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SUSTAINABLE PROCUREMENT ENVIRONMENTAL & SOCIAL

STANDARDS ENHANCEMENT CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE


(SPESSECE), AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA.
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Course: ENSD 845 CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND
MITIGATION STRATEGIES
COURSE LECTURER: Dr. SK HABILA

ASSIGNMENT QUESTION: Examine the Kyoto Protocol and conference of parties


(COP 21 & COP 28) on climate change mitigation strategies (20%). Clear illustrations
would attract higher marks.

PREPARED BY NASIRU SALISU


APPLICATION NUMBER: SPESSECE-01685
Abstract

This examination explores the evolution of global climate change mitigation efforts, focusing

on two landmark international agreements: the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement

established during COP 21. The Kyoto Protocol, which set legally binding emission reduction

targets for developed nations, laid the groundwork for international climate policy but faced

challenges due to limited participation and scope. In contrast, the Paris Agreement marked a

significant shift by involving both developed and developing countries in a collective effort

to limit global temperature rise, albeit through non-binding commitments. The paper also

examines the outcomes of COP28 in Dubai, which introduced ambitious new targets,

particularly the reduction of global greenhouse gas emissions by 43% by 2030 and 60% by

2035. Despite these advances, challenges remain in securing adequate financing and ensuring

widespread participation. The findings highlight the progress made and the ongoing

challenges in global climate governance, emphasizing the need for sustained international

cooperation and financial commitment to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement by 2030.
Introduction

The global response to climate change has evolved through various international agreements,

with the Kyoto Protocol and COP 21 being two of the first most significant milestones. This

paper examines the strategies for climate change mitigation established under these

agreements, focusing on their development, implementation, and impact on global climate

policies.

The Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997 and entered into force in 2005, was the first major

international agreement aimed at reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It set legally

binding targets for developed countries, recognizing their historical responsibility for climate

change.

Examination of the Kyoto Protocol

Legal Framework: The Kyoto Protocol established a system where developed nations were

obligated to reduce GHG emissions by an average of 5.2% below 1990 levels during the first

commitment period (2008-2012) (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

[UNFCCC], 1998).

Commitment Periods: The first commitment period was from 2008 to 2012, and the second

was from 2013 to 2020 (Doha Amendment). Not all countries ratified the second period,

limiting its effectiveness.

Flexible Mechanisms: The Kyoto Protocol introduced market-based mechanisms to help

countries meet their targets cost-effectively:

I. Emissions Trading: Countries could trade emission units with each other.

II. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Allowed industrialized countries to invest in

emission reduction projects in developing countries and earn certified emission

reduction (CER) credits (UNFCCC, 1998).


III. Joint Implementation (JI): Enabled countries to earn emission reduction units by

investing in projects that reduce emissions in other developed countries.

Criticism and Limitations:

I. Limited Scope: The protocol only covered industrialized countries, excluding

developing nations like China and India, which became major emitters.

II. Withdrawal: The United States, one of the largest emitters, never ratified the protocol.

Canada withdrew in 2011.

Conference of Parties COP 21 and the Paris Agreement

The 21st Conference of the Parties (COP 21), held in Paris in 2015, led to the Paris

Agreement, a landmark in global climate governance. Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris

Agreement involved both developed and developing countries, committing all to take action

against climate change.

Global Participation: The Paris Agreement requires all countries to submit Nationally

Determined Contributions (NDCs) outlining their climate actions and progress (UNFCCC,

2015).

Mitigation Strategies: The agreement emphasizes limiting global temperature rise to well

below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, with efforts to limit the increase to 1.5°C (UNFCCC,

2015).

Long-term Goals: The Paris Agreement sets long-term goals for carbon neutrality by the

second half of the 21st century, fostering a transition towards low-carbon economies

(UNFCCC, 2015).
Contrast and Comparison

Binding Nature: Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, which imposed binding targets only on

developed nations, the Paris Agreement is more inclusive but relies on voluntary national

pledges, making enforcement challenging (Bodansky, 2016).

Flexibility: The Kyoto Protocol’s market mechanisms provided flexibility in achieving

emission reduction targets, while the Paris Agreement’s emphasis on transparency and global

stocktaking promotes collective responsibility (Falkner, 2016).

Illustrations

Impact on Emission Trends: The impact of both agreements on global emissions is

illustrated by comparing emission trends before and after their adoption. Graphs showing the

decline in emissions in Annex I countries post-Kyoto can be contrasted with the broader

participation under the Paris Agreement (Le Quéré et al., 2018).

Case Studies: Case studies from countries like Germany (Kyoto Protocol) and India (Paris

Agreement) can be used to illustrate the success and challenges of implementing climate

mitigation strategies under both agreements.

