Basics of DC Machines

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Basics of

DC
Machines
By Kiran Daware
Basics of
DC Machines

By Kiran Daware
Chapter 1

Basics of DC Machines
1.1 Introduction:

Around 1820, Hans Christian Oersted discovered the generation of


magnetic field around a current carrying conductor by observing the
deflection of a compass needle. This was the first known mechanical
movement due to electricity, which further led to the invention of electric
motors. About a decade later, Michael Faraday discovered that electric
current is generated whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic
field. This discovery became the foundation for the development of
electric generators. The era of electrical machines started with the
inventions of DC motors and DC generators.

A DC motor is an electrical machine which converts DC electrical


energy into rotational mechanical energy. That is when a DC electric
current is given to a DC motor, its shaft rotates. On the other hand, when
the shaft of a DC generator rotates, an electric current is induced in the
conductors of the generator. The fact is, a DC motor can also act as a DC
generator when its shaft is rotated and vice versa. Therefore, DC motors
and DC generators can be collectively termed as DC machines. In this
module, you will learn about the construction and working principle of DC
machines.

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1.2 Construction of a DC machine:

Figure 1.1 Construction of a DC Machine

Figure 1.1 shows constructional details of a simple 4 pole DC


machine. The assembly consists of a stator and a rotor. Basic components
of a DC machine are briefly explained below.

 Yoke: The outer frame of a DC machine


is called as a yoke. It is made up of cast
iron or steel. It not only provides
mechanical strength to the whole
assembly, but also carries the magnetic
flux produced by the field winding.

 Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined


to the yoke with the help of bolts or
welding. They carry field winding and Figure 1.2 Stator of a DC machine

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pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes;
(i) they support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in the air gap
uniformly.

 Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are
former wound and placed on each pole and are connected in series.
They are wound in such a way that, when energized, they form
alternate North and South poles.

 Armature Core: Armature core is the rotor of the machine. It is


cylindrical in shape with slots to carry armature winding. The
armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for
reducing eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for
the axial air flow for cooling purposes. The armature is keyed to the
shaft.

 Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which


rests in armature slots. The armature conductors are insulated
from each other and also from the armature core. Armature
winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or
wave winding. Double layer lap or wave windings are generally
used. A double layer winding means that each armature slot will
carry two different coils. Both, lap and wave winding, are explained
in a later chapter.

 Commutator and brushes:


Physical connection to the
armature winding is made
through a commutator-brush
arrangement. The function of a
commutator, in a DC generator,
is to collect the current
generated in armature Figure 1.3

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conductors. Whereas, in case of a DC motor, commutator helps in
providing current to the armature conductors. A commutator
consists of a set of copper segments which are insulated from each
other by mica insulation. The number of segments is equal to the
number of armature coils. Each segment is connected to an
armature coil and the commutator is keyed to the shaft. Brushes
are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on
commutator segments and slide on the segments when the
commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or
supply the current.

1.3 Working principle of a DC Generator

According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction,


whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field (OR a conductor
is moved in a magnetic field), an emf (electromotive force) gets induced in
the conductor. And if the conductor is provided with the closed path, the
induced current will circulate within the path. In a DC generator, field coils
produce an electromagnetic field and the armature conductors are rotated
into the field. Thus, an electromagnetically induced emf is generated in the
armature conductors. The direction of the induced current is given by
Fleming’s right hand rule.

Fleming’s right hand rule: The thumb, first finger and second finger
of the right hand are held perpendicular to each other. If the thumb is
pointed in the direction of motion of the conductor and the first finger is
pointed in the direction of the magnetic field (north to south), the second
finger represents the direction of induced current.

1.4 Need of the split ring commutator:

According to Fleming’s right hand rule, the direction of induced


current changes whenever the direction of motion of the conductor
changes. Let’s consider an armature rotating clockwise and a conductor on
the left is moving upward. When the armature completes a half rotation,

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the direction of motion of that particular conductor will be reversed to
downward. Hence, the direction of current in every armature conductor
will be alternating.

If you look at the figure 1.4, you will know how the direction of the
induced current is alternating in an armature conductor. But with a split

Figure 1.4

ring commutator, connections of the armature conductors also get


reversed when the current reversal occurs. And therefore, we get
unidirectional current at the terminals.

