Chapter 1

Maize in Sub-Saharan Africa: Importance

and Production Constraints

1.1 Production and Role of Maize in Sub-Saharan Africa

Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most important food crops worldwide. It is also
the most important staple food in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and is critical to food
security with more than 300 million Africans depending on it as their main staple
food. It is the staple food for 24 million households in East and Southern Africa and
is annually planted over an area of 15.5 million hectares (Thorne et al. 2002), and it
is a major cereal crop in all countries of SSA. In West and Central Africa (WCA),
for example, it has a remarkable production potential and produces higher yield
than other cereal crops. From the time of its introduction to SSA about 500 years
ago, it has risen to become a staple crop with numerous varieties developed for the
various agroecological zones in SSA. Maize currently covers 25 million hectares in
SSA, largely on smallholder farms, and it accounts for about 20% of the calorie
intake of 50% of the population. It was domesticated in Mesoamerica during prehis-
toric times. In the late fifteenth century, explorers and traders introduced it to other
countries. Maize spread to the rest of the world due to its ability to thrive in diverse
climates. Maize and rice are the second most widely grown crops in the world with
wheat as number one. No other crop produces more grain than maize. Industrialized
countries largely use it as livestock feed. In sub-Saharan Africa, maize is the most
widely grown crop and is a staple food for an estimated 50% of the population. Out
of 53 countries in SSA, 46 grow maize––only Equatorial Guinea, Liberia, St.
Helena, Seychelles, Western Sahara, Mayotte, and British Indian Ocean Territories
do not grow it. Maize production covers the largest land area in Nigeria (7th in the
world and 2.4% of the total), followed by Tanzania and South Africa. The top pro-
ducers are South Africa (9th in the world but only 1.5% of the total), Nigeria, and
Ethiopia. About 10% of South Africa’s maize is exported. In terms of food security,
it is the most important cereal crop in sub-Saharan Africa. Maize is well integrated
into the farming system, and a number of maize-based cropping systems are

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 3

B. Badu-Apraku, M.A.B. Fakorede, Advances in Genetic Enhancement
of Early and Extra-Early Maize for Sub-Saharan Africa,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-64852-1_1
4 1 Maize in Sub-Saharan Africa: Importance and Production Constraints

prominent throughout the region. It is now cultivated in the drier traditional s­ orghum
(Sorghum bicolor L.) and millet (Penisetumtyphoides L.) niches in the savannas of
West and Central Africa (WCA), a feat made possible by the development and avail-
ability of extra-early and early-maturing varieties. These varieties help to fill the
hunger gap that occurs toward the end of the dry season. They are not only able to
escape drought but are also tolerant to drought that occurs sporadically during the
growing season. These varieties are therefore capable of giving reasonable yield in
dry environments where intermediate cycle maize varieties fail. Early and extra-
early maize cultivars are more responsive to fertilizer application, are faster in matu-
rity, and can be harvested much earlier in the season than the adapted sorghum and
millet crops. There is also a high demand for the early and extra-early maize in the
WA forest zone for peri-urban maize consumers because they allow farmers to mar-
ket the early crop at a premium price in addition to being compatible with cassava
(Manihot esculenta Crantz), cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.], and soybean
[Glycine max (L.) Merr.] for intercropping (IITA, 1992). Another important advan-
tage of the early and extra-early maize is that they provide farmers in the various
agroecological zones with flexibility in the dates of planting. The varieties can be
planted when the rains are delayed or could be used for early plantings when the
rainfall distribution is normal (Badu-Apraku et al. 2012, 2017).
In addition, through collaboration between the National Agricultural Research
Institutes (NARIs) and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA),
many of the varieties have been developed with resistance to prevalent diseases,
including maize streak virus, rust, and blight. Some varieties have been developed
for high productivity under infestation by the parasitic weed, Striga hermonthica
(Del.) Benth, and low soil nitrogen that are characteristic of the production systems
in the savannas of the sub-region. Fakorede et al. (2007) analyzed maize production
trends in the WCA sub-region using FAO data from 1980 to 2003 and found an
increasing trend at the rate of 0.363 million tons per annum. Between 1987 and
2007, the area cultivated to maize increased from about 8 to 12 million ha (FAO
2009). The diversity of food uses and expanding opportunities for commercial and
industrial utilization of maize ensure its continued eminence among cereals and
other important food crops in the sub-region. The rising profile of maize and the
impact generated by the crop in WCA have been aptly described as a revolution
(Fakorede et al. 2003). The crop is widely considered to be the vehicle for a green
revolution that has already commenced (Abalu 2003).
In SSA, a considerable proportion of the maize produced is used for human food
in various forms. Physiologically immature field maize, known as “green maize,” is
consumed as a snack after roasting or boiling as “corn on the cob.” Dried maize
grain is milled and consumed as a starchy base in a wide variety of gruels, por-
ridges, soups, and pastes. Dough made from the milled grain can also be cooked or
fried in oil. The importance of maize as food is associated with the nutritive value
of the kernels, and research has revealed large genetic variability for nutritive values
of maize in WCA. Depending on the maize type, an average of 70–75% of the
­kernel is composed of carbohydrate, which is present mostly as starch and sugar.
Because of its high carbohydrate content, maize is a major source of calories.
1.3 Constraints of Maize Production in Sub-Saharan Africa 5

