5.

2 Friction Driven Oscillator

Friction is a retarding force on a particle. It is proportional to the velocity of the particle.

Fr ∝ v
Fr = −γv, (γ is the damping coefficient)
Fr = −γ ẋ

But from the Newton’s second law of motion, we have

F = mẍ
⇒ mẍ = −γ ẋ
γ
ẍ + ẋ = 0
m
1
⇒ ẍ + ẋ = 0 (1)
τ
γ
where τ = 1/ m is the relaxation time.
dv
Put a = ẍ = dt in Eqn. (1)
dv 1
+ v=0 (2)
dt τ
Separate the variables and integrate
ˆ v ˆ t
dv 1
= dt
v0 v 0 τ
−t
ln v =
  τ
v −t
ln =
v0 τ
t
⇒ v = v0 e − τ

Relaxation means the return of a perturbed system to equilibrium. Relaxation time τ : is

the time it takes any measured quantity of the system to reduce to a value of 1e or e−1 or
0.368 of the initial value.
For oscillatory system, it is a measure of time it takes system to restore equilibrium once
disturbed.
From Eqn. (1)
1
ẍ + ẋ = 0
τ
On integration
1
ẋ + x = 0 set c = 0
τ
dx 1
+ x= 0
dtˆ τ ˆ
x
dx 1
= − dt
x0 x τ
t
⇒ x = x0 e − τ

Both displacement and velocity decay exponentially.

1
 Examples

(1) Kinetic energy

1
K= mv 2
2
1 2t
= mv02 e− τ
2
Relaxation time for kinetic energy (τK = τ /2) is half that of velocity or displacement.

(2) Inductor – Resistor (L-R) circuit

Voltage across the resistor

VR = iR
Across the inductor
di
VL = L
dt
Then V = VL + VR
di
= L + iR
dt
Set V = 0 (by opening the switch)
di
L + iR = 0
dt
di R
+ i= 0
dt L
t
It has a solution of the form i = i0 e− τ ,
R
where τ = 1/
L

5.3 Damped Harmonic Oscillator

Consider a mass attached to one end of a spring and friction acting on it.
Restoring spring force; Fsp = −cx
Friction or damping force; Fr = −γ ẋ
Equation of motion

mẍ = −γ ẋ − cx
γ c
⇒ ẍ + ẋ + x = 0
m m

2
 1
ẍ + ẋ + ω02 x = 0, (3)
τ
where τ = m 2
γ ; ω0 = m
c

Trial solution for the harmonic oscillator

For a drive; x = x0 sin (ωt + φ)
t
For a driven oscillator under friction; x = x0 e− τ
Combined trial solution
x = x0 e−αt sin (ωt + φ) , (4)
where α caters for τ1 since it is just a trial solution.
We want to express the “unknowns” α and ω in terms of ω0 and τ .
Differentiating Eqn. (4)
ẋ = x0 ωe−αt cos (ωt + φ) − αx0 e−αt sin (ωt + φ) (5)
ẍ = −ω 2 x0 e−αt sin (ωt + φ)−αωx0 e−αt cos (ωt + φ)−αωx0 e−αt cos (ωt + φ)+α2 x0 e−αt sin (ωt + φ)
(6)
Substituting Eqns. (4), (5) and (6) into (3)
1
ẍ + ẋ + ω02 x = 0
τ
−ω 2 x0 e−αt sin (ωt + φ) − αωx0 e−αt cos (ωt + φ) − αωx0 e−αt cos (ωt + φ)
1
+α2 x0 e−αt sin (ωt + φ) + x0 ωe−αt cos (ωt + φ) − αx0 e−αt sin (ωt + φ)


τ
+ω02 x0 e−αt sin (ωt + φ) = 0

 α   ω
⇒ −ω 2 + α2 − + ω02 sin (ωt + φ) + −2αω + cos (ωt + φ) = 0
τ τ
Set the coefficients of sin (ωt + φ) and cos (ωt + φ) to zero
ω
−2ωα + = 0
τ
1
⇒ α=
2τ
and also
α
−ω 2 + α2 − + ω02 = 0
τ
 2  
2 1 1 1
⇒ ω = − + ω02
2τ τ 2τ
 
