CH.

1 Overview of OS

Chapter 1 Marks 10

Overview of Operating System

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Computer software can be divided into two main categories: application software and
system software. Application software consists of the programs for performing tasks
particular to the machine’s utilization. This software is designed to solve a particular
problem for users. Examples of application software include spreadsheets, database
systems, desktop publishing systems, program development software, and games.

On the other hand, system software is more transparent and less noticed by the typical
computer user. This software provides a general programming environment in which
programmers can create specific applications to suit their needs. This environment provides
new functions that are not available at the hardware level and performs tasks related to
executing the application program. System software acts as an interface between the
hardware of the computer and the application software that users need to run on the
computer. The most important type of system software is the operating system.

An Operating System (OS) is a collection of programs that acts as an interface between a

user of a computer and the computer hardware. The purpose of an operating system is to
provide an environment in which a user may execute the programs.

Operating Systems are viewed as resource managers. The main resource is the computer
hardware in the form of processors, storage, input/output devices, communication devices,
and data. Some of the operating system functions are: implementing the user interface,
sharing hardware among users, allowing users to share data among themselves, preventing
users from interfering with one another, scheduling resources among users, facilitating
input/output, recovering from errors, accounting for resource usage, facilitating parallel
operations, organizing data for secure and rapid access, and handling network
communications.

What Operating Systems Do

We begin our discussion by looking at the operating system’s role in the overall computer
system. A computer system can be divided roughly into four components: the hardware,
the operating system, the application programs, and the users (Figure 1.1).

Downloaded From Campusify!

1 OSY (22516)
 CH.1 Overview of OS

Figure 1.1 Abstract view of the components of a computer system.

The hardware—the central processing unit (CPU), the memory, and the input/output (I/O)
devices—provides the basic computing resources for the system. The application
programs—such as word processors, spreadsheets, compilers, and Web browsers—define
the ways in which these resources are used to solve users’ computing problems. The
operating system controls the hardware and coordinates its use among the various
application programs for the various users.

We can also view a computer system as consisting of hardware, software, and data. The
operating system provides the means for proper use of these resources in the operation of
the computer system. An operating system is similar to a government. Like a government, it
performs no useful function by itself. It simply provides an environment within which other
programs can do useful work.

To understand more fully the operating system’s role, we next explore operating systems
from two viewpoints: that of the user and that of the system.

1.1.1 User View

The user’s view of the computer varies according to the interface being used. Most
computer users sit in front of a PC, consisting of a monitor, keyboard, mouse, and system
unit. Such a system is designed for one user to monopolize its resources. The goal is to
maximize the work (or play) that the user is performing. In this case, the operating system is
designed mostly for ease of use, with some attention paid to performance and none paid to
resource utilization—how various hardware and software resources are shared.
Performance is, of course, important to the user; but such systems are optimized for the
single-user experience rather than the requirements of multiple users.

Downloaded From Campusify!

2 OSY (22516)
 CH.1 Overview of OS

1.1.2 System View

From the computer’s point of view, the operating system is the program most intimately
involved with the hardware. In this context, we can view an operating system as a resource
allocator. A computer system has many resources that may be required to solve a problem:
CPU time, memory space, file-storage space, I/O devices, and so on. The operating system
acts as the manager of these resources. Facing numerous and possibly conflicting requests
for resources, the operating system must decide how to allocate them to specific programs
and users so that it can operate the computer system efficiently and fairly. As we have seen,
resource allocation is especially important where many users access the same mainframe or
minicomputer.

A slightly different view of an operating system emphasizes the need to control the various
I/O devices and user programs. An operating system is a control program. A control
program manages the execution of user programs to prevent errors and improper use of
the computer. It is especially concerned with the operation and control of I/O devices.

1.2.1 Computer-System Operation

A modern general-purpose computer system consists of one or more CPUs and a number of
device controllers connected through a common bus that provides access to shared
memory (Figure 1.2). Each device controller is in charge of a specific type of device (for
example, disk drives, audio devices, or video displays). The CPU and the device controllers
can execute in parallel, competing for memory cycles. To ensure orderly access to the
shared memory, a memory controller synchronizes access to the memory.

