Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Dr. Vipin Handa

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chandigarh College of Engineering and Technology (Chandigarh)

Air Conditioning Concept, Psychometric Processes and Applications

 Air Conditioning Concepts
• Air Conditioning involves the control of temperature, humidity, purity, and
motion of air in an enclosed space, with the aim of creating comfortable living
conditions or providing appropriate environments for specific processes.
Here's a detailed introduction to air conditioning according:
• Applications: Comfort cooling (homes, offices), process cooling (data centers,
pharmaceutical production), and industrial uses (machinery operation).
 Air Conditioning Concepts
2. Psychrometrics
• Psychrometry: The science of properties of moist air and its interaction with the
environment. Psychrometrics deals with the thermodynamic properties of air-water
vapor mixtures.
• Psychrometric Chart: A graphical representation of air properties, such as:
• Dry bulb temperature
• Wet bulb temperature
• Dew point temperature
• Relative humidity
• Specific humidity
• Enthalpy
• Processes on Psychrometric Chart:
• Sensible heating/cooling (changing air temperature without altering moisture
content)
• Latent heating/cooling (changing moisture content without altering air temperature)
• Humidification and dehumidification
 Air Conditioning Concepts
3. Air Conditioning Processes
• Cooling: Removing heat from a space to lower its temperature using refrigeration cycles
which involves compression, condensation, expansion, and evaporation of refrigerant.
• Heating: Adding heat to maintain or raise the temperature of a space using electric
heaters, heat pumps, and combustion furnaces.
• Dehumidification: Removal of moisture from the air using cooling coils to condense
water vapor.
• Humidification: Addition of moisture using steam or water atomization systems.
• Ventilation: Providing fresh air into a space to remove pollutants and control indoor air
quality (IAQ).
 Air Conditioning Concept
• The COP of air conditioners is generally higher than that of refrigerators
because air conditioners work over a smaller temperature differential, allow
for more efficient heat transfer, and reject heat to the outdoor environment,
which is often more favorable than the conditions faced by a refrigerator
rejecting heat indoors.
 Air Conditioning Concept
• The Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) and the Coefficient of Performance (COP)
are both metrics used to evaluate the efficiency of air conditioning systems
Air Conditioning Concept
 Air Conditioning Concept

