Food preservation:

classification, principles and methods

Contents
1. Foods and food preservation: an overview
2. Food preservation: classification, principles and methods
3. Preservation of fresh food products
4. Preservation of miminally processed foods
5. Preservation using chemicals and microbes
6. Preservation by controlling water, structure, and atmosphere
7. Preservation using heat and energy
8. Enhancing food preservation by indirect approach
9. Issues and technologies related to food preservation
 Introduction
u Food preservation involves the action taken to maintain foods with
the desired properties or nature for as long as possible. The process
is now moving from an art to highly interdisciplinary science.
u Food preservation methods consider the use of or combination of
inactivation, inhibition, and avoidance of recontamination of foods.
a) (i) use of chemicals and microbes;
b) (ii) control of water, structure, and atmosphere;
c) (iii) use of heat and energy; and
d) (iv) enhanced preservation by indirect approaches.
u The lecture presents the factors that need to be considered in
order to satisfy the present and future demands of consumers and
law-enforcing authorities.
 Introduction
u The preservation and processing of food are not as simple or
straightforward as it was in the past. It is now moving from an
art to a highly interdisciplinary science.
u A number of new preservation techniques are being
developed to satisfy current demands of economic
preservation and consumer satisfaction in nutritional and
sensory aspects, convenience, safety, absence of chemical
preservatives, price, and environmental safety.
u Understanding the effects on food of each preservation
method has therefore become critical in all aspects.
u This lecture provides overviews of the new technology,
identifying the changing demands of food quality,
convenience, and safety.
 Causes of deterioration
u Mechanical, physical, chemical, and microbial effects are the leading
causes of food deterioration and spoilage.
u Damage can start at the initial point by mishandling of foods during
harvesting, processing, and distribution; this may ultimately lead to
a reduction of shelf life.
u Other examples of deterioration include
(i) bruising of fruits and vegetables during harvesting and
postharvest handling, leading to the development of rot;
(ii) tuberous and leafy vegetables lose water when kept in
atmospheres with low humidity and subsequently wilt; and
(iii) dried foods kept in high humidity may pick up moisture and
become soggy.
Causes of deterioration

Organisms That Spoil Foods

Causes of deterioration
 Causes of deterioration
u During storage and distribution, foods are exposed to a wide range of
environmental conditions. Environmental factors such as pressure,
temperature, humidity, oxygen, and light can trigger several reactions that
may lead to food degradation. As consequences of these mechanisms, foods
may be altered to such an extent that they are either rejected by or harmful
to the consumer.
u Damage is caused by the mishandling of foods during harvesting,
processing, and distribution, which will lead to reduced shelf life of foods.
u Bruising of fruits and vegetables during harvesting and postharvest handling
leads to the development of rot.
u Crushing of dried snack foods during distribution seriously affects their
quality. Tuberous and leafy vegetables lose water when kept in atmospheres
with low humidity and subsequently wilt.
u Dried foods kept in high humidity may pick up moisture and become soggy.
 Causes of deterioration
u Condensation of moisture on foods or a damp atmosphere favors
microbial growth, occasionally promotes the development of
insects, and may indirectly lead to deterioration resulting in
destructive self-heating.
u Mechanical damage is conducive to spoilage. Bruises and wounds
are such defects, and they frequently cause further chemical and
microbial deterioration. Peels, skins, and shells constitute natural
protection against this kind of spoilage.
u In case of frozen foods, fuctuating temperatures are often
destructive, for example, fuctuating temperatures cause
recrystallization of ice cream, leading to an undesirable sandy
texture. Freezer burn is a major quality defect in frozen foods that
is caused by the exposure of frozen foods to fuctuating
temperatures.
 Causes of deterioration
u Microbial growth in foods results in food spoilage with the
development of undesirable sensory characteristics, and in certain
cases, the food may become unsafe for consumption. Microorganisms
have the ability to multiply at high rates when favorable conditions
are present.
v Prior to harvest, fruits and vegetables generally have good
defense mechanisms against microbial attack, however, after
separation from the plant, they can easily succumb to microbial
proliferation.
v Similarly, meat upon slaughter is unable to resist rapidly growing
microbes.
u Microbial or chemical contaminants are also of concern in food
deterioration. Chemicals from packaging materials may also be a
source of food contamination.
 Causes of deterioration
u Several chemical changes occur during the processing and storage of foods. These
changes may cause food to deteriorate by reducing its sensory and nutritional quality.
Many enzymatic reactions change the quality of foods.
u Cut fruits tend to be brown rapidly at room temperature due to the reaction of
phenolase with cell constituents, as it is released in the presence of oxygen.
Enzymes such as lipoxygenase, if not denatured during the blanching process, can
infuence food quality even at subfreezing temperatures.
u In addition to temperature, other environmental factors such as oxygen, water,
and pH induce deleterious changes in foods that are catalyzed by enzymes.
u The presence of unsaturated fatty acids in foods is a prime reason for the
development of rancidity during storage as long as oxygen is available. While the
development of off-favors is markedly noticeable in rancid foods, the generation of
free radicals during the autocatalytic process leads to other undesirable reactions, for
example, loss of vitamins, alteration of color, and degradation of proteins.
u The presence of oxygen in the immediate vicinity of food leads to increased rates of
oxidation. Similarly, water plays an important role; lipid oxidation occurs at high rates
at very low water activities.
Causes of deterioration
u Some chemical reactions are induced by light, such as a loss
of vitamins and browning of meats. Non-enzymatic
browning is a major cause of quality change and degradation
of the nutritional content of many foods. This type of
browning reaction occurs due to the interaction between
reducing sugars and amino acids, resulting in the loss of
protein solubility, darkening of lightly colored dried
products, and the development of bitter favors.
u Environmental factors such as temperature, water activity,
and pH have an influence on non-enzymatic browning.
 Purpose of food preservation
u Preservation methods start with a full analysis and understanding
of the whole food chain, including growing, harvesting, processing,
packaging, and distribution; thus an integrated approach needs to
be applied.
u Food preservation involves action taken to maintain foods with the
desired properties or nature for as long as possible. It lies at the
heart of food science and technology, and it is the main purpose of
food processing.
u An important question is, why to preserve a food? The main reasons
for food preservations are to
(i) overcome inappropriate planning in agriculture,
(ii) produce value-added products, and
(iii) provide variation in diet.
Purpose of food preservation