For a computer to start running—for instance, when it is powered up or rebooted—it needs

to have an initial program to run. This initial program, or bootstrap program, tends to be
simple. Typically, it is stored within the computer hardware in read-only memory (ROM) or
electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), known by the general
term firmware. It initializes all aspects of the system, from CPU registers to device
controllers to memory contents. The bootstrap program must know how to load the
operating system and how to start executing that system. To accomplish this goal, the
bootstrap program must locate the operating-system kernel and load it into memory.

Once the kernel is loaded and executing, it can start providing services to the system and its
users. Some services are provided outside of the kernel, by system programs that are loaded
into memory at boot time to become system processes, or system daemons that run the
entire time the kernel is running.

Downloaded From Campusify!

3 OSY (22516)
 CH.1 Overview of OS

Figure 1.2 A modern computer system.

The occurrence of an event is usually signaled by an interrupt from either the hardware or
the software. Hardware may trigger an interrupt at any time by sending a signal to the CPU,
usually by way of the system bus. Software may trigger an interrupt by executing a special
operation called a system call (also called a monitor call).

1.2.2 Storage Structure

The CPU can load instructions only from memory, so any programs to run must be stored
there. General-purpose computers run most of their programs from rewritable memory,
called main memory (also called random-access memory, or RAM). Main memory
commonly is implemented in a semiconductor technology called dynamic random-access
memory (DRAM).

Computers use other forms of memory as well. We have already mentioned read-only
memory, ROM) and electrically erasable programmable read-only memory, EEPROM).
Because ROM cannot be changed, only static programs, such as the bootstrap program
described earlier, are stored there. The immutability of ROM is of use in game cartridges.
EEPROM can be changed but cannot be changed frequently and so contains mostly static
programs. For example, smartphones have EEPROM to store their factory-installed
programs.

Ideally, we want the programs and data to reside in main memory permanently. This
arrangement usually is not possible for the following two reasons:
1. Main memory is usually too small to store all needed programs and data permanently.
2. Main memory is a volatile storage device that loses its contents when power is turned off
or otherwise lost.

Downloaded From Campusify!

4 OSY (22516)
 CH.1 Overview of OS

Thus, most computer systems provide secondary storage as an extension of main memory.
The main requirement for secondary storage is that it be able to hold large quantities of
data permanently.

The most common secondary-storage device is a magnetic disk, which provides storage for
both programs and data. Most programs (system and application) are stored on a disk until
they are loaded into memory. Many programs then use the disk as both the source and the
destination of their processing. Hence, the proper management of disk storage is of central
importance to a computer system,

Figure 1.3 Storage-device hierarchy.

1.8 FUNCTIONS OF OS
The main functions of an operating system are as follows:
1. Process Management
2. Memory Management
3. Secondary Storage Management
4. I/O Management
5. File Management
6. Protection
7. Networking Management
8. Command Interpretation.

1.8.1 Process Management

The CPU executes a large number of programs. While its main concern is the execution of
user programs, the CPU is also needed for other system activities. These activities are called

Downloaded From Campusify!

5 OSY (22516)
 CH.1 Overview of OS

processes. A process is a program in execution. Typically, a batch job is a process. A time-

shared user program is a process. A system task, such as spooling, is also a process. For now,
a process may be considered as a job or a time- shared program, but the concept is actually
more general.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with processes
management:
1. The creation and deletion of both user and system processes
2. The suspension and resumption of processes.
3. The provision of mechanisms for process synchronization
4. The provision of mechanisms for deadlock handling.
More details can be studied in the Unit-2 of this course.

1.8.2 Memory Management

Memory is the most expensive part in the computer system. Memory is a large array of
words or bytes, each with its own address. Interaction is achieved through asequence of
reads or writes of specific memory address. The CPU fetches from and stores in memory.
There are various algorithms that depend on the particular situation to manage the
memory. Selection of a memory management scheme for a specific system depends upon
many factors, but especially upon the hardware design of the system. Each algorithm
requires its own hardware support.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with memory
management.
1. Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
2. Decide which processes are to be loaded into memory when memory space becomes
available.
3. Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed.
Memory management techniques will be discussed in great detail in Unit 3.