Conference of Parties (COP 28)

The COP28 conference in Dubai has been a significant event in the ongoing global effort to

address climate change, particularly in terms of climate change mitigation strategies. Below

are some key takeaways and data-backed insights from the conference:

Mitigation Targets and Fossil Fuels: A central focus of COP28 was the commitment to

reduce global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. For the first time, the conference explicitly

acknowledged the need to cut GHG emissions by 43% by 2030 and 60% by 2035 relative to

2019 levels. This ambitious target is crucial for limiting global warming to 1.5°C above pre-

industrial levels. However, there is also a recognition that transitioning away from fossil fuels
must be done in a just and equitable manner, taking into account the economic realities of

different nations(

Climate ChampionsUNFCCC).

Energy Transition: COP28 is seen as marking the "beginning of the end" of the fossil fuel

era. Although there was no definitive call for a complete phase-out of fossil fuels, the

agreement included significant commitments to accelerate the transition to renewable energy,

aiming to triple global renewable energy capacity and double energy efficiency by 2030.

However, the absence of a clear phase-out timeline for fossil fuels led to frustrations among

some nations and environmental groups.

Global Stocktake and Loss and Damage Fund: The first Global Stocktake was a key

component of COP28, which reviewed global progress towards the Paris Agreement goals.

The Stocktake highlighted the importance of enhanced adaptation strategies and the

operationalization of the Loss and Damage Fund, aimed at assisting vulnerable countries with

irreversible climate impacts. Although the fund was officially launched with initial

commitments, it still falls short of the estimated $580 billion needed by 2030(

World Resources Institute).

Financial Commitments and Challenges: The conference acknowledged the ongoing

financial gap, particularly for developing nations. Although COP28 saw the establishment of

a new climate finance goal, set to replace the previous $100 billion annual target, many

financial issues were deferred to COP29. The new target, named the New Collective

Quantitative Goal (NCQG), will have to address the financial needs estimated at $5.8 trillion

by 2030. The challenge remains to mobilize these funds effectively(

Climate Champions).

Inclusion and Non-State Actors: COP28 emphasized the role of non-State actors, including

businesses, cities, youth, and Indigenous Peoples, in driving climate action. Their
involvement is crucial for translating the conference outcomes into tangible actions. This

inclusivity highlights the broadening of the climate action movement beyond just

governmental entities(

UNFCCC).

Illustrations of the Data:

The global stocktake data clearly illustrates the gap between current emissions reduction

efforts and the necessary targets to stay within the 1.5°C limit. The financial pledges, while

substantial, fall short of the trillions needed, particularly for developing nations to transition

to clean energy and build resilience against climate impacts.

Summary

COP28 in Dubai set new, more aggressive targets for climate mitigation, the success of these

goals will depend heavily on securing adequate financing and the active participation of a

wide range of stakeholders. The conference laid important groundwork, but much will hinge

on the actions taken in the coming years.

Conclusion

The recent COP28 in Dubai has set the stage for a critical decade of climate action. The

outcomes reflect both progress and challenges, with the need for greater ambition and

cooperation among nations to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement by 2030.

The Kyoto Protocol and COP 21 represent two critical phases in the global effort to mitigate

climate change. While the Kyoto Protocol established a foundation for emission reductions

through legally binding targets, COP 21's Paris Agreement expanded the scope and

participation but with more flexible, non-binding commitments. The effectiveness of these

strategies is crucial for achieving global climate goals.


References:

1. Bodansky, D. (2016). The Paris Climate Change Agreement: A New Hope?

*American Journal of International Law, 110*(2), 288-319.

https://doi.org/10.5305/amerjintelaw.110.2.0288

2. Falkner, R. (2016). The Paris Agreement and the New Logic of International Climate

Politics. *International Affairs, 92*(5), 1107-1125. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-

2346.12708

3. Le Quéré, C., Jackson, R. B., Jones, M. W., Smith, A. J. P., Abernethy, S., Andrew,

R. M., ... & Zhu, D. (2018). Global Carbon Budget 2018. *Earth System Science

Data, 10*(4), 2141-2194. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-10-2141-2018

4. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (1998). Kyoto Protocol

to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf

5. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2015). Adoption of the

Paris Agreement. https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/l09r01.pdf

6. UN Climate Change. (2023, December 13). COP28 Agreement Signals “Beginning of

the End” of the Fossil Fuel Era. UNFCCC. https://unfccc.int/news/cop28-agreement-

signals-beginning-of-the-end-of-the-fossil-fuel-era

7. UN Climate Change. (2023, November 29). COP28 Opens in Dubai with Calls for

Accelerated Action, Higher Ambition Against the Escalating Climate Crisis.

UNFCCC. https://unfccc.int/news/cop28-opens-in-dubai-with-calls-for-accelerated-

action-higher-ambition-against-the-escalating-climate-crisis

8. Carbon Brief. (2023, December 13). COP28: Key outcomes agreed at the UN climate

talks in Dubai. Carbon Brief. https://www.carbonbrief.org/cop28-key-outcomes-

agreed-at-the-un-climate-talks-in-dubai/

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