The kernel also contains protein (8–15%); about 80% of the protein is in the
­endosperm, while the remaining 20% is contained in the germ. Other components
of the kernels are fat (or oil), minerals, and vitamins. The vitamins in maize kernels
occur mostly in the germ and in the outermost layer of the endosperm. Carotenoids,
which are precursors of vitamin A, are present in yellow but absent in white maize.
The quality of the protein in maize kernels is relatively poor due to the low content
of lysine and tryptophan—two amino acids that are essential for human nutrition.
Years of research by maize breeders at the International Maize and Wheat
Improvement Center (CIMMYT), the IITA, and the Crops Research Institute (CRI)
of Ghana have resulted in the development of quality protein maize (QPM) which
contains twice the quantity of lysine and tryptophan in normal maize. “Obatanpa,”
a Ghanaian word that means good nursing mother, was the first QPM variety devel-
oped and released in SSA by the CRI, Ghana. This variety is widely grown by farm-
ers, not only in Ghana but in most other SSA countries and beyond. IITA research
scientists, in collaboration with scientists from other parts of the world, have been
developing nutrient-dense maize varieties, with funding support from the Challenge
Project of the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR).

1.2 Industrial Uses of Maize in Sub-Saharan Africa

Various alcoholic drinks are prepared from maize. It is also important as feed for
poultry and other livestock industries, constituting up to 40–75% of feed rations.
The dry grain of popcorn types will swell and burst when heated, forming a popular
snack food. Dry milling of maize grain produces corn meal, corn flour, and corn oil.
Cornstarch, obtained from the wet milling process, is used for food, textile and
paper sizing, laundry starch, dextrines, and adhesives such as the gums used for
stamps and envelopes. Corn syrup, used as a sweetener, is also made from corn-
starch. Other industrial products obtained from maize through distillation and fer-
mentation include ethyl alcohol, butyl alcohol, propyl alcohol, acetaldehyde, acetic
acid, acetone, lactic acid, citric acid, glycerol, and whisky. Ethanol is now mixed
with gasoline to create ethanol fuels for vehicles. The demand for maize as food,
feed, and industrial raw material continues to increase in WCA. This increasing
demand is fueled by expanding populations and rising incomes in all countries of
the sub-region. The yearly per capita consumption of maize is greatest in Benin
Republic (87 kg), followed by Togo (70 kg) and Ghana (45 kg).

1.3 Constraints of Maize Production in Sub-Saharan Africa

The constraints to maize production in SSA can be grouped into two broad catego-
ries—biotic and abiotic. Among the biotic constraints are maize streak virus; weeds,
including parasitic weeds such as Striga (notably Striga hermonthica) and noxious
6 1 Maize in Sub-Saharan Africa: Importance and Production Constraints