1.5 Working principle of a DC Motor:

“Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic


field, it experiences a mechanical force.” The magnitude of this force is
given as; F=BIL, where B = Magnetic flux density, I = Current, L = length
of the conductor within the magnetic field. The direction of this force
experienced by the conductor is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.

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Fleming’s left hand rule: The thumb, first finger and second finger of
the right hand are held perpendicular to each other. If the first finger is
pointed in the direction of the magnetic field and the second finger is pointed
in the direction of the current, then the thumb represents the direction of
force experienced by the conductor.

Figure 1.5 helps in understanding


the working principle of DC motor. When
the armature winding is connected
across a DC supply, a current set up in the
winding. The magnetic field may be
provided by energizing field coils or by
using permanent magnets. In the
presence of magnetic field, current
carrying armature conductors
experience force in opposite directions Figure 1.5

at the opposite sides. Hence, a torque is


experienced by the armature which causes the armature to rotate.

A split ring commutator is necessary to achieve unidirectional


torque (just like it helps in achieving unidirectional current in DC
generators).

1.6 Back EMF:

According to the fundamental laws of nature, no energy conversion


is possible until there is something to oppose the conversion. In case of
generators, this opposition is provided by magnetic drag and in case of DC
motors, there is back emf (Eb).

When the armature of the motor


is rotating, the armature conductors also
cut the magnetic flux lines. Due to this,
generation action occurs. Hence, an
electrodynamically induced emf is
Figure 1.6

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generated in the conductors which is opposite to the direction of the
provided armature current.

The applied voltage has to force the current through the armature
conductors against back emf. Under normal running conditions, back emf
(Eb) is always less than the applied voltage (V). Due to the presence of back
emf, the net voltage across the armature circuit is given as:

V = Eb + Ia.Ra

(Where, V = applied voltage, Eb = Back emf, Ia = armature current,


Ra = armature resistance.)

Significance of back emf:

Magnitude of back emf is directly proportional to speed of the


motor. Consider the load on a DC motor is suddenly reduced. In this case,
required torque will be small as compared to the current torque. Speed of
the motor will start increasing due to the excess torque. Hence, being
proportional to the speed, magnitude of the back emf will also increase.
With increasing back emf armature current will start decreasing. Torque is
proportional to the armature current, it will also decrease until it becomes
sufficient for the load. Thus, the speed of the motor will regulate.

On the other hand, if a DC motor is suddenly loaded, the load will


cause decrease in the speed. Due to decrease in speed, back emf will also
decrease, allowing more armature current. Increased armature current
will increase the torque to satisfy the load requirement. Hence, the
presence of the back emf makes a DC motor ‘self-regulating’.

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1.7 Classification of DC Machines:
DC machines are usually classified on the basis of their field
excitation method. This makes two broad categories of dc machines; (i)
Separately excited and (ii) Self-excited.

 Separately excited: In separately excited dc machines, field


winding is supplied from a separate power source. That is, field
winding is electrically separated from the armature circuit. This
type of dc machines is not commonly used.

Figure 1.7 Classification of DC machines

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 Self excited: In this type, field winding and armature winding are
interconnected in various ways to achieve wide range of
performance characteristics. Depending on that, self-excited
machines can be further classified as –

o Series wound – In this type, field winding is connected in


series with the armature winding. Therefore, the field
winding carries whole load current (armature current). That
is why series winding is designed with few turns of thick
wire and the resistance is kept very low (about 0.5 Ohm).

o Shunt wound – Here, field winding is connected in parallel


with the armature winding. Shunt winding is made with
large number of turns and the resistance is kept very high
(about 100 Ohm). It takes only small current which is less
than 5% of the rated armature current.

o Compound wound – In this type, there are two sets of field


winding. One is connected in series and the other is
connected in parallel with the armature winding.
Compound wound machines are further divided as
 Short shunt – field winding is connected in parallel
with only the armature winding
 Long shunt – field winding is connected in parallel
with the combination of series field winding and
armature winding

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1.8 Armature winding:
To learn how practical armatures are wound, it is essential to know
the following terminologies –

 Pole pitch: It is defined as the number of armature slots per pole.


For example, if there are 36 armature slots and 4 poles, the pole
pitch will be 36/4=9.