1.8.3 Secondary Storage Management

The main purpose of a computer system is to execute programs. These programs, together
with the data they access, must be in main memory during execution. Since the main
memory is too small to permanently accommodate all data and program, the computer
system must provide secondary storage to backup main memory. Most modem computer
systems use disks as the primary on-line storage of information, of both programs and data.
Most programs, like compilers, assemblers, sort routines, editors, formatters, and so on, are
stored on the disk until loaded into memory, and then use the disk as both the source and
destination of their processing. Hence the proper management of disk storage is of central
importance to a computer system.
There are few alternatives. Magnetic tape systems are generally too slow. In addition, they
are limited to sequential access. Thus tapes are more suited for storing infrequently used
files, where speed is not a primary concern.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with disk
management:
Downloaded From Campusify!
6 OSY (22516)
 CH.1 Overview of OS

1. Free space management

2. Storage allocation
3. Disk scheduling.
More details can be studied in Unit-4 of this course.

1.8.4 I/O Management

One of the purposes of an operating system is to hide the peculiarities or specific hardware
devices from the user. For example, in UNIX, the peculiarities of I/O devices are hidden from
the bulk of the operating system itself by the I/O system. The operating system is
responsible for the following activities in connection to I/O management:
1. A buffer caching system
2. To activate a general device driver code
3. To run the driver software for specific hardware devices as and when required.
More details can be studied in the Unit-3 of Block-2 of this course.

1.8.5 File Management

File management is one of the most visible services of an operating system.
Computers can store information in several different physical forms: magnetic tape, disk,
and drum are the most common forms. Each of these devices has its own characteristics
and physical organization.

For convenient use of the computer system, the operating system provides a uniform logical
view of information storage. The operating system abstracts from the physical properties of
its storage devices to define a logical storage unit, the file. Files are mapped, by the
operating system, onto physical devices.

A file is a collection of related information defined by its creator. Commonly, files represent
programs (both source and object forms) and data. Data files may be numeric, alphabetic or
alphanumeric. Files may be free-form, such as text files, or may be rigidly formatted. In
general a file is a sequence of bits, bytes, lines or records whose meaning is defined by its
creator and user. It is a very general concept.

The operating system implements the abstract concept of the file by managing mass storage
device, such as types and disks. Also files are normally organized into directories to ease
their use. Finally, when multiple users have access to files, it may be desirable to control by
whom and in what ways files may be accessed.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection to the file
management:
1. The creation and deletion of files.
2. The creation and deletion of directory.
3. The support of primitives for manipulating files and directories.
4. The mapping of files onto disk storage.
5. Backup of files on stable (non volatile) storage.

Downloaded From Campusify!

7 OSY (22516)
 CH.1 Overview of OS

6. Protection and security of the files.

1.8.6 Protection
The various processes in an operating system must be protected from each other’s activities.
For that purpose, various mechanisms which can be used to ensure that the files, memory
segment, CPU and other resources can be operated on only by those processes that have
gained proper authorization from the operating system.
For example, memory addressing hardware ensures that a process can only execute within
its own address space. The timer ensures that no process can gain control of the CPU
without relinquishing it. Finally, no process is allowed to do its own I/O, to protect the
integrity of the various peripheral devices. Protection refers to a mechanism for controlling
the access of programs, processes, or users to the resources defined by a computer controls
to be imposed, together with some means of enforcement.
Protection can improve reliability by detecting latent errors at the interfaces between
component subsystems. Early detection of interface errors can often prevent contamination
of a healthy subsystem by a subsystem that is malfunctioning. An unprotected resource
cannot defend against use (or misuse) by an unauthorized or incompetent user.

1.8.7 Networking
A distributed system is a collection of processors that do not share memory or a clock.
Instead, each processor has its own local memory, and the processors communicate with
each other through various communication lines, such as high speed buses or telephone
lines. Distributed systems vary in size and function. They may involve microprocessors,
workstations, minicomputers, and large general purpose computer systems.
The processors in the system are connected through a communication network, which can
be configured in the number of different ways. The network may be fully or partially
connected. The communication network design must consider routing and connection
strategies and the problems of connection and security.
A distributed system provides the user with access to the various resources the system
maintains. Access to a shared resource allows computation speed-up, data availability, and
reliability.

