Harmonic oscillator

Harmonic oscillator in its basic form is a body of mass m attached to a spring with spring constant k. Also

including viscous damping and generalizing Eq. (11), one writes down the equation

m¨r + αr˙ + kr = F, (32)

where F is an external force, as before. In the following we will consider the case of the body performing
a

linear motion along the x axis. Dividing by the mass, one obtains the equation

x¨ + 2Γ ˙x + ω

0x = f, (33)

where

Γ≡

2m

, ω0 ≡

,f≡

. (34)

Here we have defined Γ in a way different from above for the sake of simplicity of the formulas. ω0 is the

frequency of oscillations in the absence of damping.

Solution of the uniform equation (f = 0), in accordance with the general method, can be searched in the

form

x(t) ∝ e

iΩt

. (35)
The imaginary i has been inserted in anticipation of an oscillating motion of the system. Substituting this

into Eq. (33), one obtains the quadratic equation

−Ω

2 + 2iΓΩ + ω

0 = 0 (36)

having the solution

Ω± = iΓ ± ω˜0, ω˜0 ≡

0 − Γ2. (37)

Thus the solution of the ODE has the form

x(t) = C+e

iΩ+t + C−e

iΩ−t

, (38)

where C± are integration constants. Using the relation

iϕ ≡ cos ϕ + isin ϕ, (39)

one can rewrite the result in explicitly real form

x(t) = C1e

−Γt

cos ˜ω0t + C2e

−Γt

sin ˜ω0t, (40)

where C1,2 is another set of integration constants. The latter can be found from the initial conditions

x(0) = x0, x˙(0) = v0 (41)

that is,
x(0) = C1 = x0 (42)

and

x˙(0) = −ΓC1 + ˜ω0C2 = v0. (43)

One finds

C1 = x0, C2 =

v0 + Γx0

ω˜0

. (44)

Thus

x(t) = x0e

−Γt

cos ˜ω0t +

v0 + Γx0

ω˜0

−Γt

sin ˜ω0t. (45)

Let us look at the solution. According to Eq. (37), in the absence of damping, Γ = 0, the body is

oscillating with the frequency ω0. Damping reduces oscillation frequency that turns to zero at Γ = ω0. In

the strong-damping limit Γ > ω0 the motion of the body is aperiodic.

Let us now consider the motion of the harmonic oscillator under the influence of external force. Using
the

method of variation of constants in Eq. (38), one searches for the solution in the form

x(t) = C+(t)e

iΩ+t + C−(t)e

iΩ−t

. (46)

The “variable constants” satisfy the system of equations

C˙+(t) ˙x+(t) + C˙−(t) ˙x−(t) = f(t). (47)

Its solution is

C˙+(t) =
0 x−(t)

f(t) ˙x−(t)
x+(t) x−(t)

x˙ +(t) ˙x−(t)
=

−f(t)x−(t)

x+(t) ˙x−(t) − x˙ +(t)x−(t)

. (48)

Using

x+(t) ˙x−(t) − x˙ +(t)x−(t) = i(Ω− − Ω+) e

i(Ω−+Ω+)t = −2iω˜0e

−2Γt

(49)

one obtains

C˙+(t) = −

f(t)

ω˜0

iΩ−t+2Γt = −

f(t)

ω˜0

−iΩ+t

(50)

and, similarly,

C˙−(t) = i

f(t)

ω˜0
e

iΩ+t+2Γt =

f(t)

ω˜0

−iΩ−t

. (51)

Integrating these two formulas and substituting the result in Eq. (46), one obtains

x(t) = xfree(t) + xforced(t), (52)

where xfree(t) is the solution of the uniform ODE describing the free oscillator and given by Eq. (45) and

xforced(t) = −

2˜ω0

iΩ+t

dt0

f(t

)e

−iΩ+t

2˜ω0
e

iΩ−t

dt0

f(t

)e

−iΩ−t

(53)

is the response to the external force. The latter can be simplified as

xforced(t) = i

2˜ω0

dt0

f(t

−e

iΩ+(t−t

)+e

iΩ−(t−t

0
)

2˜ω0

dt0

f(t

)e

−Γ(t−t

−e

iω˜0(t−t

)+e

−iω˜0(t−t

ω˜0

t
0

dt0

f(t

)e

−Γ(t−t

sin

ω˜0(t − t

. (54)

One can check that xforced(0) = ˙xforced(0) = 0, that is, the forced solution is independent of the initial

conditions and does not change the form of xfree(t).

