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FORM TWO PHYSICS HANDBOOK
[With well drawn diagrams, solved examples and questions for exercise]
(2016 Edition)

MOKUA J.N.
Soft copy available call 0710314068 OR 0771879889

Table of Contents
Chapter 1 MAGNETISM PP2 Page 3

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Chapter 2 MEASUREMENT II PP1 Page 9

Chapter 3 TURNING EFFECT OF A FORCE PP1 Page 15

Chapter 4 EQUILIBRIUM AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY PP1 Page 18

Chapter 5 SOUND PP2 Page 21

Chapter 6 HOOKE’S LAW PP1 Page 25

Chapter 7 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT Page 30

PP2

Chapter 8 WAVES I PP2 Page 36

Chapter 9 FLUID FLOW PP1 Page 40

Chapter 10 REFLECTION AT CURVED SURFACES PP2 Page 45

Chapter One MAGNETISM

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Properties of magnets

1. Magnetic poles
 Magnetic poles refer to the ends of a magnet where the
power of attraction or repulsion is greatest.
 The force of attraction of a magnet is greatest at its poles.
The force reduces away from poles. This is why when a bar
magnet is dipped in iron fillings, the fillings cling mainly
around the ends of the magnet.

2. Directional property of a magnet  Repulsion is the only sure test for polarity of magnet.
 If a magnet is suspended by a thread and is free to rotate it This is because repulsion can only occur between like
rotates and finally rests in the in the North-south direction. poles of magnets. Attraction is not sure test because it can
This is called the directional property of a magnet.
occur between unlike poles of magnets or between a
magnet and unmagnified magnetic material.

Exercise

1) Describe how you would verify the basic law of

magnetism given two bar magnets and a piece of thread
Solution

Procedure

Suspend one bar magnet. Bring the north pole of another

magnet towards the north pole of the suspended magnet and
observe what happens.

Bring the same pole towards the south pole of the suspended
3.Magnetic and non- magnetic materials
magnet.
 Magnetic materials are those that can be attracted by
magnets e.g. Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, Iron alloy like steel, Observations and conclusion
Nickel alloy etc.
 Non-magnetic materials are those that cannot be A north pole attracts a south pole and repels a north pole while
attracted by a magnet e.g. Copper, Brass, Aluminium, a south pole repels a south pole. Hence, like poles repel while
Glass, wood, Graphite unlike poles attract.
 Ferromagnetic materials are magnetic materials that are
strongly attracted by magnet e.g. soft iron Magnetic field patterns

4. The Basic Law of Magnetism Magnetic field

It states that like poles of magnets repel while unlike poles  The space around a magnet where the magnetic influence
attract. (magnetic force of attraction and repulsion) is felt
 The field is stronger near the poles of the magnet and is
weaker farther away from the poles.

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Magnetic field lines  Point x is called neutral point. The resultant magnetic field
at the neutral point is zero.
 These are lines of force which represent a magnetic field.  Magnetic field lines get concentrated along the soft iron.
These lines form a magnetic field patterns.

Direction of magnetic field

 The direction of magnetic field at a point is the direction to

which a free north pole would move if placed at that point
in the field.

Characteristics/ properties of magnetic field lines

a) Magnetic field lines start from the North Pole and end at  The soft iron ring concentrates the magnetic field lines
the South Pole. thus preventing them from pausing through region P.
This is called magnetic shielding and region P is
therefore said to be shielded by the ring from magnetic
fields.

Practical application of magnetic shielding

 The soft iron rods and rings are used in magnetic

b) They repel each other sideways and form closed paths as shielding where some electrical measuring instruments
shown above. and watches are shielded and protected from stray
c) They do not intersect each other. magnetic fields.

Exercise

1. Describe how you would shield a magnetic material

from a magnetic field. State one application of
magnetic shielding.
2. Explain the meaning of the following
i. Magnetic field
d) They are closer together where the field is stronger. ii. Magnetic lines of force
3. The diagram below the magnetic field patterns
between two magnets P and Q

1. Identify poles A and B

 Consider two bar magnets with opposite poles adjacent. 2. State which of the two magnets P and Q is
stranger. Explain.

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4. Sketch the magnetic field patterns for the arrangement Magnetization

below.
 Magnetization is the process of making a magnet from
magnetic material. During this process, dipoles get
aligned. In a partially magnetized material most but not
all domains are aligned in one direction.
 When a material is fully magnetized all the domains are
aligned in one direction. At this state the material is said
to be magnetically saturated.
 There are four common methods of magnetization; these
are:
1. Induction
2. Stroking
3. Hammering in north-south direction
4. Electrical method using direct current.

1. Electrical method
 Direct current is used.
 The magnetic material to be magnetized is placed inside
the solenoid connected in series with the battery. The
switch is closed and current is passed through the
solenoid for some time.

 The polarities of the magnet depend on the direction of

the electric current.
 The poles of the magnet can be identified using the right
hand grip rule for current carrying coil which states that:
If a coil carrying a current is grasped in the right hand
such that the fingers point in the direction of current in
the coil, then the thumb points in the direction of North
Pole.

Notes:
The Domain Theory of Magnetism
I. Allowing the current to flow for a long time does not
 Magnets consist of small magnetic groups referred to as increase the extent of magnetic saturation. It only
magnetic domains. Domains have a common magnetic causes overheating of the solenoid which adversely
axis. Domains comprise smaller sub – atomic magnets affects magnetism.
(molecular magnets) called dipoles. The dipoles in a II. A solenoid is a coil with many turns of insulated copper
particular domain point towards a common direction. wire.

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Exercise
1. In an experiment to magnetized two substance X and Y
using current two curves wave obtained as shown below.

Explain the difference between X and Y

2. The graph in the figure below show the relationship
between the attractive force of an electromagnetic and
the magnetizing current

5. Stroking method
 In this method a magnetic material bar is repeatedly
stroked using one end of a strong magnet. Stroking aligns
domains and therefore the magnetic material becomes a
magnet. There are two types of stoking:

a) Single stroke method

 In this method the magnetic material is stroked with one
Explain the shape of the curve at point AB using the pole of the magnet from one end to another, lifting it
domain theory. away as shown. The stroking is repeated several times
while keeping the inclination of the magnet the same.
3. Hammering (mechanical method)
 This method makes the use of the earth’s magnetic field. A
steel bar to be magnetized is placed in the north-south
position and the upper end is hammered. The end pointing
northward becomes a north pole and the one pointing
southward the South Pole.

 The end of the magnetic material bar where the magnet

finishes stroking acquires an opposite polarity to that of
the stroking magnet.

Disadvantages of single stroke method

 It produces magnets in which one pole is nearer the end

4.Induction of the magnetized material than the other.
 In this method, a magnet induces magnetism in a magnetic  N/B This disadvantage can be avoided by use of double
material in contact with it. The end of the material in stroke method.
contact with the magnet attains a polarity opposite to the
pole of the magnet.

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b) Double stroke method Demagnetization can be hastened by any of the following

methods;
 In this method, the magnetic material bar is stroked from
the centre repeatedly in opposite directions, using  Heating
opposite polarities of two bar magnets as shown in (a)  Hammering in east-west position
below or like poles as in (b) below.  Dropping on a hard surface
 Electrical method using alternating current.
1. Hammering
 Hammering a magnet placed in the east- west direction or
dropping it evidently on the hard surface floor several
times makes it lose most of the magnetism.

2. Heating
 Heating a magnet until red hot and cooling it suddenly
when resting in the east- west direction makes it lose its
magnetism.

3. Electrical method
 Placing a magnet in a solenoid placed in east west
direction and passing an alternating current demagnetizes
it. This is because alternating current reverses many times
per second, disorienting the magnetic dipoles.

Exercise

With the aid of a diagram explain how you would magnetized Hard and soft magnetic material
a steel bar so as to obtain a south pole at marked end of the
bar by Soft magnetic material

a. Using a permanent magnet  These are those magnetic materials magnetized easily but
b. Using an electric current do not retain their magnetism for long. Examples: iron,
alloy of iron and nickel.
Which of the above method produce stranger magnet? Give a
reason. Applications of soft magnetic materials

1. Making electromagnets
2. Making transformer cores
Demagnetization 3. Used for magnetic shielding

 This is the process by which a magnet losses magnetism. In Hard magnetic materials
this process domains reverse their direction and get
misaligned (disoriented)  These are magnetic materials that are difficult to
 A magnet can undergo self-demagnetization if poorly magnetize but once magnetized they retain their
stored or the process can be influenced externally by magnetism for a long time. Example – steel.
giving the dipoles enough energy to overcome the forces
Application of hard magnetic materials: Used in making
holding them in a particular direction.
permanent magnets

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Storing magnets 6. State the polarities of ends X and Y.