1.8.8 Command Interpretation

One of the most important components of an operating system is its command interpreter.
The command interpreter is the primary interface between the user and the rest of the
system.
Many commands are given to the operating system by control statements. When a new job
is started in a batch system or when a user logs-in to a time-shared system, a program
which reads and interprets control statements is automatically executed. This program is
variously called (1) the control card interpreter, (2) the command line interpreter, (3) the
shell (in Unix), and so on. Its function is quite simple: get the next command statement, and
execute it.

Downloaded From Campusify!

8 OSY (22516)
 CH.1 Overview of OS

The command statements themselves deal with process management, I/O handling,
secondary storage management, main memory management, file system access, protection,
and networking.
Figure depicts the role of the operating system in coordinating all the functions.

Types of Operating Systems

An Operating System performs all the basic tasks like managing file, process, and memory.
Thus operating system acts as manager of all the resources, i.e. resource manager. Thus
operating system becomes an interface between user and machine.
Types of Operating Systems: Some of the widely used operating systems are as follows-

1. Batch OS –

This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. The user has to
submit a job (written on cards or tape) to a computer operator. There is an operator which
takes similar jobs having same requirement and group them into batches. It is the
responsibility of operator to sort the jobs with similar needs. Then computer operator
places a batch of several jobs on an input device. Jobs are batched together by type of
languages and requirement. Then a special program, the monitor, manages the execution of
each program in the batch. The monitor is always in the main memory and available for
execution.

Downloaded From Campusify!

9 OSY (22516)
 CH.1 Overview of OS

2. Multi programming –
In a modern computing system, there are usually several concurrent application processes
which want to execute. Now it is the responsibility of the Operating System to manage all
the processes effectively and efficiently.
One of the most important aspects of an Operating System is to multi program.
In a computer system, there are multiple processes waiting to be executed, i.e. they are
waiting when the CPU will be allocated to them and they begin their execution. These
processes are also known as jobs. Now the main memory is too small to accommodate all of
these processes or jobs into it. Thus, these processes are initially kept in an area called job
pool. This job pool consists of all those processes awaiting allocation of main memory and
CPU.
CPU selects one job out of all these waiting jobs, brings it from the job pool to main memory
and starts executing it. The processor executes one job until it is interrupted by some
external factor or it goes for an I/O task.
Non-multi programmed system’s working –
 In a non multi programmed system, As soon as one job leaves the CPU and goes for
some other task (say I/O ), the CPU becomes idle. The CPU keeps waiting and waiting
until this job (which was executing earlier) comes back and resumes its execution with
the CPU. So CPU remains free for all this while.
 Now it has a drawback that the CPU remains idle for a very long period of time. Also,
other jobs which are waiting to be executed might not get a chance to execute because
the CPU is still allocated to the earlier job.
This poses a very serious problem that even though other jobs are ready to execute,
CPU is not allocated to them as the CPU is allocated to a job which is not even utilizing
it (as it is busy in I/O tasks).
 It cannot happen that one job is using the CPU for say 1 hour while the others have
been waiting in the queue for 5 hours. To avoid situations like this and come up with
efficient utilization of CPU, the concept of multi programming came up.

Downloaded From Campusify!

10 OSY (22516)
 CH.1 Overview of OS

The main idea of multi programming is to maximize the CPU time.

Multi programmed system’s working –
 In a multi-programmed system, as soon as one job goes for an I/O task, the Operating
System interrupts that job, chooses another job from the job pool (waiting queue),
gives CPU to this new job and starts its execution. The previous job keeps doing its I/O
operation while this new job does CPU bound tasks. Now say the second job also goes
for an I/O task, the CPU chooses a third job and starts executing it. As soon as a job
completes its I/O operation and comes back for CPU tasks, the CPU is allocated to it.
 In this way, no CPU time is wasted by the system waiting for the I/O task to be
completed.
Therefore, the ultimate goal of multi programming is to keep the CPU busy as long as
there are processes ready to execute. This way, multiple programs can be executed on
a single processor by executing a part of a program at one time, a part of another
program after this, then a part of another program and so on, hence executing multiple
programs. Hence, the CPU never remains idle.
In the image below, program A runs for some time and then goes to waiting state. In the
mean time program B begins its execution. So the CPU does not waste its resources and
gives program B an opportunity to run.