Ideal COP’s of Air Conditioners

• COP of a 5 star AC > 3.5
• COP of a 4 star AC ≥ 3.3 and < 3.5
• COP of a 3 star AC ≥ 3.1 and < 3.3
Air Conditioning Concept
Air Conditioning Concept
Air Conditioning Concept
 Terminologies
1. Dry bulb temperature (DBT): DBT is the temperature of air measured using a
standard thermometer that is not affected by the moisture content in the air.
It represents the actual ambient air temperature and is commonly referred
to simply as "air temperature.“
Key Characteristics:
• Measured with a Regular Thermometer: The temperature is measured with a
thermometer whose bulb is exposed to the air but not influenced by moisture.
• Independent of Humidity: DBT is called "dry bulb" because it does not consider the air's
humidity. It only measures the thermal energy in the air.
 Terminologies
2. Wet bulb temperature (WBT) is the temperature a parcel of air would cool to
if water were evaporated into it at constant pressure until the air reaches
saturation (100% humidity). It is measured with a thermometer that has its bulb
wrapped in a wet cloth (or wick) and is exposed to airflow.
 Terminologies
Key Points of WBT:
• Evaporation Effect: As water evaporates from the wet cloth, it absorbs heat from the air,
cooling the thermometer.
• Always Lower than Dry Bulb Temperature: WBT is typically lower than dry bulb
temperature (DBT), except when the air is fully saturated (100% humidity), where WBT
equals DBT.
Wet bulb depression is the difference between the dry bulb temperature (air temperature)
and the wet bulb temperature. It indicates how much cooling can occur through
evaporation. The larger the wet bulb depression, the drier the air, meaning more moisture
can evaporate, leading to greater cooling potential. If the wet bulb depression is small, the
air is more humid, and less evaporation and cooling can occur.
 Terminologies
3. Dew point temperature: DPT is the temperature at which air becomes fully
saturated with moisture (100% relative humidity) and water vapor begins to
condense into liquid water. At this temperature, the air cannot hold any more
moisture, and condensation (such as dew, fog, or clouds) forms. The dew point is
a direct indicator of the amount of moisture in the air, with higher dew points
indicating more humid conditions.
(Notice the difference in saturation pressure of water vapour at 20 deg. Cel. And 24 deg. Cel.). It shows that some
water vapour is getting condensed when we reduce the temperature.
 Terminologies
Key Points of Dew Point Temperature:
1.Saturation Point: It is the temperature at which air becomes fully saturated with
moisture (100% relative humidity) and condensation begins.
2.Indicator of Humidity: A higher dew point means the air contains more moisture (higher
humidity), while a lower dew point indicates drier air.
3.Comfort and Weather: Dew points above 60°F (16°C) can feel humid, and above 70°F
(21°C) are considered very humid. Dew point is often used to assess comfort levels and
forecast weather conditions.
4.Fixed for Given Humidity: For a specific level of humidity in the air, the dew point
remains constant, regardless of the air temperature.
5.Condensation and Fog: When air cools to its dew point, water vapor condenses, forming
dew, fog, or clouds, depending on atmospheric conditions.
6.Temperature Relation: Dew point is always lower than or equal to the air temperature;
when they are equal, the air is fully saturated.
 Terminologies
4. Specific humidity or Humidity Ratio: Specific Humidity is the ratio of the mass
of water vapor to the mass (per kg) of the dry air in a given volume. It is a
measure of the actual amount of moisture in the air and is expressed in units of
mass, typically grams of water vapor per kilogram of air (g/kg).
 Terminologies
5. Relative Humidity (φ): It is defined as the ratio of mass of water vapour to the
mass of water vapour under saturated condition in a given volume and same
temperature.
 Terminologies
With the help of table find the of water vapour with 50% R.H. and 24 deg. Cel.
DBT and 100 kPa total pressure.
 Terminologies
6. Degree of saturation is the ratio of the actual humidity of air (specific
humidity) to the humidity of the air when it is fully saturated at the same
temperature and pressure. It is typically expressed as a percentage:
 Terminologies