u In food preservation, the important points that need to be

considered are:
1. What quality level is desired?
2. How long to preserve?
3. For whom to preserve?
Factors affecting food quality, safety, and choice
Various stages of
food production,
manufacture,
storage,
distribution, and
sale
Food preservation methods

Discussion

Major food preservation techniques

Food preservation: use of chemicals and microbes

u Wide varieties of chemicals or additives are used in food preservation

to control pH, as antimicrobes and antioxidants, and to provide food
functionality as well as preservation action.
u Some additives are entirely synthetic (not found in nature), such as
phenolic antioxidant tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), and others
are extracted from natural sources, such as vitamin E.
u Irrespective of origin, food additives must accomplish some desired
function in the food to which they are added, and they must be safe
to consume under the intended conditions of use.
u Many legally permitted preservatives in foods are organic acids and
esters, including sulftes, nitrites, acetic acid, citric acid, lactic acid,
sorbic acid, benzoic acid, sodium diacetate, sodium benzoate, methyl
paraben, ethyl paraben, propyl paraben, and sodium propionate
Food preservation: use of chemicals and microbes

u There are several limitations to the value of organic acids as

microbial inhibitors in foods:
u They are usually ineffective when initial levels of
microorganisms are high.
u Many microorganisms use organic acids as metabolizable
carbon sources.
u There is inherent variability in resistance of individual strains.
u The degree of resistance may also depend on the conditions.
Food preservation: use of chemicals and microbes
u Nitrides and nitrates are used in many foods as preservatives and functional
ingredients. These are critical components used to cure meat, and they are
known to be multifunctional food additives and potent antioxidants.
u Many plants contain compounds that have some antimicrobial activity,
collectively referred to as “green chemicals” or “biopreservatives”. Interest
in naturally occurring antimicrobial systems has expanded in recent years in
response to consumers’ requirements for fresher, more natural, and
additive-free foods.
u A range of herbs and spices are known to possess antibacterial activity
because of their chemical composition. Antimicrobial agents can occur in
foods of both animal and vegetable origin.
u Scientifc studies have identifed the active antimicrobial agents of many
herbs and spices. These include eugenol in cloves, allicin in garlic, cinnamic
aldehyde and eugenol in cinnamon, allyl isothiocyanate in mustard, eugenol
and thymol in sage, and isothymol and thymol in oregano.
Food preservation: use of chemicals and microbes

u Smoking has been mainly used with meat and fsh. Smoking not
only imparts desirable favor and color to some foods, but also
some of the compounds formed during smoking have a
preservative effect (bactericidal and antioxidant).