7. With the aid of a diagram explain how bar magnets are
 Bar magnets are stored in pairs with soft iron keepers stored so as to minimize self demagnetization
placed across their ends to prevent self-demagnetization. 8. Describe a simple experiment to show the existence of
Unlike poles of the magnets are placed close to each magnetic poles
other. 9. Name two properties of a magnet
10. What are ferromagnetic materials?
11. Using the domain theory of magnetism, explain why
a) The stray of a magnet cannot be measured beyond a
certain point.
b) The temperature increase weaker or destroy the
magnetism of a magnet.
12. The graphs below are for two magnetic materials.

 The magnets magnetize soft iron keepers through

induction. The aligned dipoles form a closed loop or chain
round the magnets and the keepers, with no free poles.

Uses of magnets

1. Used in hospitals for removing pieces of iron from the eyes

of patients.
2. Used to industries as stirrers, lifting iron scrap metals.
a) Which material is easier to magnetize?
3. Weather stations for resetting six’s minimum and
b) Which material forms a stronger magnet?
maximum thermometer.
c) State one application of each.
4. Navigation for showing direction as in compass needles
5. Magnetic tapes used in audio and video recorders.
13. Two similar razor blades are placed one on a wooden
block and the other on a soft iron block as shown below.

Revision Questions

14. Why is soft iron used as magnet keeper?

15. Describe how you would shield a magnetic material from
a magnetic field. State one application of magnetic
shielding
16. Use the domain theory to explain a difference between
magnetic and non- magnetic materials. It was observed that the razor blade on the wooden
17. A coil of insulated wire is wound around a u-shaped soft block was attracted to the magnet while the other on
iron care XY and connected to a battery as shown in the the soft iron was not. Explain.
figure below.

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Chapter Two MEASUREMENT II

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic, the leaner should be 1. Measurement of length using vernier calipers
able to: and micrometer screw gauge
2. Decimal places, significant figures and
a) Measure length using vernier calipers and standard form
micrometer screw gauge 3. Estimation of the diameter of the molecule of
b) Express quantities in correct number of oil (relate to the size of the HIV virus, mention
decimal places and correct number of effects of oil spills on health and environment.)
significant figures. 4. Problems in measurements.
c) Express measurements in standard form
d) Estimate the diameter of a molecule of oil
e) Solve numerical problems in measurement.

Using Vernier Calipers

Vernier Calipers 1. Place the object whose diameter (length) is to measured

between the outside jaws.
2. Close the jaws till they just grip the object.
3. Record the reading of the main scale, opposite and to the
left of the zero mark of the vernier scale.
4. Read the vernier scale mark that coincides exactly with a
main scale mark and multiply it with the least count
(accuracy) of the Vernier calipers. This is the Vernier scale
reading.
5. The sum of the vernier scale reading and the main scale
reading gives the diameter (length) of the object.
Vernier calipers reading = vernier scale reading +main
scale reading

 The Vernier calipers has two scales. The main scale is Example
contained on the steel frame and is graduated in
centimeters but also has millimeters divisions. The
Vernier scale is contained on the sliding jaw and has 10
equal divisions.
 The length of Vernier scale is 0.9cm implying that each
division of the vernier scale is 0.09cm.
 The difference between the main scale division and the
Vernier scale division is called the least count. This is the
accuracy of the Vernier calipers i.e.
( 0.9−0.09 ) cm=0.01 cm
 Vernier calipers has inside jaws used to measure internal
diameters and outside jaws used to measure external
diameters.

Exercise (ii) Negative Error

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1. Describe how you would measure the internal  Occurs when the zero mark of the main scale is to the right
diameter of 100cm3 beaker using vernier calipers. of the zero mark of the vernier scale
2. Write down the vernier calipers reading in diagram
(a) (b) and (c) showed below. Example

Correction of the Negative Error

 The negative error is corrected by adding zero error to the

reading obtained.

Exercise

The figure below shows a vernier calipers

Zero Error of the Vernier Calipers

 Vernier calipers is said to have a zero error if the zero State the correct reading of scale if the instrument has a zero
marks of the main scale and vernier scale do not coincide error of – 0.02cm.
when the jaws of the calipers are closed without an
object.
 There are two types of errors:
Micrometer Screw Gauge
(i) Positive Error
 It is used to measure very small lengths such as the
 Occurs when the zero mark of the main scale is to the left
diameter of a thin wire.
of the zero mark of the vernier scale.

Example

Correction of the Positive Error

 The positive error is corrected by subtracting the zero

error from the reading obtained.

 The micrometer screw gauge consist of a thimble which

carries a circular rotating scale known as thimble scale
and a spindle which moves forward and backwards when

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the thimble is rotated.

 The sleeve has a linear scale in millimeters and half
millimeter called sleeve scale and the thimble has a
circular scale of 50 or 100 equal divisions.
 The ratchet at the end of the thimble prevents the user
from exerting more pressure on an object when the
micrometer screw gauge is in use.
 The distance moved by the spindle in one complete
rotation of the thimble is called the pitch of the
micrometer. A spindle moves forward or backwards by
0.5mm per a complete rotation of the thimble with 50
divisions.
 Therefore each division of thimble scale represents a
spindle travel of
0.5 mm The zero error of the micrometer screw gauge
=0.01 mm
50  It occurs if the zero mark of the thimble scale does not
 This means that if the thimble rotates through one coincide with the horizontal (centre) line of the sleeve
division, the spindle moves forward or forward by scale when the micrometer is closed without an object.
0.01mm. This is the least count (accuracy) of the
micrometer screw gauge. Positive error of micrometer screw gauge
 Least count of the screw gauge is defined as the distance
moved by the spindle when the thimble rotates through  Occurs when the zero mark of the thimble scale is below
one division. the horizontal line.
Using a micrometer screw gauge
1. Place the object whose diameter/length is to be measured Example
between the anvil and the spindle.
2. Close the micrometer using ratchet until the object is held
gently between the anvil and the spindle. Note that the
ratchet should slip only once when the grip is firm enough
to give accurate reading.
3. Read the sleeve scale and record it as:
 The positive error is corrected by subtraction of the error
Sleeve scale reading = --------------mm
from the reading given by the micrometer screw gauge.
E.g. consider the screw gauge below:
Negative error
4. Read the thimble scale and multiply it by the least count of
 It occurs when the zero mark of the thimble scale is above
the screw gauge (0.01mm) and record it as:
the horizontal line of the sleeve scale.
Thimble scale reading= ……x 0.01=………….mm
5. Micrometer reading = sleeve scale reading + thimble Example
scale reading

Examples

 The negative error is corrected by adding the error to the

reading obtained by the screw gauge

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Significant Figures Exercise

 Significant figures refer to the number of digits used to Express the following in cm giving the answers in standard
specify the accuracy of a value. form

Note: a) 0.1mm
b) 125 mm
1. The digits 1-9 are all significant when they appear in a c) 3.8m
number. d) 0.015m
2. The first digit from the left of a number is the first e) 7.8 km
significant figures
3. The number of significant figures is determined by Decimal places
counting the number of digits from the first significant
figure on the left.  Refer to number of digits to the right of the decimal point
4. Zero may be significant or not depending on the position and this determines the accuracy of the number e.g.
of the digit 6.0345 (4d.p)
5. If zero occurs between non- zero digits it is significant e.g.
1004(4sf), 15607(5sf), 180.45(5sf) Exercise
6. When zero occurs at the left end of a number it is not
Find the volume of a cube whose side is 2.22 cm. Express your
significant e.g. 0.00546(3sf), 0.0002(1sf)
answer correct to 3 d.p
7. If the zero occurs at the right hand end of an integer it
may or may not be significant. E.g. 60000.It can be correct Standard Prefixes Used With SI Units
to 1 significant figure therefore the zeros are not
significant. If all the zeros are counted (ended) then it will  The table below shows multiples and sub- multiples used
be correct to 6 significant figures. with SI units, their prefixes and symbol for the prefixes.
8. If the zero occurs at the right hand end after the decimal
point, it is always significant e.g. 2.000(4sf), 3.0(2sf) Sub- prefix Symbol for
multiple/ prefix
Exercise multiple
10-1 deci d
Write down the number of significant figures in each of the 10-2 centi c
following
10-3 milli m
a) 40000 10-6 micro µ
b) 609 10-9 nano n
c) 0.000675 10-12 pico p
d) 5237.8 10-15 femto f
e) 0.0000600 10-18 atto a
f) 0.002304 101 deca da
102 hecto h
Standard Form 103 kilo k
106 mega M
 This is a way of writing a number especially a very large or 109 giga G
very small number in which only one integer appears
1012 tera T
before the decimal point.
1015 peta P
 A positive number is said to be in standard form when
1018 exa E
written as AX10n, where A is such that 1≤A <10 and the
index n is an integer e.g.3567= 3.567x 103
 If the number lies between zero and 1 then the index n
becomes a negative e.g.0.0003567=3.567x10-4

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The Oil Drop Experiment Possible Sources of Error in the Experiment