Degree of saturation
Terminologies
Problem
 Terminologies
8.
Terminologies
Psychrometric Charts
Psychrometric Charts
 Psychrometric Charts
• Dry Bulb Temperature
 Psychrometric Charts
• Specific Humidity
 Psychrometric Charts
• Dew Point Temperature
 Psychrometric Charts
• Relative humidity
 Psychrometric Charts
• Sp. Enthalpy
 Psychrometric Charts
• Wet Bulb Temperature
Psychrometric Charts
Problems
Psychrometric Processes
 Psychrometric Processes
• Sensible Heating: Sensible heating refers to the increase in the dry bulb
temperature of air without changing its moisture content. During this process,
only the temperature of the air increases, while the humidity ratio (specific
humidity) remains constant.
Notes:
• On a psychrometric chart, the process of sensible heating is represented by a horizontal
movement to the right, indicating an increase in dry bulb temperature while maintaining
a constant humidity ratio (specific humidity).
• Relative humidity decreases as the temperature rises, even though the moisture content
stays the same.
• Common in heating systems, such as room heater, radiators or furnaces, where air is
warmed without adding moisture.
• It is advised to keep a wet cloth in the room where electric heater is being used to avoid
the relative humidity to fall drastically.
 Psychrometric Processes
• Sensible Heating
 Psychrometric Processes
• Sensible cooling refers to the decrease in the dry bulb temperature of air
without changing its moisture content. In this process, the air is cooled, but no
water vapor is removed or added, meaning the specific humidity remains
constant.
Notes:
• On a psychrometric chart, sensible cooling is represented by a horizontal movement to
the left, showing a decrease in dry bulb temperature while keeping the humidity ratio
(specific humidity) constant.
• Relative humidity increases** as the air cools** because cooler air can hold less
moisture, even though the amount of moisture in the air stays the same.
 Psychrometric Processes
• Sensible cooling
Psychrometric Processes
Psychrometric Processes
Psychrometric Processes
 Psychrometric Processes
• Humidification:
 Psychrometric Processes
• Dehumidification:
 Psychrometric Processes
• Pure humidification and dehumidification are not possible, therefore these processes are
combined with sensible heating or sensible heating.
Cooling with dehumidification is a process in which air is cooled while also reducing its
moisture content. This is commonly used in air conditioning systems to both lower the
temperature and control the humidity of the air.
How it Works:
1. Cooling Process:
1. The air is passed over a cooling coil that is at a temperature below the air's dew point. As the air
cools, its capacity to hold moisture decreases.
2. Dehumidification Process:
1. When the air is cooled to below its dew point, the excess moisture condenses out of the air as liquid
water (similar to how water droplets form on a cold surface).
2. This removes moisture from the air, reducing the specific humidity and relative humidity.
• Psychrometric Chart Representation:
• On a psychrometric chart, cooling with dehumidification is shown as a diagonal movement
downward and to the left. The dry bulb temperature decreases while the humidity ratio
(specific humidity) also drops, indicating moisture removal.
Psychrometric Processes
Psychrometric Processes
 Psychrometric Processes
• Sensible Heating + DH
Psychrometric Processes
 Psychrometric Processes
Psychrometric Chart Representation:
• On a psychrometric chart, adiabatic humidification is represented as a movement along a
constant wet-bulb temperature line.
• Specific humidity (or moisture content) increases, while the dry bulb temperature decreases due to the
cooling effect of evaporation.
• The process follows a diagonal upward-left line, showing an increase in moisture content with a
simultaneous reduction in air temperature.
Key Points:
• Cooling Effect: The process cools the air as moisture is added because the energy required
for evaporation is taken from the air itself.
• No External Heat: No external heat is added, which differentiates adiabatic humidification
from other types like steam humidification.
• Applications: Used in cooling towers, evaporative coolers (swamp coolers), greenhouses,
and industrial humidifiers.
Psychrometric Processes
 Psychrometric Processes
• Chemical dehumidification is a process where moisture is removed from the air using
hygroscopic substances called desiccants (e.g., silica gel, calcium chloride). These chemicals
absorb water vapor from the air, lowering the humidity with an increase in dry bulb
temperature.
Psychrometric Processes
 Psychrometric Processes
Mixing of air streams in air conditioning refers to the process of combining two or more air
streams with different temperatures, humidity levels, or enthalpy to achieve desired indoor
air conditions. This is commonly used to balance fresh outdoor air with recirculated indoor air
for ventilation, comfort, and energy efficiency.
Key Points:
• Enthalpy Conservation: The total energy (enthalpy) of the mixed air stream is the weighted
average of the energy in each individual stream.
• Psychrometric Chart: On a psychrometric chart, the mixed air state lies on a straight line
between the points representing the two initial air streams, with the position depending on
the mass flow rates of each stream.
• Application:
• Used in HVAC systems to adjust air quality and maintain desired indoor comfort levels by
mixing conditioned air with fresh outdoor air.
Psychrometric Processes
 Psychrometric Processes
Summer air conditioning-Hot and humid climate:
• From 35 deg. Cel. and 70 % relative humidity to 24 deg. Cel. And 50% relative
humidity (Cant go directly but, cool the air from 1 to 3 and then from 3 to 2)
 Psychrometric Processes
Summer air conditioning-Hot and dry climate:
• Air conditioning in a hot and dry climate is focused on lowering high temperatures while
maintaining adequate humidity levels. Unlike humid climates, the air is typically very dry,
which can cause discomfort and health issues. The main objective is to cool the air and
sometimes increase the moisture content to improve indoor comfort.
• Key Components of Air Conditioning in Hot and Dry Climates:
Cooling: The primary goal is to reduce the high dry bulb temperature (air temperature) to
comfortable levels. This is done using conventional refrigeration cycles or evaporative cooling
systems.
Humidification: In a hot and dry climate, the specific humidity (moisture content) is very low,