u When a chemical is used in preservation, the main question is

how safe it is. There should be a risk–beneft analysis.
Antimicrobial agents or preservatives are diverse in nature, but
legal, toxicological, marketing, and consumer considerations
have created a trend such that both the number and amount of
preservatives in use are diminishing rather than increasing.
Control of Water, Structure, and Atmosphere

u Many physical modifications are made in ingredients or foods

during preservation. Such modifications can also improve the
sensory, nutritional, and functional properties of foods.
u Changes experienced by foods during processing include glass
formation, crystallization, caking, cracking, stickiness,
oxidation, gelatinization, pore formation, and collapse.

u Through precise knowledge and understanding of such

modifications, one can develop safe, high-quality foods for
consumption.
Control of Water, Structure, and Atmosphere

u Water content or water activity?

u The minimum water activity is the limit below which a microorganism or
group of microorganisms can no longer reproduce.
u For most foods, this is between the 0.6 and 0.7 values of the water
activity range.
u Pathogenic bacteria cannot grow below a water activity of 0.85 to 0.86,
whereas yeast and molds are more tolerant of a reduced water activity of
0.80, but usually no growth occurs below a water activity of about 0.62.
u The critical limits of water activity may also be shifted to higher or lower
levels by other factors, such as pH, salt, antimicrobial agents, heat
treatment, and temperature to some extent.
u Removing water, adding solutes, or a change in solute–water interactions
can reduce the water activity of a food.
Control of Water, Structure, and Atmosphere
u Drying is one of the oldest methods of food preservation, in which water
activity is reduced by separating out water.
u The concentration of liquid foods is mainly carried out by thermal
evaporation, freeze concentration, and membrane separation. Each method
has its advantages and disadvantages.
u Freezing changes the physical state of a substance by changing water into ice
when energy is removed in the form of cooling below freezing temperature.
Usually, the temperature is further reduced to storage level at –18°C.
u Microbial growth is completely stopped below –18°C, and both enzymatic and
nonenzymatic changes continue at much slower rates during frozen storage.
There is a slow progressive change in organoleptic quality during storage.
u Freezing is more popular than drying due to its ability to retain relatively fresh-
like qualities in the food.
Control of Water, Structure, and Atmosphere
u Foods can be considered very stable in the glassy state since below glass
temperature, compounds involved in deterioration reactions take many months or
even years to diffuse over molecular distances and approach each other to react.

u The hypothesis has recently been stated that this transition greatly infuences food
stability, as the water in the concentrated phase becomes kinetically immobilized and
therefore does not support or participate in reactions.

u The formation of a glassy state results in a signifcant arrest of translational molecular

motion, and chemical reactions become very slow.
 Control of Water, Structure, and Atmosphere

u Edible coatings serve many purposes in food systems. Coatings are used to
improve appearance or texture and reduce water loss.
u Examples include the waxing of apples and oranges to add gloss, edible natural
polymeric coating of frozen fsh to add gloss and reduce shrinkage due to water
loss, or coating of candies to reduce stickiness.
u Other surface treatments for foods include the application of antioxidants,
acidulants (or other pH-control agents), fungicides, preservatives, and mineral
salts.
u The formulation of edible coatings depends on the purpose and type of
products. Encapsulation has been used by the food industry for more than 60
years. In a broad sense, encapsulation technology in food processing includes
the coating of minute particles of ingredients (e.g., acidulants, fats, and
favors) as well as whole ingredients (e.g., raisins, nuts, and confectionery
products), which may be accomplished by microencapsulation and
macrocoating techniques.
 Control of Water, Structure, and Atmosphere
u Gums and gels, such as casein, guar gum, agar, carrageenan, and pectin, are
also used in food products to provide the desired structure and functionality
to the products. These are extremely important for the textural attributes,
such as creaminess and oiliness of formulated products, and oral perception
of fat-mimicking foods.
u Packaging techniques based on altered gas compositions have a long history.
u Modifed atmosphere packaging is a preservation technique that may
further minimize the physiological and microbial decay of perishable
produce by keeping them in an atmosphere that is different from the
normal composition of air.
u Active packaging can provide a solution by adding materials that absorb
or release a specifc compound in the gas phase. Compounds that can be
absorbed are carbon dioxide, oxygen, water vapor, ethylene, or volatiles
that infuence taste and aroma.
u Vacuum and modifed-humidity packaging contain a changed atmosphere
around the product.
 Use of heat and energy
u Earlier, mostly heat was used for inactivation. Thermal inactivation is
still the most widely used process for food preservation.
u The advantages of using heat for food preservation are
(i) heat is safe and chemical-free;
(ii) heat provides tender-cooked favors and taste;
(iii) most spoilage microorganisms are heat-labile; and
(iv) thermally processed foods, when packed in sterile containers,
have a very long shelf life.