 This is an experiment used in the estimation of diameter/ a) Error in measuring the diameter ( or volume) of oil drop
size /thickness of a molecule. b) Error in measuring diameter of oil patch
 In this experiment, a tray is filled with water to the brim,
and lycopodium powder is lightly sprinkled on the water Exercise
surface.
 An oil drop is carefully placed at the centre of the tray and 1. In an experiment to estimate the size of an oil molecule,
allowed to spread on the surface of water until it is one the diameter of the patch was measured to be 200mm
molecule thick. This forms a patch whose diameter is for an oil drop of radius 0.25mm. Determine the
measured diameter of the molecule of the oil
2. In an experiment to estimate the diameter of oil
molecule 100 drops of oil are released from burette and
level of oil in burette changes from 0.5cm 3 to 20.5 cm3.
One of the drops is placed on water and spreads over a
circular patch of diameter 20 cm.
a. Determine:
I. The volume of the oil drop
II. The area of the patch covered by the oil
III. The diameter of the oil molecule
b. State:
i.Assumptions made in this experiment
ii.Two possible sources of errors in this experiment

Revision Questions

 Thickness of oil molecule is estimated as d 1. What are the zero errors of the micrometer screw
gauges shown in the figures below?(the micrometers
volume of oil drop = volume of oil patch are closed).if the micrometers were used to measure
the diameter of a wire whose diameter is 1.00 mm,
4 3 what would be the reading on each?
π r =π ¿
3
Functions of lycopodium powder

1. It breaks surface tension

2. it clearly shows the extent of spread of the oil drop

Function of beams:

 Used to estimate diameter of the spread oil patch

Assumptions made in oil drop experiment

a) The oil drop is perfectly spherical

b) The oil patch is perfectly cylindrical
c) The oil patch is one molecule thick.

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2. Compare and contrast the scales of two micrometer

screw gauges with a pitch of 0.5mm and 1.0mm.
3. What are the two limitations of the micrometer
screw gauge?
4. List down the advantages and disadvantages of the
micrometer screw gauge over the vernier calipers
5. Sketch a micrometer screw gauge scale reading:
a) O.23 mm
b) 5.05 mm
6. (a)What are the zero errors of the vernier calipers in
figures (a) and (b) below?

(b) If the correct diameter of an object is 4.01 cm, what

would be the readings of both calipers for this diameter?

( c) The calipers in figure (a) was used to measure the

diameter of a cylindrical object and recorded 4.55 cm while
the one in figure (b) was used to measure the diameter of a
sphere and recorded 5.05cm. Calculate correct volumes of
these objects in m3. (Take π = 3.142)

Chapter Three TURNING EFFECT OF A FORCE

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Moment of a Force Moment of a force=force × perpendicular distance

 Basically, moment of a force refers to the turning effect of ∴ moment of force about pivot=20 N ×0.4 m
the force.
 It is defined as the product of the force and the ¿ 8 Nm
perpendicular distance between the point of support
(pivot or fulcrum) and the line of action of the force.

The Principle of Moments (the Law of the Lever)

 Consider a meter rule balanced (at equilibrium) on a pivot

at its centre by weights W1, W2, W3 and W4 as shown
below.

Moment of a force=force × perpendicular distance

 SI unit of moment of a force is the newton meter (Nm)

Factors Affecting Moment of a Force

1. Amount of force – moment of force is directly

proportional to the amount of force applied.
2. Perpendicular distance between line of action of force and  The forces W1 and W2tend to make the rule turn in the
point of support – moment is directly proportional the anticlockwise direction about the pivot. Therefore, the
distance 900. moments due to these weights are referred to as an
anticlockwise moments.
Examples of Activities in Which Force Produces a Turning  Similarly, the forces W3 and W4 tend to make the rule turn
Effect in a clockwise direction and therefore, their moments
about the pivot are clockwise moments.
1. Opening and closing a door
2. Closing a lid of a container e.g.( geometrical instrument Sum of clockwise moment =W3d3 + W4d4
box)
3. A pair of scissors or garden shears in use Sum of anticlockwise moment =W1d1 + W2d2
4. Children playing on “ see saw”
5. A wheelbarrow being used to lift heavy loads At equilibrium (balance), Sum of clockwise moment = Sum of
6. A screwdriver being used to tighten or loosen a screw. anticlockwise moment
7. Beam balance in use.
W3d3 + W4d4 = W1d1 + W2d2
Examples
 This can be summarized by the principle of moments
Find the moment of the force about the pivot in the figures which states “for a system in equilibrium the sum of
below clockwise moments about a point must be equal to the
sum of anti clockwise moments about the same point”.

N/B: A body is said to be at equilibrium when it is balanced

under the action of a number of forces.

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Examples Exercise

1. State the law of the lever ( as above) A half meter rule is suspended vertically from a pivot at
2. A uniform meter rule pivoted at its centre is balanced by the 0 cm mark. It is maintained in the vertical position by
a force of 4.8N at 20cm mark and some other two forces, four horizontal forces acting in the directions shown in the
F and 2.0N on the 66cm and 90cm marks respectively. figure below
Calculate the force F.

The 10.0 N force acts through the 15 cm mark, 4.0 N force

through the 20 cm mark and 5.0 N force through the 40 cm
At equilibrium (balance), mark. Calculate F which acts through the 30 cm mark.

Sum of clockwise moment = Sum of anticlockwise moment Parallel forces

F × 0.16+2.0 ×0.40=4.8× 0.30  Consider a uniform rod below balanced by the forces F1, F2,
F3, F4, F5 and R which is the normal reaction on pivot.
0.16 F +0.80=1.44
0.16 F=0.64
0.64
F=
0.16
F=4.0 N
3. A boy of mass 40kg sits at a point 2.0m from the pivot
of a seen saw. Find the weight of a girl who can  The forces F1, F2, F3, F4, F5 and R are parallel.
balance the see-saw by sitting at a distance of 3.2m  For parallel forces:
from the pivot. (Take g =10nkg) a) The sum of forces acting on one side of the system is
solution equal to the sum of forces acting on opposite direction
i.e. the algebraic sum of parallel forces is zero.
b) The sum of clockwise moments is equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moments i.e. the algebraic sum of the
moments of parallel forces is zero.

Exercise

A uniform metal rod of length 80cm and mass 3.2kg is

At equilibrium (balance), supported horizontally by two vertical spring’s balances C and
D balance C is also from one end while balance D is 30cm
Sum of clockwise moment = Sum of anticlockwise moment
from the other end. Find the reading on each balance.

(
W g × 3.2 m= 40 kg ×10
N
kg)× 2.0 m
3.2 W g =800

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800
W g=
3.2
w g =250 N

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Anti – parallel forces (Couples) III. Forces applied on the steering wheel of a car when going
round a bend
 Anti – parallel forces or a couple refers to equal, parallel IV. Forces applied on bicycle handle
but opposite forces.
 The total moment of anti-parallel forces is the product of
one of the forces and the perpendicular distance between
the forces.

Revision Exercise
Example 1. Explain why the handle of a door is placed as far as
possible from the hinges.
Two vertical equal and opposite forces act on a meter rule
2. Explain why it is easier to loosen a tight nut using a
at 20 cm and 90 cm marks respectively. If each of the forces
spanner with a long handle than the one with a short
has a magnitude of 4.0 N, calculate their moment on the
handle.
meter rule about the 40 cm mark.
3. The figure below shows a uniform bar in equilibrium
solution under the influence of two forces

Total moment

= one of the force, F X perpendicular distance between the forces, d

¿ 4.0 N × ( 0.9−0.2 ) m

¿ 4.0 N × 0.7
¿ 2.8 Nm
Examples of couples

I. Forces applied on a wheel spanner when tightening or

loosening a nut
II. Forces applied when opening a water tap

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Chapter Four EQUILIBRIUM ∧CENTRE OF GRAVITY

Centre of Gravity 3. For circular plate construct diameters. The point of
intersection, which is the centre of the circle, is the centre
 Centre of gravity (COG) of a body is the point of of gravity.
application of the resultant force due to earth’s
attraction. It is the point where the whole weight of the
body appears to act from. The resultant force is the
weight (W =mg)of the body.

Centre of Gravity of Regular Shapes

 The centre of gravity of a uniform body (body with

weight evenly distributed) lies at the body’s geometrical Examples
centre. For example, a uniform meter rule balances at the
50 cm mark when suspended. 1. A uniform meter rule is balanced at 20cm mark when a
load of 1.2N is hung at the zero mark.
a) Draw a diagram of meter rule showing all the
forces acting on it.