which can make the air feel dry and uncomfortable, leading to issues like dry skin, throat
irritation, and dehydration. Air conditioning systems incorporate humidifiers to add moisture
to the air, maintaining an optimal humidity level for comfort and health.
 Psychrometric Processes
Evaporative Cooling: Evaporative coolers are highly effective in hot and dry
climates. These systems work by passing warm, dry air over water-soaked pads.
The air absorbs moisture, cooling as the water evaporates. This process not only
cools the air but also increases its humidity, making it more comfortable to
breathe. Evaporative cooling is energy-efficient and works best in regions where
the air is dry.
Ventilation: Proper ventilation is essential to ensure a constant supply of fresh
air and to avoid stagnant indoor air, which can become uncomfortable even if it
is cool. In dry climates, ventilation also helps maintain indoor air quality and
prevent the buildup of indoor pollutants.
Air Filtration: Dust and particulate matter are common in dry climates, so air
conditioning systems often include filters to remove dust and airborne particles,
improving indoor air quality.
Summer air conditioning-Hot and dry climate:
From 40 deg. Cel. and 10 % relative humidity to 24 deg. Cel. And 50% relative humidity (Cant go directly but, cool
the air from 1 to 3 and then from 3 to 2)
 Psychrometric Processes
Single Cooling coil and mixing
• 35 deg. Cel. And 70 % humidity is mixed with the air at 26 deg cel and 60 % humidity. Desired state is at point 2 (24 deg. Cel
and 50 % humidity). After mixing stream 1 and 2 the air leaves for the cooling coil (at point 4). Cooling is done till 10 deg.
cel. And 100% humidity and then heating is done and due to by pass factor of both the coils, air is received at 24 deg. Cel
and 50 % humidity.
 Psychrometric Processes
Single Cooling coil and mixing
• State ‘4’ is attained by the ratio given below. If the mixing is 50% from both the streams, state ‘4’ will be exactly
midway between ‘1’ and ‘3’.
 Psychrometric Processes
Single Cooling coil and bypass mixing
• 35 deg. Cel. And 70 % humidity is mixed with the air at 26 deg cel and 60 % humidity. Desired state is at point 5
(24 deg. Cel and 50 % humidity). After mixing the streams, air leaves for the cooling coil (at point 4). Cooling is
done till 10 deg. cel. And 100% humidity and then heating is done and due to by pass factor of both the coils,
air is received at 24 deg. Cel and 50 % humidity (2). And then, air is again mixed with the stream at ‘3’ and
passed into the room.
Psychrometric Processes
Single Cooling coil and bypass mixing
Psychrometric Processes
 Psychrometric Processes
Air Washer
Evaporative cooling is a process that cools air by using the natural effect of water
evaporation. When water evaporates, it absorbs heat from the surrounding air, which leads to
a cooling effect.
Air Washer is a device that performs multiple air treatment functions—including cooling,
humidification, and air cleaning—by using a water spray or moist media through which the air
passes. Air washers use evaporative cooling as one of their primary mechanisms to control
temperature and humidity.
 Psychrometric Processes
Air Washer
Components of an Air Washer:
1.Water Spray Nozzles or Spray Chamber: These nozzles or chambers create a fine mist or spray
of water droplets through which the air is passed. The water mist traps dust and particles,
cleaning the air.
2.Wet Media Pads: Some air washers use wet media pads in place of or in addition to spray
nozzles. Air passes through these wet pads, where it is cooled and humidified.
3.Fans and Ducts: Fans draw air into the air washer and push it through the water spray or media
pads. Ducts help distribute the conditioned air to the target spaces.
Functions of an Air Washer:
1. Cooling: Similar to evaporative coolers, air washers can cool air through the natural evaporation
of water, reducing the air’s temperature.
2. Humidification: In dry climates, air washers add moisture to the air by letting it absorb water
vapor from the spray. This increases the relative humidity to a comfortable level.
3. Air Cleaning: The water spray captures airborne particles like dust and pollen, effectively
“washing” the air. This is beneficial in industrial settings, where air quality can be impacted by
dust and pollutants.
 Psychrometric Processes
Winter air conditioning
• Outside air at 10 deg. Cel. & R.H. 20%. Desired 24 deg. cel. & 50 % R.H. For this outside air is
heated to 35 deg. Cel. and then evaporative cooling is done followed by sensible heating as
shown in the chart.
Psychrometric Processes
 Psychrometric Processes
Winter air conditioning with recirculation and preheating with exhaust air
• State 1: Air entering the room
• State 2: Air leaving the room
• State 3: Outside air
Psychrometric Processes
Winter air conditioning
 Apparatus Dew Point (ADP)
Apparatus Dew Point (ADP) is the temperature at which the air, after passing through
the cooling coil in an air conditioning system, reaches saturation, or 100% relative
humidity. It represents the coil’s effective dew point where the air would theoretically
condense moisture, indicating the coil’s dehumidification capability.
 Air Exchange Rate (AER)
• The Air Exchange Rate (AER), also known as Air Changes per Hour (ACH), is a measure
of how often the air within a defined space (such as a room, building, or enclosure) is
completely replaced by fresh or filtered air. It indicates how well-ventilated an indoor
environment is and is critical in both residential and commercial HVAC systems for
ensuring air quality and controlling temperature, humidity, and contaminants.
 Infiltration
• Infiltration refers to the unintentional or uncontrolled entry of outdoor air into a
building or conditioned space, usually through cracks, gaps, or openings in the
building’s envelope (walls, windows, doors, etc.)
 Room Sensible Heat Factor (RSHF)
• The Room Sensible Heat Factor (SHF) is a measure of the proportion of the total heat
load in a room that is sensible heat, as compared to the latent heat load. It helps to
quantify how much of the heat energy entering the room raises the air temperature
(sensible heat) versus how much energy is used to change the moisture content of the
air (latent heat).
Room Sensible Heat Factor (RSHF)
Gross sensible heat factor (GSHF) and Effective or Room
Sensible heat factor (ESHF)
• GSHF: It is obtained by joining the inlet and outlet condition of AC
coil.
• ADP: Apparatus Dew point
• RDP: Room Dew Point
• ESHF:
Heat Sources
Example
 Solution
• Air infiltered into the room

