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MAGNITUDE OF AN EARTHQUAKE
F E B R U A R Y

Magnitude measures the amount of energy released

from the earthquake
There are many different earthquake magnitude scales used by
seismologists.
E A R T H Q U A K E

1. Local Magnitude Scale ML

2. Surface Wave Magnitude Scale Ms
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3. Moment Magnitude Scale M𝑊

E N G I N E E R I N G
 Local Magnitude Scale 𝑴𝑳
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F E B R U A R Y

In 1935, Professor Charles Richter, from the California Institute

of Technology, developed an earthquake magnitude scale for
shallow and local earthquakes in southern California. This
magnitude scale has often been referred to as the Richter
magnitude scale. Because this magnitude scale was developed for
shallow and local earthquakes, it is also known as the local
E A R T H Q U A K E

magnitude scale ML . This magnitude scale is the best known and

most commonly used magnitude scale. The magnitude is
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calculated as follows (Richter 1935, 1958):

𝐴
E N G I N E E R I N G

𝑀𝐿 = log 𝐴 − log 𝐴𝑜 = log

𝐴𝑜
 where
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𝑀𝐿 = local magnitude (also often referred to as Richter magnitude scale)

F E B R U A R Y

A = maximum trace amplitude, mm, as recorded by a standard Wood-Anderson

seismograph that has a natural period of 0.8 s, a damping factor of 80%, and a
static magnification of 2800. The maximum trace amplitude must be that
amplitude that would be recorded if a Wood-Anderson seismograph were located
on firm ground at a distance of exactly 100 km (62 mi) from the epicenter of the
earthquake. Charts and tables are available to adjust the maximum trace
amplitude for the usual case where the seismograph is not located exactly 100
E A R T H Q U A K E

km (62 mi) from the epicenter.

𝐴𝑜 = 0.001 mm. The zero of the local magnitude scale was arbitrarily fixed as an
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amplitude of 0.001 mm, which corresponded to the smallest earthquakes then

being recorded.
E N G I N E E R I N G
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F E B R U A R Y

Richter (1935) designed the magnitude scale so that a magnitude of 0

corresponds to approximately the smallest earthquakes then being
recorded. There is no upper limit to the Richter magnitude scale,
although earthquakes over an 𝑀𝐿 of 8 are rare. Often the data from
Wood-Anderson seismographs located at different distances from the
epicenter provide different values of the Richter magnitude. This is to
E A R T H Q U A K E

be expected because of the different soil and rock conditions that the
seismic waves travel through and because the fault rupture will not
release the same amount of energy in all directions.
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E N G I N E E R I N G
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F E B R U A R Y

Since the Richter magnitude scale is based on the logarithm of

the maximum trace amplitude, there is a 10-times increase in the
amplitude for an increase in 1 unit of magnitude. In terms of the
energy released during the earthquake, Yeats et al. (1997)
indicate that the increase in energy for an increase of 1 unit of
E A R T H Q U A K E

magnitude is roughly 30-fold and is different for different

magnitude intervals.
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E N G I N E E R I N G
 For the case of small earthquakes (that is,
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ML < 6), the center of energy release and

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the point where the fault rupture begins

are not far apart. But in the case of large
earthquakes, these points may be very far
apart.

For example, the Chilean earthquake of

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1960 had a fault rupture length of about

600 mi (970 km), and the epicenter was at
the northern end of the ruptured zone
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which was about 300 mi (480 km) from

the center of the energy release (Housner
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1963, 1970).
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F E B R U A R Y

This increased release of energy over a longer rupture distance

resulted in both a higher peak ground acceleration 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 and a
longer duration of shaking.