 The centre of gravity of regular shapes can also be b) Calculate the weight and mass of the meter rule
determined by construction e.g.
1. For square and rectangular plates, diagonals are
constructed. The point of intersection is the centre of solution
gravity.
At equilibrium (balance), Sum of clockwise moment =
Sum of anticlockwise moment
W × 0.3 m=1.2 N ×0.2 m
0.3 W =0.24
0.24
∴W= =0.8 N
0.3

2. For triangular plate, perpendicular bisectors of the sides c) Determine the reaction on the pivot.
are constructed. The point of intersection is the centre of
gravity. solution

total up ward forces=total downwaed forces

R=1.2+ W
R=1.2+ 0.8
R=2.0 N

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2. The diagram below shows a metal plate 3m long, 1m 4. The figure below shows a diagram, of mass 150kg and
wide and negligible thickness. A horizontal force of 100N radius 0.5m being pulled by horizontal force F against a
applied at point D just makes the plate tilt. Calculate the step 0.1 m high. What initial force, F, is just sufficient to
weight of the plate. turn the drawn so that it rises over the step. If the
diagram below shows spherical balls placed at different
positions on a surface.

Solution Equilibrium States

At equilibrium (balance), Sum of clockwise moment =
Sum of anticlockwise moment  State of equilibrium refers to state of balance of a body.
100 N ×3 m=W × 0.5 m There are three states of equilibrium:
300=0.5 W
1. Stable equilibrium
300  A body is said to be in a stable equilibrium if it returns to
∴W= =600 N the original position after being displaced slightly. The
0.5
funnel does not topple over since the line of action of
Exercise weight still falls inside the base of the funnel.

1. A uniform half- meter rule is pivoted at the 10cm

mark. Find the position of a 2.0 N weight that will
balance the rule horizontally if the weight of the rule
is 0.4 N.
2. Unstable equilibrium.
2. The figure below shows a uniform plank of length  A body is in unstable equilibrium if on being displaced
6.0m acted upon by the forces shown. If the plank has slightly, it does not return to its original positions but
a weight of 300 N, draw the diagram showing all the occupies a new position. The funnel below topples over
forces acting on the plank. Calculate the tension T in because the line of action of weight falls outside the base
the string and the reaction at the pivot. of the funnel.

3. Neutral equilibrium
 A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium if on being
displaced it occupies a new position which is similar to the
original position.

3. Define the centre of gravity of a body

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Conditions for Equilibrium Exercise

1. The sum of forces on the body in one direction is equal to 1. State the conditions of equilibrium for a body acted
the sum of forces acting on the body in the opposite upon by a number of parallel forces.
direction 2. Explain why:
2. The sum of the clockwise moments about any point is a) It is not safe for a double Decker bus to carry
equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the standing passengers on the upper deck.
same point. b) Bus body- builders build luggage compartments
under the seats rather than on roof racks.
Factors Affecting the Stability of a Body c) Laboratory stands are made with a wide heavy
base.
1. The position of COG of the body - the lower the position 3. When is an object said to be in equilibrium?
of the centre of gravity the more stable a body is. 4. What type of equilibrium has:
2. Base area of the body- a body is more stable when the I. A marble at the bottom of a watch glass?
base is wide. A narrow base makes the body to be less II. A tight rope walker?
stable. III. A cylinder sitting on its base?
IV. A sphere on a level table top?
V. A bird perched on a thin horizontal branch
Examples of Application of Stability
of a tree?
1. Containers for holding liquids such as conical flask in the 5. State:
laboratory have broad base to improve their stability. I. Two ways in which the stability of a body can be
2. Racing cars (e.g. formula one car) have wider wheels and increased.
lower positions of center of gravity than ordinary cars. II. Two practical application of stability.
3. Most buses carry their cargo in space below the passenger 6. Explain how a cyclist maintains the stability of a
level instead of the roof rack in order to keep the centre of moving bicycle.
gravity positions low. 7. Describe the state of equilibrium of the ball in each
4. A hydrometer is able to stay upright in a liquid because it position
is weighted at its base and therefore its centre of gravity is
at the base.
5. A Bunsen burner has a wide heavy base to increase
stability
6. A person carrying a bucket of water in one hand has to
lean his body to the other side to adjust the position his
centre of gravity.
7. Chairs, stools, tripod 73 stands, tables etc are provided
with three or more legs. The legs are often made slightly
inclined outwards to improve stability.

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Chapter Five SOUND

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the leaner should be 1. Sound: nature and sources (experimental
able to: treatment required)
2. Propagation of a sound
a) Perform and describe simple experiments to 3. Compressions and rarefaction
show that sound is produced by vibrating 4. Speed of a sound by echo sound
bodies 5. Factors affecting the speed of a sound
b) Perform and describe an experiment to show 6. Problems on velocity of a sound
that sound requires a material medium for a
propagation.
c) Explain the nature of sound waves.
d) Determine the speed of sound in air by the
echo method.
e) State the factors affecting the speed of sound.
f) Solve numerical problems involving velocity of
sound.

Definition of Sound

 Sound is a form of energy that originates from vibrating

objects. It is a longitudinal mechanical wave.

Some Sources of Sound

1. Vibrating wooden strip

2. Vibrating wire e.g. guitar wire being pluck.
3. Vibrating drum
4. Tuning fork- the prongs of tuning fork are made to vibrate
by striking them against a hard surface.
5. Vibrating air columns e.g. blowing air a cross the mouth of Exercise
a test- tube.
6. Air siren- it is a form of disk with a ring of equally spaced 1. The figure below shows a vibrating fork. The time
holes which are equidistant from the centre. It is rotated interval for the prong to go from A to B is 0.005 s. Find:
at a constant rate as air is blown through the holes. a) The frequency of the fork
7. Cog-wheel and card b) The wavelength of the vibrations, if the velocity
8. Voice box (larynx) of sound in air is 340 m/s.

Propagation of Sound Energy

 Sound wave is propagated in form of compressions (areas

of high pressure) and rarefactions (areas of low pressure)
through propagating medium. Sound requires a material
medium for propagation.

2. The diagram below shows sound waves passing through 2. Close the switch and observe what happens.
air. Study it and answer the questions that follow.
Observation: It is observed that the bell begins to ring and the

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sound is heard outside.

3. Gradually pump out some air and note the effect this has
on sound reaching you.

Observation: The intensity of sound decreases gradually.

a. Label the following:
i. Compression 4. Pump as much air out of the jar as possible and listen to
ii. Rarefaction the sound produced.
iii. wavelength
b. If the wave front takes 0.1 s to travel from A to B, Observation: Sound is found to have almost disappeared
find: though the hammer can be seen vibrating
i. The frequency
Conclusion
ii. The wavelength, if velocity of sound in air is
330 m/s. The above observations show that the sound cannot travel
through a vacuum. It needs a material medium for
Experiment
propagation.
Aim:
Factors Affecting Velocity of Sound In Air
To show that sound requires a material medium to travel. (I.e.
a) Temperature of the air - sound travels faster in hot air
sound does not travel in vacuum)
than in cold air.
Apparatus b) Humidity of the air - the velocity of sound on air
increases with humidity
Electric bell c) Direction of wind -wind blowing in the same direction
Switch as sound increases the velocity of the latter.
Bell glass- jar
Vacuum pump Sound Transmission in Solids, Liquids and Gases
Wires
 Sound travels fastest in solids, followed by liquids and then
Cells
gases.
Glass plate
 Speed of sound in materials varies from solid to solid,
Procedure liquid to liquid and gas to gas depending on the density of
the material. Denser material transmits sound faster.
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram below.
Reflection Property of Sound Waves

 Reflected sound is called echo. Sound is reflected when it

falls on hard surfaces.
 Reflections of sound waves also obey the laws of
reflection:
i. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection at point of incidence
ii. The incident sound, the reflected sound and the
normal lie on the same plane.

Reverberation m
∴ 2 x =330 × 0.7 s
s
 Reverberation refers to the effect in which original sound

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seems prolonged due to overlap with the echo sound. It 330 ×0.7
occurs in some halls, sound waves are reflected from x= =115.5 m
2
walls, floor and ceiling and since the echo time is short;
the echo overlaps with the original sound. m
 To reduce reverberation in places like broadcasting Also , 2(d −x)=330 × ( 0.7 +0.2 ) s
s
studios and concert halls, walls are made using
absorbent materials like cotton wool and foam rubber. 297
d= +x
Applications of Reflection of Sound 2

a) Determination of Speed of Sound d=148.5+115.5=264 m(this is the width of the cliff )

 In this case, sound is produced in front of an obstacle
whose distance away is known. The time for the sound to 2. A time keeper in 100m race stands at the finishing point.
reach the obstacle and back to the source (i.e. time for He starts his watch the moment he hears the sound of a
echo to be heard) is measured using a stop watch. gun. What error does he make in the timing of the race?
(Speed of sound in air is 330ms-1)

Solution

The error is equal to the time taken for the sound from the gun
to reach the time keeper, i.e. time taken for sound to travel
100m at the speed of 330ms-1 the sound takes:

100 m
T= −1
=0.303 seconds
distancetravelled , 2 d 2d 330 ms
Speedofsound= =
timetaken ,t t
Example =============================================

1. A man standing in a valley between two cliffs strikes a b) Determination of Distances by Producing Sound of a
gong. He hears an echo from one cliff 0.7s later and from Known Speed (pulse-echo technique)
the other 0.2 s after the first. Determine the width of the  Pulse-echo technique involves measuring distances by
valley. (Speed of sound in air, v=330ms-1) producing sound of known speed and measuring time
taken to receive an echo.
Solution  Ultrasound (sound of frequency of over 20 KHz) is used in
pulse-echo technique because it penetrates deepest and
can be reflected easily by tiny grains.