 Coil: A coil has two sides which rest in distinct armature slots. A coil
may be single turn or multi-turn coil. A single turn coil has only one
conductor per coil side but a multi-turn coil may have many
conductors per coil side. All the coils are connected in series and
the junctions of consecutive coils are terminated on the respective
commutator segments.

Figure 1.8

 Coil span: It is nothing but the spacing between the two coil sides
in terms of the number of armature slots. If coil span is equal to the
pole pitch, then the winding is called to be full pitched. In this case,
the coil sides lie exactly under the opposite poles and maximum
emf is induced in the coil. Example - for a full pitched coil with coil
span of 9, if one coil side is placed in slot no. 3 then the other coil
side must be placed in slot no. 12. If the coil span is less than the
pole pitch, then the winding is called to be fractional pitched. In this
case, the net emf generated in the coil is less than that would be in
a full pitched coil. This is due to the phase difference between the

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generated emfs in the two coil sides. Still, fractional pitch windings
may be sometimes used for substantial saving in copper at the end
connections and for improving commutation.

 Winding pitch (Y): It is the


distance between the
beginnings of two
consecutive coils measured
in terms of armature
conductors.

 Back pitch (YB): Back pitch is


defined as the distance by
which a coil advances on the
back of the armature. It is
Figure 1.9
measured in terms of
armature conductors.

 Front pitch (YF): It is defined as the distance, measured in terms of


armature conductors, between the second conductor of one coil
and the first conductor of the next coil. OR it is the distance
between the two coil sides that are connected to the same
commutator segment.
 Commutator pitch (YC): It is the distance between the two
commutator segments to which the two end of the same coil are
connected. It is measured in terms of commutator segments.

 Single layer and double layer winding: When only one conductor
or coil side is placed in an armature slot then the winding is called
single layer winding. It is not very commonly used. On the other
hand, in double layer winding, each armature slot carries two
conductors forming two layers of winding. One coil side lies in the
upper layer while the other coil side of the same coil lies in the
lower layer in a different armature slot.

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 Simplex and multiplex winding: If there is only one set of closed
winding, then the winding is called as simplex winding. If there are
two sets of closed winding then it is called as duplex winding and
so on.

Lap winding:
A type of armature winding in which successive coils overlap each
other is called as lap winding. For a simplex lap winding, the commutator
pitch is 1. That means, the two ends of a coil are connected to adjacent
commutator segments. For a duplex lap winding, commutator pitch is 2.
The winding may be progressive or retrogressive. A progressive winding
progresses in the direction in which the coil is wound. The opposite way is
retrogressive.
In simplex lap winding, number of parallel paths is equal to the
number of poles. When brushes of the same polarity are connected
together, then the current flowing paths between the opposite brushes
are called as parallel paths.
Wave winding:
In wave winding, the end of one coil is connected to the beginning
of a coil which lie under the same polarity of field pole as that of the first
coil. In other words, all the coils which carry emf in the same direction at a
time are connected in series. Hence, a simplex wave winding makes only
two parallel paths.

Figure 1.10

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Brush positions:
The brush positions can be determined by finding the direction of
induced emf in the various armature conductors. By applying the Fleming’s
right hand rule, the direction of induced emf in any conductor can be
found. A positive brush is placed on a commutator segment at which
direction of induced emf in both the terminated conductors is positive.
Whereas, a negative brush is placed where direction of induced emf in
both the terminated conductors in negative.
Dummy coils:
For obtaining specific performance characteristics of the machine,
each machine has to be designed with the specific type of winding and with
the specific number of armature conductors. Sometimes, an armature may
not be available with the number of slots according the design
requirements. In such cases, an armature with more slots is taken and the
winding is placed, according to the requirement, omitting few armature
slots. But, this will disturb the mechanical balance of the armature and
make the machine unstable while running. Dummy coils are placed in the
empty slots to provide mechanical balance to the armature. They are just
like the other armature coils, except that they are not connected to any
commutator segments. Dummy coils are electrically insulated from the
armature circuit.