weeds such as Imperata cylindrica; insect pests, particularly stem borers; ear rot
organisms, the Bipolaris maydis and Exserohilum turcicum; the gray leaf spot;
downy mildew; and the maize lethal necrosis (MLN). Striga is considered a major
biotic constraint to cereal crop production in SSA. Yield losses due to Striga may be
as high as 100%, depending on a number of factors. Cereal yield loss due to Striga
has not been estimated in recent times, but in 1986, it was estimated at US$7 billion
per annum (M’Boob 1989). Stem borers are a serious threat to maize production in
the humid forest and mid-altitude agroecologies of WCA. Several ear rot pathogens
can produce mycotoxins on maize in the field and in storage that are known to be
carcinogenic when consumed by humans and animals. Prominent types of myco-
toxins include aflatoxin produced by Aspergillus spp. and fumonisin produced by
Fusarium spp.
The most important abiotic constraints in the SSA are low soil fertility and
drought. Particular soils of the savanna, where maize potential is greatest, are low in
fertility and soil organic matter. However, as land use intensifies, a complex of other
problems may develop including soil erosion, reduced water retention capacity, and
an increase in persistent weeds and Striga infestation. The different stresses often
occur together, inflicting severe damage and yield losses to the maize crop. For
example, the adverse effects of Striga infestation are exacerbated by low nitrogen
and drought. Maize yield losses due to drought depend on the stage of the crop dur-
ing which the drought occurs. The crop is most susceptible to drought from a few
days before tassel emergence to the beginning of grain filling; drought at this stage
may reduce grain yield by as much as 90% (NeSmith and Ritchie 1992). In the
savanna of WCA, annual yield loss due to drought has been estimated at 15%.
Table 1.1 shows the ecological zones in SSA with their maize production constraints
(MIP 1996).

1.4 Improving Maize Productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa

Breeding goals need to be prioritized based on the relative importance of the biotic
and abiotic constraints in each agroecological zone. Although specific goals must be
established for each agroecological zone, high-yield potential with good post har-
vest quality remains a general objective for the sub-region. High-yield stability is
ensured by incorporating multiple genetic defenses against important pests and
diseases.
Effective management of the production constraints may require crop diversi­
fication. For example, crops that are nonhosts to Striga may play a role in the
­long-­term control of the parasite. Plant breeding is not the only strategy that is
needed to solve the myriads of problems that occur in maize production environ-
ments. Improved soil and water management and agronomic practices that improve
soil fertility are also required. In addition, it is possible to develop integrated strate-
gies for management of mycotoxins, especially aflatoxins. Improved maize produc-
tivity also requires the development of improved processing methods.
1.4 Improving Maize Productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa 7

Table 1.1 Relative importance of biotic and abiotic constraints to maize production in the
agroecological zones of sub-Saharan Africa
Constraint NG SGS SS MA HF HA
Downy mildew x xx x xxx
Maize streak virus x x x x x x
Puccinia polysora x xx xx
Puccinia sorghi xx x
Bipolaris maydis x xx xx
Exserohilum turcicum xx xxx
Gray leaf spot x xxx
Maize lethal necrosis x xx
Aspergillus flavus x x x x x x
Striga spp. xxx xxx xxx xx x
Eldana saccharina xxx x
Sesamia calamistis xxx x
Busseola fusca xx
Low-N fertility xxx xx xx xx xxx
Drought xx xxx xxx
Source: MIP (1996)
NG northern Guinea savanna, SGS southern Guinea savanna, SS Sudan savanna, MA mid-­altitude,
HF humid forest, HA high altitude
x = low, xx = moderate, xxx = severe

Beyond the challenge of developing germplasm with multiple resistances to the

important biotic constraints and tolerance to abiotic stresses, improving maize pro-
ductivity in SSA requires a well-developed seed industry to ensure that farmers
have access to improved varieties and hybrids. There is therefore the need to increase
farmers’ awareness of the economic benefits of using improved seeds. The seed
industry in SSA is not well developed due to a number of factors including (i) the
lack of seed policy in many countries of the sub-region, (ii) long delays between
variety development and variety registration and release, (iii) lack of an enabling
environment for private sector participation and survival, (iv) low levels of human
and material resources in the public seed sector agencies for effective seed produc-
tion and marketing, (v) inadequate attention devoted to variety maintenance as well
as breeder and foundation seeds by NARS, (vi) lack of effective and sustainable
national seed systems in most countries of WCA, and (vii) weak regional seed trade
development and weak seed market information systems. In spite of the problems
currently confronting the seed industry, tremendous opportunities exist, given that
many high-yielding improved varieties have already been developed by interna-
tional and national agricultural research systems. These varieties are available for
exploitation by the emerging formal and informal, small- to medium-sized seed
enterprises in the region.
There are also socioeconomic constraints that limit maize productivity in SSA,
including (i) nonavailability of complementary inputs such as fertilizers and chemi-
cals which limit the rate of adoption of improved maize technologies, (ii) inefficient
8 1 Maize in Sub-Saharan Africa: Importance and Production Constraints

