5 separate metrics to determine the best route to a

destination:

• Bandwidth (K1) – Slowest link in the route path, measured in kilobits

• Load (K2) – The load will show you how busy the interface is based on the packet rate and the
bandwidth on the interface. This is a value that can change over time so it’s a dynamic value.

• Delay of the Line (K3) – Cumulative delay of all outgoing interfaces in the path in tens of microseconds.
Delay reflects the time it will take for packets to cross the link and is a static value. Cisco IOS will have
default delay values for the different types of interface. A FastEthernet interface has a default delay of
100 usec.

• Reliability (K4) – Reliability at 255/255 is 100%. This means that you don’t have issues on the physical
or data-link layer. If you are having issues this value will decrease. Since this is something that can
change it’s a dynamic value.

• MTU (K5) – The smallest Maximum Transmission Unit in the path. The MTU value is actually never used
to calculate the metric

These K values are only numbers to scale numbers in the metric calculation. The formula we use for the
metric calculation looks like this:

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 27
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

By default, K1 and K3 have a value of 1, and K2, K4, and K5 are set to 0

The EIGRP update packet includes path attributes associated with each prefix. The EIGRP path attributes
can include hop count, cumulative delay, minimum bandwidth link speed, and RD. The attributes are
updated each hop along the way, allowing each router to independently identify the shortest path.

Router#show interfaces fastEthernet 0/0

FastEthernet0/0 is up, line protocol is up

Hardware is AmdFE, address is cc02.58a9.0000 (bia cc02.58a9.0000)
Internet address is 192.168.12.1/24
MTU 1500 bytes, BW 500 Kbit, DLY 100 usec,
reliability 255/255, txload 1/255, rxload 1/255

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 28
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

The metric weights command sets five variables (K1 through K5), each of which weights
the metric calculation formula more or less heavily for various parts of the formula.
Mismatched K-value settings prevent two routers from becoming neighbors.

R2(config)# router eigrp 1

R2(config-router)# metric weights 0 1 0 1 1 0

In the command metric weights 0 1 0 1 1 0, the first number (that is, the leftmost
0) represents the Type of Service (ToS) value with which EIGRP packets should be marked.
This is a Quality of Service (QoS) setting. It equals 0 and cannot be changed to a different
value. The remaining five numbers are the K-values: K1, K2, K3, K4, and K5, respectively.

QUESTIONS:

Question Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Option 4 Answer

Enhanced External Enhanced Enterprise
Interior Internet Internet Interior
What does EIGRP stand for? Gateway Gateway Gateway Gateway 1
Routing Routing Routing Routing
Protocol Protocol Protocol Protocol
passive-
passive- passive- passive-
Which command is used to interface
interface interface interface
configure a passive interface for eigrp 2
eigrp <AS <interface <AS
EIGRP? <interface
number> name> number>
name>
By By By increasing
By adjusting
How can you prevent unwanted configuring configuring the
the hello and 1
neighbors in EIGRP? passive active bandwidth
hold timers
interfaces interfaces on interfaces
neighbor
neighbor neighbor ip eigrp
What command is used to manually add eigrp
<IP eigrp <AS neighbor <IP 1
configure EIGRP neighbors? <AS
address> number> address>
number>
Which K-value is responsible for
bandwidth in EIGRP metric K1 K2 K3 K4 1
calculation?

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 29
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

To To specify
To set the
determine To define the the interface
In EIGRP, what is the purpose of the hello and
the path hold-down bandwidth 1
K-values? dead
selection timers and delay
intervals
criteria parameters
Which of the following is a valid K-
K7 K5 K0 K6 2
value in EIGRP?
How does EIGRP handle routing Partial Incremental Periodic
Full updates 3
updates? updates updates updates
What is the default administrative
90 110 120 100 3
distance for internal EIGRP routes?
EIGRP is a
EIGRP sends EIGRP EIGRP has a
distance
Which of the following statements periodic full supports maximum
vector 3
about EIGRP is true? routing table VLSM and hop count of
routing
updates. CIDR. 15.
protocol.
By
considering
the
By selecting By choosing
composite
By using the the route the route
How does EIGRP determine the best metric, which
Dijkstra with the with the 3
path to a destination? includes
algorithm lowest lowest hop
bandwidth,
bandwidth count
delay, load,
and
reliability
Which parameter is used by EIGRP to
MTU Load Bandwidth Delay 2
measure the reliability of a link?
Faster Limited Compatibility
What is the primary advantage of Simplicity of
convergence support for with non- 1
EIGRP over RIP? configuration
time VLSM Cisco routers
EIGRP
EIGRP sends
updates EIGRP
triggered
routing tables automatically EIGRP has a
updates
Which of the following is a every 30 redistributes maximum
only when 1
characteristic of EIGRP? seconds routes from hop count of
there is a
regardless of other routing 16.
topology
topology protocols.
change.
changes.
How often does EIGRP send hello Every 5 Every 15 Every 30 Every 60
2
packets by default? seconds seconds seconds seconds

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 30
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

Which of the following is NOT a

component of EIGRP metric Reliability Load Delay Cost 4
calculation?
A backup A router that
route that shares the
A route that A route with
In EIGRP, what does the term can be used same AS
has not yet the lowest 1
"feasible successor" refer to? if the number as
been verified bandwidth
primary the current
route fails router
By
By maintaining
By using the implementing a topology
By relying on
How does EIGRP ensure loop-free Bellman- split horizon table and
the TTL field 3
paths? Ford and the computing a
in IP packets
algorithm holddown loop-free
timer path to each
destination
Which of the following is a valid
administrative distance for external 170 90 110 120 1
EIGRP routes?

3 Marks
1. Discuss about EIGRP Hello and Hold timer interval.
2. Describe the tables used by EIGRP.
3. Write the requirements to establish neighbour relationship.
4. What is passive interface and why is it used by EIGRP.
5. What is DUAL in EIGRP?
6. What is a metric in routing?
7. What is Autonomous system?

5 Marks
1. Discuss different characteristic of EIGRP.
2. Discuss different EIGRP metric types.
3. Briefly discuss the EIGRP neighborship establishment process.
4. Write about basic EIGRP verification commands.
5. Why EIGRP is called Advanced distance vector or hybrid routing protocol?
6. Explain the fundamentals of EIGRP and how it differs from other routing protocols such as RIP
and OSPF.

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 31
Master of Science in Advanced Networking and Cyber Security, Semester 2
Routing Associate (MNCS201)
Class: MSC.ANCS 2023 Theory
Academic Session: 2023-24 EVEN

7. How can unwanted neighbors be prevented in EIGRP, and what are the potential benefits of implementing
passive interfaces?

8. Discuss the process of configuring static EIGRP neighbors and when it might be necessary to use this
approach.

9. Explain the significance of EIGRP metric components (K-values) and how they influence route
selection. Provide examples of scenarios where adjusting K-values might be necessary.

Ayan Gangopadhyay
Assistant Professor
Brainware University, Kolkata 32