• V = Specific vol. of infiltered air from the chart

• Tonnage of the cooling plant

• Sensible heat factor

• Mass flow rate of the air supplied to the room
• Outside air and recirculated air ratio calculation
Air Distribution
 Air Distribution
Draft and Drop
Draft is an unwanted, noticeable flow of air that you can feel in a room. Imagine
sitting by an air vent or a window on a chilly day, and you suddenly feel a cool breeze.
That sensation is what we call a draft—a strong airflow that causes discomfort. Drafts
are especially common when:
• Air velocity (speed) from a vent is too high, pushing air too forcefully into the room.
• Cold air enters quickly into a warm space, making it feel chilly in specific spots.
Drop refers to the tendency of cold air to descend or "drop" to the floor due to its
higher density. When cool air is supplied to a room, it is denser than the warmer
ambient air, and without sufficient velocity or mixing, it will settle near the floor,
causing uneven temperature distribution.
• Impact of Drop:
• Thermal Stratification: Drop causes cooler air to collect at lower levels, leading to uneven
temperatures from floor to ceiling, which can cause discomfort and inefficiency.
• Floor-Level Discomfort: If drop occurs near occupants' feet, they may feel excessively cold,
even if the upper part of the room is warm.
 Air Distribution
• Air Handling Unit (AHU) is a central component in an HVAC system designed
to regulate and circulate air as part of a heating, ventilating, and air-
conditioning system. AHUs are typically large, box-shaped units that contain
essential elements such as fans, heating and cooling coils, air filters, dampers,
and sometimes humidifiers.
Key Functions of an AHU:
1.Air Filtration: AHUs filter incoming air to remove dust, pollen, and other particulates,
improving indoor air quality.
2.Temperature Control: By using heating and cooling coils, AHUs adjust the air
temperature to meet comfort requirements.
3.Humidity Control: AHUs may include humidifiers or dehumidifiers to maintain desired
humidity levels.
4.Air Mixing: AHUs can mix fresh outside air with recirculated indoor air to control
ventilation and maintain air quality.
5.Air Distribution: They push conditioned air through the ductwork to distribute it evenly
throughout the building.
Air Distribution
Duct Design