For example, Table 2.2 presents approximate correlations between

the local magnitude ML and the peak ground acceleration 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 ,
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duration of shaking, and modified Mercalli intensity level near the

vicinity of the fault rupture. At distances farther from the
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epicenter or location of fault rupture, the intensity will decrease

but the duration of ground shaking will increase.
E N G I N E E R I N G
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 Surface Wave Magnitude Scale Ms
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F E B R U A R Y

The surface wave magnitude scale is based on the amplitude of surface

waves having a period of about 20s. The surface wave magnitude scale
Ms is defined as follows (Gutenberg and Richter 1956):

𝑀𝑠 = log 𝐴′ + 1.66 log ∆ + 2.0

E A R T H Q U A K E

where
𝑀𝑠 = surface wave magnitude scale
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A′ = maximum ground displacement, m

 = epicentral distance to seismograph measured in degrees (360°
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corresponds to circumference of earth)

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F E B R U A R Y

The surface wave magnitude scale has an advantage over the

local magnitude scale in that it uses the maximum ground
displacement, rather than the maximum trace amplitude from a
standard Wood-Anderson seismograph. Thus, any type of
seismograph can be used to obtain the surface wave magnitude.
E A R T H Q U A K E

This magnitude scale is typically used for moderate to large

earthquakes, having a shallow focal depth, and the seismograph
should be at least 1000 km (622 mi) from the epicenter
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E N G I N E E R I N G
 Moment Magnitude Scale M𝑾
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F E B R U A R Y

The moment magnitude scale has become the more commonly used
method for determining the magnitude of large earthquakes. This is
because it tends to take into account the entire size of the
earthquake. The first step in the calculation of the moment
magnitude is to calculate the seismic moment M𝑂 . The seismic
moment can be determined from a seismogram using very long-
E A R T H Q U A K E

period waves for which even a fault with a very large rupture area
appears as a point source (Yeats et al. 1997). The seismic moment
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can also be estimated from the fault displacement as follows (Idriss

1985):
E N G I N E E R I N G
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𝑀𝑂 = 𝜇𝐴𝑓 𝐷
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where
𝑀𝑂 = seismic moment, N m
𝜇 = shear modulus of material along fault plane, N/𝑚2 . The shear
modulus is often assumed to be 3 x1010 N/𝑚2 for surface crust and
7 x 1012 N/𝑚2 for mantle.
E A R T H Q U A K E

𝐴𝑓 = area of fault plane undergoing slip, 𝑚2 . This can be estimated as

the length of surface rupture times the depth of the aftershocks.
D = average displacement of ruptured segment of fault, m. Determining
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the seismic moment works best for strike-slip faults where the lateral
displacement on one side of fault relative to the other side can be
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readily measured.
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F E B R U A R Y

In essence, to determine the seismic moment requires taking the

entire area of the fault rupture surface 𝐴𝑓 times the shear
modulus in order to calculate the seismic force (in N). This force is
converted to a moment by multiplying the seismic force (in
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newtons) by the average slip (in meters), in order to calculate the

seismic moment (in Nm).
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E N G I N E E R I N G
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F E B R U A R Y

Engineers may have a hard time visualizing the seismic moment.

The reason is because the seismic force and the moment arm are
in the same direction. In engineering, a moment is calculated as
the force times the moment arm, and the moment arm is always
perpendicular (not parallel) to the force. Setting aside the
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problems with the moment arm, the seismic moment does

consider the energy radiated from the entire fault, rather than the
energy from an assumed point source. Thus the seismic moment
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is a more useful measure of the strength of an earthquake.

E N G I N E E R I N G
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Kanamori (1977) and Hanks and Kanamori (1979) introduced the

F E B R U A R Y

moment magnitude M𝑊 scale, in which the magnitude is

calculated from the seismic moment by using the following
equation:

𝑀𝑊 = −6.0 + 0.67𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑀𝑂
E A R T H Q U A K E

where
𝑀𝑊 = moment magnitude of earthquake
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𝑀𝑂 = seismic moment of earthquake, N m.

E N G I N E E R I N G
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INTENSITY OF AN EARTHQUAKE
F E B R U A R Y

The intensity of an earthquake is based on the observations of

damaged structures and the presence of secondary effects, such as
earthquake-induced landslides, liquefaction, and ground cracking.
The intensity of an earthquake is also based on the degree to which
E A R T H Q U A K E

the earthquake was felt by individuals, which is determined through

interviews.
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