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1.9 EMF equation and Torque equation:
In a DC machine, regardless of a motor or generator, generation of
emf and torque occur at the same time. For example, in a DC motor, there
will be induced voltage in the form of back emf in the armature conductors
when the motor is running. The same emf equation can be used to
calculate the generated emf in a dc generator and back emf in dc motor.
In the same way, the same torque equation can be used to calculate the
electromagnetic torque developed in a dc motor and a dc generator.
EMF equation:
Let us assume a dc generator, in which –
P = number of field poles
Z = total number of armature conductors
ɸ = flux produced per pole (in Wb)
A = number of parallel paths in the armature
N = rotational speed of the armature (in RPM)

Now,
𝑑𝛷
Average emf generated per conductor is given by (Volts) …(eq. 1)
𝑑𝑡
Flux cut by one conductor in one revolution = 𝑑𝛷 = 𝑃𝛷 ….(Weber),

Number of revolutions per second = N/60

Therefore, time for one revolution = 𝑑𝑡 = 60/𝑁 (Seconds)

Therefore,
𝑑𝛷 𝑃𝛷𝑁
from eq. 1, emf generated per conductor = = (Volts)...(eq. 2)
𝑑𝑡 60
The net generated emf across the generator terminals is the emf
generated in any one of the parallel paths. Eq. 2 gives the emf generated
in one conductor only and all the conductors are connected in series
forming the parallel paths.

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Hence, the net generated emf across the armature terminals (Eg)
is given as –

𝑃𝛷𝑁 𝑍
𝐸𝑔 = (Volts)
60 𝐴
 For a simplex lap wound generator, number of parallel paths is
𝑃𝛷𝑁 𝑍
equal to the number of poles. Therefore, 𝐸𝑔 =
60 𝑃
 For a simplex wave wound generator, there are only two parallel
𝑃𝛷𝑁𝑍
paths. Therefore, 𝐸𝑔 =
120

Torque equation:
Whenever the armature conductors carry current in presence of
the field flux, they experience a force. But the force is opposite in direction
at the opposite sides of the armature, which gives rise to electromagnetic
torque. Torque is given by the product of the force and the radius at which
this force acts.
Torque T = F × r (N-m) ….where, F = force and r = radius of the
armature.
Work done by this force in once revolution,
Work done = Force × distance = F × 2πr (2πr = circumference of
the armature).
Net power developed in the armature
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × circumference × 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
= = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹 × 2𝜋𝑟 × 𝑁
(Joules per second)
60

But, F × r = T and 2πN/60 = angular velocity ω in radians per second.

Rearranging the above equation, the net power developed P=T×ω


(Joules per second)

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Armature torque:
Let, the torque developed in the armature be denoted as Ta.
Then the power developed in the armature Pa = Ta × ω = Ta × 2πN/60
We know, the power developed in the armature is actually converted from
the electrical power.
That is, mechanical power = electrical power
Ta × 2πN/60 = Eb.Ia
Eb is the back emf generated in the armature and it is calculated from the
𝑃𝛷𝑁 𝑍
same emf equation as that of dc generators. Therefore, 𝐸𝑏 =
60 𝐴
𝑃𝛷𝑁 𝑍
Therefore, Ta × 2πN/60 = × Ia
60 𝐴
𝑃𝑍
Ta = × 𝛷. 𝐼𝑎 (N-m)
2πA
𝑃𝑍
In the above equation, is practically constant for a DC machine.
2πA
Therefore, armature torque is directly proportional to the product of the
flux and the armature current. i.e. Ta ∝ 𝛷. 𝐼𝑎
Shaft torque:
The total developed armature torque is not available at the shaft.
Due to iron and friction losses in the machine, some of the armature
torque is lost and hence, the shaft torque is always less than the armature
torque. Unlike armature torque, the shaft torque is calculated from the
output power available at the shaft. It is denoted by Tsh.
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Tsh = (N-m)
2πN/60

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About the Author

Hi, I’m Kiran Daware. I hold a Bachelor's degree in Electrical


Engineering from Shivaji University, Kolhapur, India. I am the
founder of electricaleasy.com - a popular technical blog for
electrical engineering students. I write to simplify complex
electrical concepts, helping students understand the basics in
easy and practical terms. My goal is to make learning electrical
engineering an enjoyable and accessible journey for everyone.

Apart from electrical engineering, I’m also exploring various other


fields that interest me. To learn more about me and my journey,
feel free to visit my personal portfolio at dkiran.net.

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