3. Multitasking –
As the name itself suggests, multi tasking refers to execution of multiple tasks (say
processes, programs, threads etc.) at a time. In the modern operating systems, we are able
to play MP3 music, edit documents in Microsoft Word, surf the Google Chrome all
simultaneously, this is accomplished by means of multi tasking.
Multitasking is a logical extension of multi programming. The major way in which
multitasking differs from multi programming is that multi programming works solely on the
concept of context switching whereas multitasking is based on time sharing alongside the
concept of context switching.

Downloaded From Campusify!

11 OSY (22516)
 CH.1 Overview of OS

Multi tasking system’s working –

 In a time sharing system, each process is assigned some specific quantum of time for
which a process is meant to execute. Say there are 3 processes P1, P2, P3 ready to
execute. So each of them are assigned some time quantum for which they will execute
e.g time quantum of 2 nanoseconds (2 ns). As one process begins execution (say P1), it
executes for that quantum of time (2 ns). After 2 ns the CPU starts the execution of the
other process (say P2) for the specified quantum of time.
 Thus the CPU makes the processes to share time slices between them and execute
accordingly. As soon as time quantum of one process expires, another process begins
its execution.
 Here also basically a context switch is occurring but it is occurring so fast that the user
is able to interact with each program separately while it is running. This way, the user is
given the illusion that multiple processes/ tasks are executing simultaneously. But
actually only one process/ task is executing at a particular instant of time. In
multitasking, time sharing is best manifested because each running process takes only a
fair quantum of the CPU time.
In a more general sense, multitasking refers to having multiple programs, processes, tasks,
threads running at the same time. This term is used in modern operating systems when
multiple tasks share a common processing resource (e.g., CPU and Memory).

 As depicted in the above image, At any time the CPU is executing only one task while
other tasks are waiting for their turn. The illusion of parallelism is achieved when the
CPU is reassigned to another task. i.e all the three tasks A, B and C are appearing to
occur simultaneously because of time sharing.
 So for multitasking to take place, firstly there should be multiprogramming i.e.
presence of multiple programs ready for execution. And secondly the concept of time
sharing.
4. Multiprocessing –
In a uni-processor system, only one process executes at a time.
Multiprocessing is the use of two or more CPUs (processors) within a single Computer
system. The term also refers to the ability of a system to support more than one processor
Downloaded From Campusify!
12 OSY (22516)
 CH.1 Overview of OS

within a single computer system. Now since there are multiple processors available,
multiple processes can be executed at a time. These multi processors share the computer
bus, sometimes the clock, memory and peripheral devices also.
Multi processing system’s working –
 With the help of multiprocessing, many processes can be executed simultaneously. Say
processes P1, P2, P3 and P4 are waiting for execution. Now in a single processor
system, firstly one process will execute, then the other, then the other and so on.
 But with multiprocessing, each process can be assigned to a different processor for its
execution. If its a dual-core processor (2 processors), two processes can be executed
simultaneously and thus will be two times faster, similarly a quad core processor will be
four times as fast as a single processor.
Why use multi processing –
 The main advantage of multiprocessor system is to get more work done in a shorter
period of time. These types of systems are used when very high speed is required to
process a large volume of data. Multi processing systems can save money in
comparison to single processor systems because the processors can share peripherals
and power supplies.
 It also provides increased reliability in the sense that if one processor fails, the work
does not halt, it only slows down. e.g. if we have 10 processors and 1 fails, then the
work does not halt, rather the remaining 9 processors can share the work of the 10th
processor. Thus the whole system runs only 10 percent slower, rather than failing
altogether.

Multiprocessing refers to the hardware (i.e., the CPU units) rather than the software (i.e.,
running processes). If the underlying hardware provides more than one processor then that
is multiprocessing. It is the ability of the system to leverage multiple processors’ computing
power.
Difference between Multi programming and Multi processing –
 A System can be both multi programmed by having multiple programs running at the
same time and multiprocessing by having more than one physical processor. The
difference between multiprocessing and multi programming is that Multiprocessing is
Downloaded From Campusify!
13 OSY (22516)
 CH.1 Overview of OS

basically executing multiple processes at the same time on multiple processors,

whereas multi programming is keeping several programs in main memory and
executing them concurrently using a single CPU only.
 Multiprocessing occurs by means of parallel processing whereas Multi programming
occurs by switching from one process to other (phenomenon called as context
switching).

Downloaded From Campusify!

14 OSY (22516)