1 1 1
= 2 − + ω02
τ 4 2
1
= ω02 − 2
4τ
"  2 # 21
1
⇒ ω = ω0 1 −
2ω0 τ

Therefore, friction lowers frequency

For low damping ω0 τ >> 1 ⇒ ω = ω0

Solution
2 ! 21
 

t
− 2τ 1
x = x0 e sin ω0 1− t + φ
2ω0 τ

3
For low damping
t
x = x0 e− 2τ sin (ω0 t + φ)

5.3.1 Power Dissipation

Consider a case for low damping

ω0 τ >> 1
t
x = x0 e− 2τ sin (ω0 t + φ)
x0 t t
ẋ = − e− 2τ sin (ω0 t + φ) + ω0 x0 e− 2τ cos (ω0 t + φ)
2τ
Kinetic Energy
1
K= mv 2
2
1 h x0 t t
i2
= m − e− 2τ sin (ω0 t + φ) + ω0 x0 e− 2τ cos (ω0 t + φ)
2 2τ
 2
1 t 1
= mx20 e− τ − sin (ω0 t + φ) + ω0 cos (ω0 t + φ)
2 2τ
 
1 2 − τt 1 2 ω0 2 2
= mx0 e sin (ω0 t + φ) − cos (ω0 t + φ) sin (ω0 t + φ) + ω0 cos (ω0 t + φ)
2 4τ 2 τ

4
We take a time average of kinetic energy over one period
 
1 2 − τt 1 2 ω0 2 2
< K > = mx0 e sin (ω0 t + φ) − hcos (ω0 t + φ) sin (ω0 t + φ)i + ω0 cos (ω0 t + φ)
2 4τ 2 τ
    
1 t 1 1 1
= mx20 e− τ 2
+ ω02
2 4τ 2 2
 
1 t 1
= mx20 e− τ + ω02
4 (2τ )2
 
1 2 2 − τt 1
= mω0 x0 e 1+
4 (2ω0 τ )2
but ω0 τ >> 1
1 t
⇒ < K > = mω02 x20 e− τ
4
Kinetic energy decays exponentially.

Average potential energy

1
<U >= c x2 (c is spring constant)
2
1 t
= cx20 e− τ sin2 (ω0 t + φ)
2
1 2 −t
= cx0 e τ
4
c
But recall ω02 = m ⇒ c = mω02
Thus
1 t
<U >= mω02 x20 e− τ
4
=< K > for low damping

Average power dissipation

d
<P >= − <E>
dt
d
= − {< U > + < K >}
dt  
d 1 2 2 − τt
= − mω0 x0 e
dt 2
 
1 1 2 2 − τt
= mω0 x0 e
τ 2
1
= <E>
τ

5
 Quality factor Q of an oscillatory system
 
Energy stored
Q = 2π
haverage energy loss in one periodi
 
E
= 2π
PT
<E>
= 2π · <E>
τ ·T
2πτ
=
T
2π
but T =
ω0
⇒ Q = ω0 τ for low damping

Q is high for an oscillatory system which is slightly damped in which case τ is large.
Q is small for a lightly damped oscillator where τ is very small.

5.4 Driven Harmonic Oscillator

The forced motion of a damped harmonic oscillator is referred to as a driven harmonic
oscillator.
An external force F (t) = F0 sin ωt is applied, say to a mass on a spring in a resistive medium
such that

mẍ + γ ẋ + cx = F0 sin ωt
γ c F0
ẍ + ẋ + x = sin ωt
m m m
1
ẍ + ẋ + ω02 x = α0 sin ωt, (7)
τ
γ
where τ1 = m c
, ω02 = m and α0 = Fm0
ω0 is natural frequency of the system.
ω is the frequency of the driving force.
The steady state response (x, ẋ, ẍ) of a driven harmonic oscillator is at the driving frequency
ω and not the natural frequency ω0 . Thus the driving frequency satisfies the equation of

6
motion.
Trial solution
x = x0 sin (ωt + φ) , (8)
where φ is the phase difference between the driving force and the displacement of the oscil-
lator. x0 is the amplitude.
We substitute the trial solution in Eqn. (7)

ẋ = ωx0 cos (ωt + φ) (9)

2
ẍ = −ω x0 sin (ωt + φ) (10)

Putting Eqns. (8), (9) and (25) into (7)

1
ẍ + ẋ + ω02 x = α0 sin ωt
τ
1
−ω 2 x0 sin (ωt + φ) + ωx0 cos (ωt + φ) + ω02 x0 sin (ωt + φ) = α0 sin ωt
τ

ω
−ω 2 + ω02 x0 sin (ωt + φ) + x0 cos (ωt + φ) = α0 sin ωt


⇒ (11)
τ
Note:

cos (ωt + φ) = cos ωt cos φ − sin ωt sin φ (12)

sin (ωt + φ) = sin ωt cos φ + cos ωt sin φ (13)