Exercise

A fishing boat uses ultra- sound of frequency 6.0x10 4 Hz to

detect fish directly below. Two echoes of the ultrasound are
received, one after 0.09s coming from the shoal of fish and
other after 0.12s coming from the sea bed. If the sea bed is
84m below the ultrasound transceiver, calculate:

letditancefromnearestcliffbexand i. The speed of ultrasound waves in water

ii. The wavelength of the ultrasound waves in water
thatbetweenthetwocliffsd iii. The depth of the shoal of fish below the boat

distance=speedofsound ×time
Applications of Pulse- Echo Technique 5. In an experiment to determine speed of sound in air, a
drum at a point 150m from a vertical wall was struck at
Used:

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a) In the ship to determine the depth of the sea. varying frequency while listening to the echo. The echo
b) In under water exploration of gas and oil. coincides with the sound from the drum at a time when
c) In fishing boats with pulse echo equipment to locate to successive strikes were made within a time of 18.5s.
shoals of fish. i. Determine the time taken for an echo to be
d) In special types of spectacles used by the blind people to heard
tell how far objects are ahead of them. ii. Determine the speed of sound in air at the place
e) By bats to detect the presence of obstacles in their flight iii. What difference would you expect if the
path. experiment was repeated on a colder day?
6. A boy strikes a railway line with a hammer. A railway
Revision Exercise walker 600m a way hears two sounds, one from the
railway line and the other from air. If the time interval
1. State how the pitch of sound wave is affected by between the two sounds is 1.65 s and the speed of sound
frequency in air is 340ms-1, determine the speed of sound in the
2. The following diagram shows a set up that was used to railway line.
demonstrate that sound requires a material medium for
transmission.

i. State what happens to the sound from the bell

as air continues to be drawn from the jar
ii. What happens to the sound if some air is
allowed back into the jar
iii. Give possible reasons why it is not possible to
reduce sound completely in this experiment
3. A girl standing some distance away from the cliff blows a
whistle and hears an echo 1.10s later. If the speed of a
sound in air is 350ms -1, determine how for the girl is from
the foot of the cliff.
4. A loudspeaker placed between two walls but nearer to
wall A than wall B is sending out constant sound waves.
Determine how far the loudspeaker is from wall B if it is
100m from wall A and the time between the two echoes
received is 0.2 seconds. (Speed of sound in air= 340ms-1)

Chapter Six HOOKE’S LAW

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Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic, the learner should 1. Hooke’s law

be able to: 2. Spring constant
3. Spring balance
a) State and verify experimentally Hooke’s law 4. Problems on Hooke’s law
b) Determine the spring constant
c) Construct and calibrate a spring balance
d) Solve numerical problems involving Hooke’s
law

Introduction 5. Elasticity
 This is the ability of a material to recover its original shape
 The knowledge of stretching materials when forces are and size after the force causing deformation is removed.
applied is important particularly in the construction The materials with this ability are called elastic e.g. rubber
industry. It helps engineers to determine the strength of bands, spring, and some wires.
the materials to be used for specific work. This topic deals  A material which does not recover its shape but is
with study of how materials behave when stretched and deformed permanently is called plastic e.g. plasticine.
the relationship between the extent of stretching and
stretching force. The pioneer of the topic is the physicist
Robert Hooke. Hooke’s Law

Characteristics of Materials  Hooke’s law relates the stretching force and extension
produced.
1. Strength
 It is the ability of a material to resist breakage when under It states that “for a helical spring or any other elastic
stretching, compressing or shearing force. A strong material, extension is directly proportional to the stretching
material is one which can withstand a large force without force, provided elastic limit is not exceeded”
breaking.
2. Stiffness i .e . F ∝e ; F=ke ,
 Refers to the resistance a material offers to forces which Where k is the constant of
tend to change its shape or size or both. Stiff materials proportionalitycalled springconstant .
are not flexible and resist bending.  Sl unit of spring constant is the newton per meter (N/m).
3. Ductility  Spring constant is defined as the measure of stiffness of a
 This is the quality of a material which leads to permanent spring.
change of shape and size. Ductile materials elongate
considerably when under stretching forces and undergo  Graphically, Hooke’s law can be expressed as below.
plastic determination until they break e.g. lead, copper,
plasticine.
4. Brittleness
 This is the quality of a material which leads to breakage
just after elastic limit is exceeded. Brittle materials do not
undergo extension and break without warning on
stretching. E.g. blackboard chalk, bricks, cast iron, glass,
and dry biscuits.

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Solution

F mg
k= =
e e

( 600 ×10−3 ×10 ) N −1

k= −2
=500 N m
1.2×10 m

2. The figure below shows a spring when unloaded, when

supporting a mass of 80g and when supporting a stone.
Study the diagrams and use them to determine the mass
of the stone.

 The graph of stretching force against extension, for

material that obeys Hooke’s law, is a straight line through
the origin. The gradient (slope) of such a graph gives the
spring constant of the spring used.

changeinF
Gradient ( slope ) = =springconstant
changeine
ΔF Solution
S= =k
Δe
F mg
k= =
 If the stretching force exceeds a certain value, permanent e e
stretching occurs.
 The point beyond which the elastic material does not obey ( 80 ×10−3 ×10 ) N −1
Hooke’s law is called elastic limit. k= −2
=16 Nm
 A point beyond which a material loses its elasticity is ( 10−5 ) ×10 m
called yield point.
 Along OE the spring (or elastic material) is said to undergo F=W stone=ke
elastic deformation.
 Along EA the spring is said to undergo plastic deformation N −2
W stone =16 × 3 ×10 =0.48 N
m
Factors Affecting Spring Constant
W 0.48 N
a) Type of material making the wire m= =
g 10 Nkg−1
b) Length of the spring
c) The number of terns per unit length of the spring
¿ 0.048 kg (thisisthemassofthestone)
d) The diameter (thickness) of the spring
e) The thickness of the wire 3. A spiral spring produces an extension of 6mm when a
force of 0.3N is applied to it. Calculate the spring
Examples
constant for a system when two such springs are
1. A spring stretches by 1.2 cm when a 600g mass is arranged in:
suspended on it. What is its spring constant? a) Series

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a. Plot a graph of total length (y-axis) against

weight

−3 −2
Totalextension=2 x 6 x 10 m=1.2 x 10 m
Totalforce=0.3 N

F=ke (fromHooke ’ slaw )

F 0.3 −1
Ks= = =25 Nm
e 1.2 x 10 −2

b) Parallel

b. Use the graph to determine

i. The length of the spring
The length of the spring is that when force acting on
it is zero. From the graph it is 7.1x10-2 m
ii. The spring constant, k.
1
spring constant , k=
Since the two springs will share the weight, extension of the slope , S
1 ( 8.8−7.8 ) ×10−2 m
system is x6mm = 3mm S= =0.009091 m N −1
2 ( 1.56−0.55 ) N
1 −1
Spring constant of the system, kP is spring constant , k= −1
=110.0 N m
0.009091 m N
F 0.3 N −1
kp = = =100 N m Compressing a spring
e 0.003 m
 Compression refers to change in length that occurs when a
4. The data below represents the total length of a spring as spring is squeezed from its two ends. A sketch of length
the load suspended on it is increased against compression for a spring which obeys Hooke’s law
is as below.
Weight, 0. 1.0 1.5 2. 2.5 3.0
 Beyond the point E, the turns of the spring are virtually
5 0
W (N) pressing onto one another and further increase in force
achieves no noticeable decrease in length.
Total 7. 8. 8.5 9. 9.5 10.
length, L 5 0 0 0
(x10-2m)

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Work Done in Stretching or Compressing a Spring

 The area under force versus extension graph is represents

to work done in stretching the spring.

Exercise

a. The figure below shows a simple apparatus for studying

the behavior of a spring when subjected to forces of
compression.

1
Areaunder the graph= Fe ,
2
where F is the force applied∧e theextension
attained . sequaltoworkdoneinstrething 50 Nm−11. 2 x 10−2=
'
¿ Hook e s law , F=ke
Describe how the apparatus may be used to obtain readings
of compression force and corresponding length of spring. 1 1 2
Workdone= ( ke ) e= k e
2 2
b. In a similar experiment the following readings were
obtained Exercise

Two springs of negligible weights and of constants k1 = 50Nm-

1
and k2 = 100Nm-1 respectively are connected end to end and
suspended from a fixed point. Determine

i. The total extension when a mass of 2.0kg is hung

from the one end
ii. The constant of the combination.
iii. Work done in stretching each spring (elastic
potential energy of each)
Plot a graph of:

i. Compression forces versus length of the spring and

from the graph determine the minimum force that
will make the spring coils to just come into contact.
ii. Compression forces versus compression of spring
and from the graph determine the spring constant.