u The main disadvantages of using heat are overcooking, which may

lead to textural disintegration and an undesirable cooked favor,
and nutritional deterioration results from high-temperature
processing.
 Use of heat and energy
u Heat treatment processes include mainly pasteurization,
sterilization, cooking, extrusion, and frying. Currently more
electrotechnologies are being used and this will expand in the
future.
u Considering the severity of the heat treatment process, mild
processing technologies, such as high-pressure processing,
ultrasounds, pulsed electric felds, ultraviolet (UV) light, high-
intensity pulsed light, magnetic feld, and atmospheric cold plasma
can serve as useful alternatives to commercial sterilization and
pasteurization, and can be used to destroy foodborne pathogens while
retaining nutritional and sensorial properties.

u Discussion?
Use of heat and energy

u High Pressure and Ultrasound

u Electricity

u Irradiation

u Magnetic Field

Discussion?
Food preservation enhanced by indirect approaches
u The new concept of active or life packaging materials allows
(i) one-way transfer of gases away from the product or the absorption of
gases detrimental to the product;
(ii) antimicrobial in packaging;
(iii) release of preservatives from controlled-release surfaces;
(iv) oxygen scavengers;
(v) carbon dioxide generators;
(vi) absorbers or scavengers of odors; and
(vii) absorption of selected wavelengths of light.
u These systems have capabilities for controlled automatic switching. Another
concept of edible or biodegradable packaging has also been evolved for
environmental reasons.
u Processing and packaging can be integrated to improve effciency.
Food preservation enhanced by indirect approaches

u Food safety has been of concern since the Middle Ages, and regulatory
measures have been enforced to prevent the sale of adulterated or
contaminated food. Food safety is now the highest priority.

u Recently the concepts of hazard analysis and critical control point

(HACCP), ISO 9000, good manufacturing practices (GMP), standard
operating procedures (SOP), hazard and operability studies (HAZOP),
and total quality management (TQM) have gained attention.

u Discussion?
Food preservation enhanced by indirect approaches
u Recently, the concept of hurdle technology, or combined methods of preservation,
has gained attention.
u The microbial stability and safety of most traditional and novel foods is based on a
combination of several preservative factors (called hurdles), which microorganisms
present in the food are unable to overcome. This is illustrated by the so-called
hurdle effect, first introduced by Leistner and his coworkers.
u He acknowledged that the hurdle concept only illustrates the well-known fact that
complex interactions of temperature, water activity, pH, and redox potential are
significant for the microbial stability of foods. With respect to procedures that slow
or prevent the growth of microorganisms in foods, major successes have been seen
and new applications are steadily being made in the use of combination preservation
techniques or hurdle technology.
u This has been supported by a greatly improved understanding of the principles
underlying the stability and safety of an enormous number of combination-preserved
foods that are traditional and indigenous to different parts of the world. Modifed
atmosphere packaging has grown rapidly, particularly for the extension of the high-
quality shelf life of certain chill-stored foods.
 Selection of preservation method
u The factors that should be considered before selecting a preservation
process are
1) desired quality of the products,
2) economics of the process, and
3) environmental impact of the methods.
u Food industry waste is now also of concern to law enforcement
authorities and consumers.
u Food waste is not only an economic loss but also has an impact on the
environment. It is important to make every effort to minimize waste,
to set up effective recycling systems, and to implement suitable
systems for value-added products.
u The ultimate success of the food industry lies in the timely adoption
and efficient implementation of emerging new technologies to satisfy
the present and future demands of the consumer.
 Conclusion
u Continuous innovation and progress are being made in the
development of preservation methods using new technologies and
their combinations.
u Commercial successes of these new technologies are limited due to
their cost, complexity, and established evidence of safety.
u The applications of smart food preservation methods need to be
implemented to achieve food security, safety, and sustainability.
u In addition, consumers are now very concerned about the use of
chemicals, sustainability, and environmental safety.
u Future food preservation methods need to address all issues rather
than only considering the technological progress.