Let us consider the important case of a sinusoidal force

f(t) = f0 sin ωt, (55)

applied starting from t = 0. To compute xforced(t), it is convenient to convert everything into the
exponential

form, after which integration simplifies:

xforced(t) = f0

4˜ω0

dt0
e

iωt0

−e

−iωt0

−Γ(t−t

−e

iω˜0(t−t

)+e

−iω˜0(t−t

f0

4˜ω0

dt0

−Γ(t−t

)
h

−e

iωt0

iω˜0(t−t

)+e

iωt0

−iω˜0(t−t

) + c.c.i

, (56)

where c.c. is complex conjugate. Further one proceeds as

xforced(t) = f0

4˜ω0

dt0

−e

(−Γ+iω˜0)t

(Γ−iω˜0+iω)t

+e

(−Γ−iω˜0)t

e
(Γ+iω˜0+iω)t

+ c.c.

f0

4˜ω0

"

−e

(−Γ+iω˜0)t

(Γ−iω˜0+iω)t − 1

Γ − iω˜0 + iω

+e

(−Γ−iω˜0)t

(Γ+iω˜0+iω)t − 1

Γ + iω˜0 + iω #

+ c.c.

f0

4˜ω0

"

iωt − e

(−Γ+iω˜0)t

Γ − iω˜0 + iω

+
e

iωt − e

(−Γ−iω˜0)t

Γ + iω˜0 + iω #

+ c.c. (57)

The first term in this expression is the so-called resonant term in which the denominator becomes small
for

⇒ −ω˜0.
ω close to ω0. The other term is non-resonant term that differs from the first one by replacement ˜ω0

It is sufficient to compute one of these terms, then the other one can be easily obtained from the first
one.

Let us calculate the resonance term. Adding c.c. amounts to doubling the real part of the expression and

annihilating its imaginary part. Shortcutting the non-resonant term as . . . , one proceeds as

xforced(t) = −

f0

4˜ω0

iωt − e

(−Γ+iω˜0)t

Γ − iω˜0 + iω

+ c.c. + . . .

=−

f0

4˜ω0

iωt − e

(−Γ+iω˜0)t

(Γ + iω˜0 − iω)
(ω − ω˜0)

2 + Γ2

+ c.c. + . . .

=−

f0

4˜ω0

iωt − e

(−Γ+iω˜0)t + c.c.i

+ i(˜ω0 − ω)

iωt − e

(−Γ+iω˜0)t − c.c.i

(ω − ω˜0)

2 + Γ2

+...

=−

f0

2˜ω0

cos (ωt) − cos (˜ω0t) e

−Γt

− (˜ω0 − ω)

h
sin (ωt) − sin (˜ω0t) e

−Γt

(ω − ω˜0)

2 + Γ2

+ . . . (58)

At the times longer than the relaxation time of the oscillator

τ≡

(59)

the terms in the above formula that are oscillating at oscillator’s own frequency ˜ω0 die out and only
the

forced terms oscillating at the frequency ω remain,

xforced(t) = f0

2˜ω0

"

Γ cos (ωt) + (ω − ω˜0) sin (ωt)

(ω − ω˜0)

2 + Γ2

Γ cos (ωt) + (ω + ˜ω0) sin (ωt)

(ω + ˜ω0)

2 + Γ2

. (60)

Here the terms with cos (ωt) is shifted by quarter of the period with respect to the harmonic force.
Exactly
at resonance, ω = ˜ω0, only this term in the resonant part of the expression becomes dominant and
reaches