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Revision Exercise

1. State Hooke’s law

2. Define the following terms
a) Elasticity
b) Elastic material
c) Plastic deformation
d) Spring constant
e) Stiffness
f) A stiff material
g) Elastic material
Yield point
3. A 60g mass is suspended from a spring. When 1.5g wire
is added, the spring stretches by 1.2cm.Given that the
spring obeys Hooke’s law, find:
a) The spring constant
b) The total extension of the spring
4. A piece of wire of length 12m is stretched through 2.5cm
by a mass of 5kg. Assuming that the wire obeys Hooke’s
law
a) Through what length will a mass of 12.5kg stretch
it?
b) What force will stretch it through 4.0cm?
5. The following readings where obtained in an experiment
to verify Hooke’s law using a spring

a. For each reading calculate:

i. The value of the force applied
ii. The extension in mm
b. Plot a graph of extension against force. Does the spring
obey Hooke’s law?
c. From the graph determine:
i. The elastic limit ( mark on graph)
ii. The spring constant
iii. The weight of a bottle of ink hung from the
spring if the reading obtained is 12cm
iv. The extension in mm when a force of 0.3N is
applied
v. The scale reading in cm for a mass of 0.02kg

Chapter Seven MAGNETIC EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

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Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the learner should 1. Magnetic field due to a current
be able to: 2. Oersted’s experiment
3. Magnetic field patterns on straight conductors
a) Perform and describe experiments to and solenoids (right hand grip rule)
determine the direction of magnetic field 4. Simple electromagnets
round a current carrying conductor 5. Factors affecting strength of an electromagnet
b) Construct simple electromagnet 6. Motor effect (Fleming’s right hand rule)
c) State the factors affecting the strength of an 7. Factors affecting force on a current carrying
electromagnet conductor in a magnetic field (qualitative
d) Determine experimentally the direction of treatment only)
force on a conductor carrying current in a 8. Applications:
magnetic field  Electric bell
e) Explain the working of a simple electric motor  Simple electric motor
and electric bell

Introduction

 This topic involves the study of magnetic field due to the

flow of electric current in a conductor and the
applications of this effect. The pioneer of this physics topic
is Hans Oersted, a professor of physics.

Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current Flowing Through a

Conductor
 The direction of deflection of the compass needles can be
 Consider the diagram below of a set up that that can be predicted by Ampere’s swimming rule which states that
used to investigate the magnetic effect of an electric “if one imagines swimming along a conductor in the
current flowing through a conductor. This is commonly direction of electric current and facing the compass
called Oersted’s experiment. A and B are magnetic needle, then the north pole of the needle will be
compass needles deflected towards the swimmer’s left hand”

Notes:

1. The deflection of the compass needles is due to the

interaction between the magnetic field due to the electric
current in the conductor and the magnetic field of the
compass needle.
2. When the terminals of the battery are interchanged, the
compass needles deflect in the opposite direction because
the direction of current reverses.
 When the switch is closed, it is observed that the compass 3. The extent of deflection of the compass needles increases
needles deflect towards the directions shown in the when the amount of electric current flowing through the
diagram below. conductor increases.

Exercise
 Note: The symbol represents current into the surface
The figure below shows a compass placed under a vertical
and current out of the surface.
wire XY

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A large current is passed from X to Y. Draw the position of

the magnetic compass needle.
Magnetic Field on a Current Carrying Solenoid

 A solenoid refers to a wire wound into a long cylindrical

Magnetic Field Patterns on a Straight Current Carrying coil with many connected loops.
Conductor

 When a large electric current flows through a wire passing

through a card board on which iron filings is sprinkled, the
 Fleming’s right hand grip rule for a current carrying
filings form a pattern of concentric circles around the
solenoid is used to predict the direction of magnetic field
wire as shown below.
pattern inside the solenoid due to the current. It states
that “If a coil carrying electric current is held in the right
hand such that the fingers encircle the loops while
pointing in the direction of current flow, the thumb points
in the direction of the North Pole”

 This behavior of iron filings show that the magnetic field

around a straight current carrying conductor forms a
pattern of concentric circles and is perpendicular to the
conductor.
 The direction of this magnetic field pattern can be
predicted by Fleming’s right hand grip rule for a current
carrying straight conductor which states that “if a current  Note that a solenoid carrying electric current produces a
carrying conductor is gripped in the right hand with the magnet field pattern like that of a bar magnet; one end
thumb pointing along the wire in the direction of current, behaves North Pole and the other end South Pole.
the other fingers will point in the direction of the
magnetic field”. Exercise

Show the magnetic field pattern inside loop below

Simple Electromagnet End B was brought near the iron filings and many of them
were attracted when the switch was closed.

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 An electromagnet is made by placing a soft iron core I. Explain why the iron filings got attracted at end of the
inside a solenoid carrying an electric current. This is shown core.
below. II. Explain what is observed when the switch is opened.
III. If soft iron was replaced with steel and switch closed:
State what is observed when steel is brought near iron
filings
IV. Mention three differences between soft iron and steel
as illustrated in the above experiment.
V. Explain what happens if steel is replaced with copper
and dipped in the iron filings.
2. The diagram below shows a wire wound on an open pipe
at both ends. The wire is then connected to ad.c supply. A
north pole of the magnet is near the end of the core B.
 The right hand grip rule for a current carrying solenoid
can as well be used to predict the polarities of the
electromagnet.

Factors Affecting the Strength of an Electromagnet

I. The amount (size) of current in the solenoid – the

strength of an electromagnet is directly proportional to
the amount of electric current in the solenoid.
Therefore, the large the current the strong the
electromagnet.
II. The number of turns in the solenoid – the strength of I. What is observed at the magnet when the switch is
the electromagnet is directly proportional to the number closed?
of turns in the solenoid. Therefore, the more the II. Explain the observation in the question above.
number of turns the strong the electromagnet. III. If the terminals of the cells are reversed state what
III. The length of the solenoid – the strength of the is observed on the magnets.
electromagnet is directly proportional the length of the IV. What name of making a magnet is illustrated in
solenoid. Therefore the longer the solenoid the stronger the above arrangement?
the electromagnet. V. What are the two advantages of this method over
IV. The shape of the core -horse - shoe shaped core other methods of magnetization?
produces a stronger electromagnet than u- shaped core 3. In an experiment to determine the strength of an
while a u-shaped core produces a stronger electromagnet, the weight of pins that can be supported
electromagnet than a straight core. by the electromagnet, was recorded against the number
of turns. The current was kept constant throughout the
Exercise experiment.

1. In the diagram below the soft iron core is placed inside a The table below shows the data that was obtained.
coil connected to a d.c source.

I. Plot a graph of weight, W, against number of turns, n.

II. Use the domain theory to explain the nature of the
graph
III. Sketch on the same axes the curve that will be obtained
using a higher current

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Force on a current carrying conductor (The Motor Effect) Exercise

 A conductor carrying current placed in a magnetic field Show the resultant magnetic field and direction of force of
experiences a force. This is called the motor effect. the conductor in each of the following.
 Consider the set up diagram below for a conductor
carrying current in a magnetic field.

 The magnetic field concentrates at the top of the

conductor than at the bottom thereby creating a region of
strong field. The reason for this is that the field due to  For rectangular coil in a magnetic field, one side
electric current in the conductor and that of the magnets experiences an upward force and the other side a
reinforce each other since they are directed in the same downward force and the coil is set into a rotation. Below is
direction. an example.
 The relatively weak field at the bottom of the conductor is
as result of cancellation between the two fields since they
are directed in opposite directions. The resultant force
therefore acts on the conductor downwards.
 The direction of force on conductor can be predicted by
Fleming’s left hand rule which states that “If the thumb,
first and second fingers are held mutually at right angles
with the first finger pointing the direction of magnetic
field, the second finger in the direction of current, then
the thumb points in the direction of force”

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Force between Parallel Straight Current Carrying Conductors When a current is passed through the coil in the direction
PQRS the coil starts to turn, and eventually becomes to rest.
a. Parallel Conductors Carrying Current in Same Direction With the aid of diagrams explain:

I. Why the coil begins to turn

II. In which direction it begins to turn
III. Why it comes to rest
IV. The position in which it comes to rest
 The magnetic field between the conductors is weaker due
2. The apparatus shown below may be used to cause rider
to cancellation than the field from the outer side. The
AB move along the rods C and D
resultant force on the conductors acts to push them
towards each other.

b. Parallel Conductors Carrying Current In Opposite

Direction

 The fields between the conductors repel each other since I. When current flows along AB, in what direction will
they are directed in same direction. A force, therefore, it roll? Explain.
acts on the conductors to pull them apart (outwards) II. What happens to the rider when current is
increased?
Factors Affecting Force on a Conductor Carrying Current in a III. State the rule that can be used to predict the
Magnetic Field direction of force acting on the rider.