markets for agricultural inputs and outputs leading to poor pricing which is a major
disincentive to high maize production by farmers, (iii) lack of credit facilities for the
purchase of needed production inputs, (iv) absence of market information systems
leading to inefficient marketing, (v) lack of farmers’ organization to facilitate access
to markets, (vi) inconsistent governmental production and trade policies which dis-
courage local production, and (vii) poor processing and storage facilities resulting
in loss of agricultural produce. Each of these constraints, in addition to the abiotic
and biotic constraints, is formidable and requires much research for effective con-
trol measures.
For many years, efforts have been invested into maize research and development
at the individual country level in SSA. Many of the production constraints have been
too formidable for individual countries to solve. Foreign interventions have been put
into maize research programs, along with capacity building to ensure sustainability
of the improvement of the crop. The interventions have become more prominent
since the middle of the twentieth century with the establishment of international
agricultural research centers, notably CIMMYT and IITA in Mexico and Nigeria,
respectively. These two centers have positively impacted maize research and devel-
opment in East, Southern, and Western Africa, and much progress has been made in
improving maize production in the region. One notable indication of progress is the
feedback from farmers, the ultimate end users of the technologies emanating from
the research and development efforts. At the initial stages of maize improvement
programs in SSA, the farmers had little or no knowledge of desirable traits to expect
in maize. As time went on, farmers’ awareness of what to expect in maize increased
and has now reached a level that they interact with researchers and technology trans-
fer specialists to specify the traits they desire in varieties released to them for cultiva-
tion. An example is found in the savanna agroecology of WCA where farmers are
wary of varieties not having multiple tolerance/resistance to S. hermonthica, drought,
and low soil nitrogen. This is a clear indication that, despite the much encouraging
progress achieved in maize improvement in SSA, considerable challenges remain to
be faced in order to sustain maize production and productivity in the region. In addi-
tion to incorporating multiple disease resistance to varieties, maize researchers must
prepare to meet the challenge of unknown diseases that may surface in the future.
Similar preparation must be made for insect pests as well as weeds, including para-
sitic weeds. Much work has been done to improve maize germplasm in Africa for
tolerance to the abiotic stresses such as low soil N and drought. Varieties containing
the precursor to vitamin A have been developed and are available for cultivation.
Future breeding efforts must build on this foundation to improve nutrition, food secu-
rity, income, and well-being of people in SSA. Hybrid maize has been convincingly
established globally as the best type of variety for farmers. A large proportion of SSA
farmers are yet to adopt hybrids for cultivation. In many instances, farmers continue
to use farm-saved seed not because new maize varieties and improved seeds are
unavailable but the farmers are small scale, are subsistence oriented, and are located
in isolated rural areas making it difficult for them to be well integrated into the mar-
ket economy. All stakeholders in maize research and development must face this
challenge and come up with creative approaches to reach the millions of small-scale
References 9

farmers to fully enjoy the benefits of national and international interventions into
maize improvement. A major effort has been devoted to the establishment of a well-
functioning research for development pipeline to ensure the production and dissemi-
nation of improved maize germplasm and to build the capacity of national maize
research scientists and seed company staff. The mentoring, the capacity building, and
the strong partnerships have been effective in building the critical mass of competent
maize scientists and technicians in the NARS and the private seed companies while
at the same time enhancing the quality of partners’ research activities across both
public and private sector maize breeding programs in the region. Besides enhancing
the scientific/technical capacity of scientists and technicians of partner institution’s
joint regional planning, on-site backstopping visits, graduate student project supervi-
sion, and breeding and dissemination team awards have been used as strategies to
improve the research capacity and technology dissemination capabilities of maize
researchers. Technician training course has been a critical element in improving trial
quality, as is monitoring. The availability of the early and extra-early OPVs and
hybrids, good-quality seed, improved research capacity and capability of NARS
partners, and support to NARS for the testing and commercialization of the hybrids
and OPVs have significantly contributed to phenomenal increase in maize produc-
tion and productivity in SSA.