Put Eqns. (12) and (13) into (11)

ω
−ω 2 + ω02 x0 (sin ωt cos φ + cos ωt sin φ) + x0 (cos ωt cos φ − sin ωt sin φ) = α0 sin ωt


τ

h ω i h ω i
ω 2 − ω02 cos φ − sin φ x0 sin ωt + ω 2 − ω02 sin φ + cos φ x0 cos ωt = α0 sin ωt



⇒
τ τ
(14)

Eqn. (14) can be satisfied if the coefficients of sin ωt and cos ωt separately varnish i.e,
ω
ω 2 − ω02 sin φ + cos φ = 0


τ
sin φ − ωτ
⇒ =
= tan φ
cos φ ω02 − ω 2
ω02 − ω 2


⇒ cos φ = h
2

2
i1
ω 2 2
ω0 − ω 2 + τ
− ωτ


and sin φ = h

2
2 i 12
ω02 − ω 2 + ωτ

From the coefficients of sin ωt, we have

h ω i
ω02 − ω 2 cos φ − sin φ x0 = α0


τ
α
⇒ x0 =  2
0 ω

2
ω0 − ω cos φ − sin φ
τ

7
substituting for sin φ and cos φ
α0
x0 =  
(ω02 −ω2 ) ω ( −ω )
 ω02 − ω 2


h i1 − τ h
τ
i1

2 2 2 2 2 2
( ω02 −ω 2 + ω
) ( )
τ ( ω02 −ω 2 + ω
) ( )
τ
h
2 ω 2

i1 2
α0 ω02 − ω 2 + τ
= h
2 i
ω 2
ω02 − ω 2 +


τ

α0
⇒ x0 = h i1 (15)

2 ω 2 2
ω02


− ω2 + τ

Substitute for x0 and φ in Eqn. (8)

  
−ω
α0 sin ωt + tan−1 2
τ
(ω0 −ω2 )
x= h i1 (16)

2 ω 2 2
ω02


− ω2 + τ

Limiting cases

(1) Low driving frequency, ω << ω0 .

This implies φ −→ 0, cos φ −→ 1 and sin φ −→ 0
The response at low driving frequency is said to be in phase with the driving force.
Amplitude
α0 m F0 F0
x0 −→ 2 = · =
ω0 c m c

Thus the spring controls the response at this limit.

(2) At resonance frequency ω = ω0

−π
cos φ = 0, sin φ = −1, φ=
2
α0 τ
and x0 =
ω0
α0 τ
x0 (ω = ω0 )
compare = αω02
x0 (ω = 0) 0
ω02

= ω0 τ
=Q

At resonance, maximum amplitude occurs when

dX0
= 0 (17)
 dω
d
2  ω 2
ω02 − ω 2 + (18)
dω τ
1
⇒ ω 2 = ω02 − (19)
2τ 2
Eqn. (17) gives the position of maximum resonance Xmax with respect to ω i.e,

8
(3) High driving frequency
ω >> ω0
sin φ −→ 0
cos φ −→ −1
φ −→ π
α0 F0
⇒ xo = 2 =
ω mω 2
1
Hence the response decreases as ω2

Power dissipation
Power is the time average of the work done
D E
P = F~ · ~ẋ
Note F = F0 sin ωt
F0
But α0 =
m
⇒ F = mα0 sin ωt
From x = x0 sin (ωt + φ)
ẋ = ωx0 cos (ωt + φ)
D E
⇒ P = F~ · ~ẋ
= hmα0 sin ωt · ωx0 cos (ωt + φ)i
= mα0 ωx0 hsin ωt cos (ωt + φ)i
= mα0 ωx0 hsin ωt (cos ωt cos φ − sin ωt sin φ)i
= mα0 ωx0 sin ωt cos ωt cos φ − sin2 ωt sin φ


 
1
= mα0 ωx0 − sin φ
2
 
ω


1 − τ
⇒ P = − mα0 ωx0  h
 
2
i1


2 ω 2 2
ω02 − ω 2 + τ
1 2
2 mω α0 x0
∴ P = h i1

2 ω 2 2
ω02 − ω 2


τ + τ

9
Substitute for x0 ,
1 2
2 mω α0 α0
P = ·
h
2
i1 h
ω 2 2

2 ω 2
i1
2
ω02 − ω 2 ω02 − ω 2


τ + τ + τ
1 2 2
2 mω α0
= h
2 i
ω 2
ω02 − ω 2 +


τ τ

At resonance ω = ω0
1
Pres = mα02 τ (power at resonance)
2

10