1. Magnitude of electric current-force increases with current

2. Strength of magnetic field – force increases with strength
of the magnetic field Applications of Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current
3. Length of the conductor in the field – the longer the
length the stronger the force 1. Electric bell
4. Angle the conductor makes with the magnetic field –
force increases with the angle. It is maximum when the
conductor is at an angle of 900 with the magnetic field

Exercise

1. The figure below shows a rectangular coil PQRS of many

turns of wire located in a magnetic field due to two poles
north and south. The coil is free to rotate on the vertical
axis CD.

 The capacitor is used to reduce sparking effect at the

contacts. The circuit is completed at the contact spring
and contact screw.

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Working Mechanism of an Electric Bell  The current is then reversed in the coil and the forces
acting on each side reverse in direction. Side AB is now on
 When current is switched on, it flows through the circuit the right with a downward force while side CD is on the
and the soft iron core becomes magnetized. The left with an upward force. The coil continues to rotate.
magnetized iron core then attracts the sot iron armature,
which has a hammer at its end. On attraction, the 3. Simple magnetic relay
hammer knocks the gong and the bell rings.  In a magnetic relay, one circuit is used to control another
 When the soft iron armature is attracted, the contact at circuit without any direct electrical connection between
the contact screw is broken and current stops flowing. The them.
electromagnet loses its magnetism and releases the soft
iron armature and this closes the contact again.
 This process is repeated and the bell rings continuously as
long as the switch is closed.

2. Electric Motor
 It is a devise which converts electrical energy into
rotational kinetic energy.

 The permanent magnets are curved at the ends to

produce radial magnetic field.

Functions of Carbon Brush

a) Presses lightly against the commutators so that that the Working Mechanism of Magnetic Relay
coil rotates freely and easily.
b) Connect the coil to the electric current source.  When the switch is closed, current flows through circuit X;
electromagnet is made on the solenoid and in turn attracts
Reasons why carbon brushes and commutators are made of the soft iron armature. The closes the contacts in circuit Y.
graphite 4. Circuit Breakers
 Circuit breakers are used to protect electrical components
a) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity. from excessive flow of current.
b) It serves as a lubricant since it is slippery.

Working Mechanism of the Electric Motor

 When the coil is horizontal and current passes through it

as shown on the diagram, side AB experiences an upward
force while BC experiences a downward force. The two
forces make the coil rotate in the clockwise direction.
 When the coil is in the vertical position with AB at the top
and CD at the bottom, the brushes touch the spaces
between the two split rings.
 Due to momentum, the coil continues to rotate and the
commutators interchange the contact positions with the
brushes.

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Working Mechanism of a Circuit Breaker

 When excess current flows through the circuit, increased

magnetic power of the electromagnet opens the switch,
thus stopping current flow.

Revision exercise

a. State two factors that affect strength of an

electromagnet
b. In the set up below the suspended meter rule is
balanced by the magnet and the weight shown. The iron
core is fixed on the bench.

i. State and explain the effect on the meter rule when

the switch is closed.
ii. What would be the effect of reversing the battery
terminals?
iii. Suggest how the set up in the figure can be adopted
to measure the current flowing in the current circuit.

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Chapter Eight WAVES I

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the leaner should be 1. Pulses and waves
able to: 2. Transverse and longitudinal waves
3. Amplitude (a) , wavelength (λ), frequency
a) Describe the formation of pulses and waves (f), periodic time(T)
b) Describe transverse and longitudinal waves 4. V= fλ
c) Define amplitude (a), wavelength (λ), 5. Problems involving V= fλ.
frequency (f), and periodic time (T)
d) Derive the relation V= fλ
e) Solve numerical problems involving V=fλ

Introduction Classification of Mechanical Waves

 In this topic basic concepts about waves are studied. a. Transverse waves
Knowledge about waves has been broadly applied in daily
life e.g. in radio and television, mobile phones, remote  These are waves in which displacement of medium
control system, heat energy radiation etc. particles is at right angle to the direction of propagation of
the wave. Examples of transverse wave are water waves,
Definition of a wave waves on a rope swung up and down. Transverse waves
travel as a series of crests and troughs.
 A wave refers to the transmission of a disturbance. A
wave therefore transmits energy from one point to
another.

Classification of Waves

 Waves can be broadly classified as electromagnet or

mechanical in nature.

1. Electromagnet waves
 A crest is the highest point of a transverse wave while a
 These are waves which do not require material medium trough is the lowest point of a transverse wave
for transmission. Such waves can be propagated in
 Formation of transverse wave can be illustrated by
vacuum. Examples of electromagnetic waves are Radio
swinging a slinky spring or a rope fixed at one end up and
waves, Radiant heat e.g. from sun, light, Microwaves etc.
down.
 NB: Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature
b. Longitudinal waves
2. Mechanical waves
 These are waves in which displacement of medium
 These are waves which do require a material medium for
particles is parallel to the direction of propagation of the
transmission. Such waves cannot be propagated in
wave. Examples of longitudinal wave are Sound wave,
vacuum. Examples of mechanical waves are water waves,
waves on a slinky spring fixed at one end and vibrated to
sound waves etc.
and two etc.

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 Longtudional waves consists of sections of rarefactions

andcompressions. Compressions are sections of high
pressure in which particles are ppushed closer together
while rarefactions are sections of low pressure in which
particles are pulled slightly further a part from one
another.Pressure variation in a longtudional wave is
what causes wave motion.
Terms Associated with Waves

 Consider the transverse waveform and an oscillating

pendulum bobshown below.

 Formaton of longtudinal wave ca be illustrated by

vibrating a slinky spring fixed at one end to and fro along
its length.

Examples

a. What is a progressive wave?

It is a wave that moves continualy away from the source.

b. Explain why the amplitude of a progressive wave Oscillation – an oscillation is a complete to and FRO
decreases gradually from the source. motion. For example, in the above oscillating bob, a
complete oscillation is D-E-F-E-D.
As the wave move away from the source, the energy is
spread over an increasingly large area.
1. Amplitude, A - it is the maximum displacement of a
Exercise particle from mean position. Its SI unit is the metre (m).
For an oscillating pendulum bob above DE or EF is the
1. Diferentiate between electromagnetic and amplitude.
mechanical wave giving one example in each 2. Wavelength, λ – it is the distance between any two
2. State two categories waves. particles in a wave that are in phase. It is denoted by Greek
3. State two types of mechanical waves. State the letter lambda, λ. Its SI unit is the meter (m).
difference between them. Note: Particles in a wave are said to be in phase if they are
4. Give two examples of mechanical waves. oscillating in same direction and at the same level of
displacement.
Pulse

 A pulse is a single disturbance that is transimitted through

a medium.It can be transverse or longtudional in nature.
Generation of a pulse can be illustrated by jerking a rope
fixed at one end just once.
Particles A and D, B and E are in phase. C and D are out of

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phase by 1800.

 From the wave equation, if speed of the wave is constant,

frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength. This can
be presented graphically as shown below.

Example

The figure below shows a displacement-time graph of a wave

travelling at 2500cms-1
3. Period, T- it’s the time taken by a particle to complete one
oscillation. SI unit of period is the second(s )
4. Frequency, f– it is the number of complete oscillations
(full wavelengths) made by a particle in one second. SI
unit of frequency is hertz (Hz).

Relationship between Frequency and Period

I
 Frequency is the reciprocal of period i.e. f=
T
5. Speed of the wave -It is the distance covered by a wave in Determine for the wave:
one second.
a) Amplitude
The Wave Equation
Solution
 The wave equation relates Speed, V, Wavelength, λ and
A=maximum displacement ¿ mean position
Frequency, f of a Wave

 Generally, speed=
distance ¿ 3 cm∨0.03 m∈SI units
time
 For a distance of wavelength covered by a wave, time b) Periodic time
taken is equivalent to the period of the wave.
Solution
wavelength
∴ speed = T =(9−1)x 10-3 s
period
¿ 8 x 10 -3 s

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λ I
V = =λ ×
T T
I
But , f = ∧thereforeV =λf
T
This is called the wave speed equation

c) Frequency 10. Water waves are observed as they pass a fixed point at a rate
of 30 crests per minute. A particular wave crest takes 2 seconds
Solution to travel between two points 6m apart. Determine:
i. The frequency
I 1 ii. The wavelength
f= = Hz 11. Calculate the wavelength of the KBC FM radio wave transmitted
T 8 X 10−3
at a frequency of 95.6 MHz
−3 12. The audible frequency range for a certain person is between 30
¿ 0.125 ×10 Hz=125 Hz Hz and 16500 Hz. Determine the largest wavelength of sound in
air the person can detect(speed of sound in air is 333m/s)
d) Wavelength 13. The figure below represents a displacement-time graph for a
wave.
Solution

V =fλ
−1
V 250 ms
λ= = −1
=2 m
f 125 s .
Revision Exercise i. Determine the frequency of the wave
ii. Sketch on the same axes the displacement-time
1. State the wave formula graph of the wave of same frequency but 180 0 out of
2. Sketch the variation of frequency with wavelength given that phase and with smaller amplitude.
speed of the wave remains constant
3. Name two types of progressive wave motion.
4. A vibrator sends out 12 ripples per second across a ripple tank.
The ripples are observed to be 5cm apart. Find the velocity of
the ripples.
5. A water wave travels 2m in 5 seconds. If the frequency of the
wave is 10Hz, calculate the:
I. Speed of the wave
II. Wavelength of the wave
6. The diagram below shows a displacement-time graph for a
certain wave.