1.5 Conclusions

Maize, an introduced crop to SSA, has become a major food crop that is highly
more productive than other cereal crops in the continent. Increased yield has been
made possible by the availability of varieties adapted to specific agroclimatic zones
and of different maturity classes, along with resistance or tolerance to abiotic
and biotic stresses, some of which are crosscutting all over SSA, while others are
endemic in specific agroclimatological zones. Genetic enhancement of the crop has
been made possible by interventions from the national governments, regional orga-
nizations, and international donor agencies. Execution of the research programs has
been actualized by scientists in national research institutions; regional bodies; inter-
national research institutes, specifically IITA and CIMMYT; maize networks; and
nongovernmental and community-based organizations. Maize has a high-yield
potential yet to be fully exploited; therefore, research work is still being carried on
and must continue if food security in SSA is to be achieved and sustained.

References

Abalu, G.I. 2003. The maize-based green revolution in Africa: An analysis of current initiatives.
In: Maize revolution in West and Central Africa, ed. B. Badu-Apraku, M.A.B. Fakorede,
M. Ouédraogo, R.J. Carsky and A. Menkir, 81–101. Proceedings of a Regional Workshop,
IITA-Cotonou, 14–18 May 2001. WECAMAN/IITA.
10 1 Maize in Sub-Saharan Africa: Importance and Production Constraints

Badu-Apraku, B., R.O. Akinwale, J. Franco, and M. Oyekunle. 2012. Assessment of reliability
of secondary traits in selecting for improved grain yield in drought and low-nitrogen environ-
ments. Crop Science 52: 2050.
Badu-Apraku, B., C.G. Yallou, K. Obeng-Antwi, H. Alidu, A.O. Talabi, B. Annor, M. Oyekunle,
I.C. Akaogu, and M. Aderounmu. 2017. Yield gains in extra-early maize cultivars of three-
breeding eras under multiple environments. Agronomy Journal 109: 418–431.
Fakorede, M.A.B., B. Badu-Apraku, A.Y. Kamara, A. Menkir, and S.O. Ajala. 2003. Maizer­
evolution in West and Central Africa: An overview. In Maize revolution in West and Central
Africa, ed. B. Badu-Apraku, M.A.B. Fakorede, M. Ouédraogo, R.J. Carsky, and A. Menkir,
3–15. Proceedings of a Regional Maize Workshop, IITA-Cotonou, 14–18 May 2001.
WECAMAN/IITA.
Fakorede, M.A.B., B. Badu-Apraku, A.F. Lum, A. Menkir, and M. Ouedraogo. 2007. A review
of NARES-IARC-Donor collaboration to develop demand-driven technologies for improved
maize production in West and Central Africa. In Demand-driven technologies for sustain-
able maize production in West and Central Africa, ed. B. Badu-Apraku, M.A.B. Fakorede,
A.F. Lum, A. Menkir, and M. Ouédraogo, 3–24. Proceedings of the Fifth Biennial Regional
Maize Workshop, IITA-Cotonou, 3–6 May 2005. WECAMAN/IITA.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2009. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture.
1992. Sustainable food production in sub-Saharan Africa. IITA’s Contributions, IITA, Ibadan.
P6. http://faostat.fao.org. Verified on 3 April, 2012.
M’Boob, S.S. 1989.A regional programme for Striga control in West and Central Africa. In Striga–
Improved management in Africa, ed. Robson, T.O. and H.R. Broad, 190–194. Proceedings of
FAO/OAU All-Africa Government Consultation on Striga Control, Maroua, Cameroon, 20–24
October 1986. Rome: FAO.
MIP. 1996. Maize Improvement Program, Archival Report, 1988-1992 – Part I. Maize population
improvement. Ibadan: Crop Improvement Division, IITA.
NeSmith, D.S., and J.T. Ritchie. 1992. Effects of soil water-deficits during tassel emergence on
development and yield components of maize (Zea mays L.). Field Crops Research 28: 251–256.
doi:10.1016/0378-4290 (92)90044-A.
Thorne, P.J., P.K. Thornton, R.L. Kruska, L. Reynolds, S.R. Waddington, A.S. Rutherford, and
A.N. Odero. 2002. Maize as food, feed and fertilizer in intensifying crop-livestock systems in
East and southern Africa: An ex ante impact assessment of technology interventions to improve
smallholder welfare, ILRI Impact Assessment Series 11, 123. Nairobi: ILRI (International
Livestock Research Institute).