I. How many oscillations are shown above?

II. Calculate the frequency of the wave
III. Calculate the periodic time of the wave
7. Sketch the wave form of twice the frequency of the wave
above.
8. Electromagnetic waves travels at a velocity of 3.0x10 8ms-1 in

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air, calculate the wavelength in air of radio waves transmitted

at a frequency of 200MHz.
9. Wave ripples are caused to travel across the surface of a
shallow tank by means of a suitable straight vibrator. The
distance between successive crests is 6.0cm and the waves
travel 50.4cm in 3.6 seconds. Calculate:
i. The wavelength
ii. Velocity
iii. Frequency of the vibrator.

Chapter Nine FLUID FLOW

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the leaner should be 1. Streamline and turbulent flow
able to: 2. Equation of continuity
3. Bernoulli’s effect (experimental treatment
a) Describe streamline flow and turbulent flow required)
b) Derive the equation of continuity 4. Application of Bernoulli’s effect: Bunsen burner,
c) Describe experiments to illustrate Bernoulli’s spray gun, carburetor, aero foil, spinning ball
effects etc.
d) Explain the Bernoulli’s effect 5. Problems on equation of continuity
e) Describe the application of Bernoulli’s effect
f) Solve numerical problems involving the
equation of continuity

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Fluid Characteristics of Streamline Flow

 A fluid refers to any substance that is capable of flowing I. Streamlines are parallel to each other.
due to pressure difference. It includes both liquids and II. Streamline flow is smooth and steady.
gases. Examples of fluid flow include: perfume spray from  Some shapes and bodies are designed to be streamlined to
a perfume bottle, flow of water along a river bed, smoke enhance their motion in fluids. A body is said to be
from chimney etc. A flowing fluid experiences internal streamlined if it does not affect the distribution of
resistance called viscosity. streamlines behind it.

Types of Fluid Flow

 There two types of fluid flow: streamline (steady) and

turbulent flows

1. Streamline (steady) flow

 It is a flow in which at any given point each and every

 Examples of streamlined bodies include: cars, jumbo jets,
particle of the fluid travels in the same direction and with
birds that fly, fish etc.
same velocity.
 A streamline refers to the path followed by the particle in
a streamline flow. It is represented by a line with an arrow
head.
 Note: Streamlines do not cross each other but are closer
where the fluid is moving faster

2. Turbulent Flow  If the velocity of fluid through region B is v B, the average

cross-section area of tube is A B and the distance covered
 It is a flow in which the speed and direction of the fluid
particles passing at any point vary with time. Turbulent by the fluid in direction of flow is for time, t B, is d B, then
flow occurs due to: the volume flux through that region is :
I. Abrupt change of cross sectional area of the tube
of flow. volume V
volume flux∨flow rate= =
time tB

But volume=cross – section area ×length

V = AB × dB
II. Speed of the fluid flow changes sharply or
suddenly and beyond a critical velocity. dB × AB dB
Volume flux= = × AB
III. An obstacle is placed on the path of streamlines tB tB
and blocks or breaks the streamlines.
dB
But , =Velocity , v B
tB

∴ Volume flux =v B × A B

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Characteristics of Turbulent Flow Volume flux=velocity ×cross section area of tube of flow
i. The streamlines are not continuous Mass Flux
ii. Particles do not travel in same direction and have
different velocity.  It is the mass of a fluid that flows through a given section
of tube of flow per unit time.
Notes:
mass
1. When bodies which are not streamlined (non-streamlined) mass flux=
time
move in fluids, they cause eddies (turbulence) in the fluid.
A body is said to be non- streamlined if it produces eddies But , mass=density × volume .
behind it.
2. Critical velocity is the speed of flow of fluid beyond which That is , m=ρ ×V .
the fluid exhibits turbulent flow.
ρ ×V
Volume Flux (Flow Rate) ∴ mass flux=
t
 This is the volume of a fluid passing through a given
section of a tube of flow per unit time. V
But , =volume flux .
t
volume of fluid passing givensection
Volume flux= pass mass
the section ¿
flux=density of fluid , ρ × volume flux
time the fluid takes ¿
.
∴ mass flux=density of fluid × velocity of fluid ×cross−sectio
 SI unit of volume flux is cubic meter per second (m3/s)
 Consider a fluid flowing through a section B of flow tube The Equation of the Continuity
shown below.
Assumptions made in deriving the equation of the continuity

1. The fluid is flowing steadily (i.e. has a streamline flow)

2. The fluid is incompressible
3. The fluid is non- viscous.

Deriving Equation of Continuity a) What is the velocity of the liquid between A and B?

 Consider the tube of flow below with changing cross- Solution

section areas.
 Section 1 has a cross section area of A1 while section 2 Flow rate
has cross section area of A2 .Velocity of fluid in section 1 is
volume
v 1 while in section 2 is v 2. v 1> v 2 ¿ =cross−section area , A × velocity , v
time
 Volume of fluid flowing through section 1 per unit time is
equal to volume of fluid flowing through section 2 per unit 8 ×10 m
−6 3
−4 2
time i.e. flow rate/ volume flux is a constant. =1× 10 m × v
1s
Volume flux∈ section 1=volume flux∈section 2 −6 3
8 ×10 m −2 −1
v= =8 × 10 ms
A1 v 1 ¿ A 2 v 2 −4 2
1 s ×1 ×10 m
b) What is the velocity of the liquid between BC?

Solution

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i .e . cross section area× velocity=constant A1 v 1 ¿ A 2 v 2

−4 2 −2 −1 −6 2
A v =constant . 1 ×10 m ×8 ×10 ms =1 ×10 m ×v 2
  −4 2 −2 −1
1 ×10 m × 8× 10 ms −1
This is the equation of continuity which is also called flow v 2= −6 2
=8 ms
rate equation. 1× 10 m

Examples

1. Water flows through a horizontal pipe at a rate of

1.00m3/min. Determine the velocity of the water at a
point where the diameter of the pipe is 1.00cm Exercise

Solution 1. A garden sprinkler has small holes, each 2.00 mm2 in

area. If water is supplied at the rate of 3.0x10 -3 m3s-1 and
flow rate= Av the average velocity of the spray is 10ms -1, calculate the
3
number of the holes.
1.00 m 2. Oil flows through a 6cm internal diameter pipe at an
=π ¿
60 s average velocity of 5ms-1. Find the flow rate in m3/s and
cm/s
1.00 −1 3. The velocity of glycerin in a 5cm internal diameter pipe is
v= =212.18 ms
60× π × 2.5× 10
−5 1.00m/s. Find the velocity in a 3cm internal diameter pipe
that connects with it, both pipes flowing full.
2. In figure below, the tube ABC is filled with a liquid. The
piston moves from A to B in 1 second. Bernoulli’s Effect

 It states that: provided a fluid is non- viscous, in

compressible and its flow streamline an increase in its
velocity produces a corresponding decreases in the
pressure it exerts while a decrease in its velocity produces
a corresponding increase in pressure.

Bernoulli’s Effect in Practice

a) What is the volume of the liquid in point AB
1. Consider the set- up below in which pipe A and C have
Solution
some diameter tubes
volume=cross−section area× length
−4 2 −2 −6 3
volume=1× 10 m × 8 ×10 m=8 × 10 m

4. A light paper held in front of the mouth and air blown

horizontally over it is observed to rise. This is because the
velocity of air above paper increases leading to reduction
in pressure. The higher atmospheric pressure acting from
below produces a force that lifts the paper upwards.

 When air is blown into the tube by a blower, it is observed

that water rises to same level in tube D and F. In E the
level of water is higher than D and F.

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 Velocity of air in pipe A and C are the same due to same Bernoulli’s Principle
cross- sectional areas. Moving air causes a reduction of
pressure and since resulting air pressure is the same,  It states that: ”provided the fluid is non- viscous
atmospheric pressure pushes up the water to the same incompressible and has a streamline flow, the sum of
level. pressure, kinetic energy per unit volume and potential
 The speed of moving air in narrower section B is higher energy per unit volume is a constant”.
and the resulting pressure is much lower than A and C,
hence water rises to higher level in E. Mathematical Expression for Bernoulli’s Principle

 Consider a fluid of density, ρ, mass, m, flowing through a

2. When air is blown above the opening of the flask shown
pipe with a velocity, v and pressure at any given point, P.
the pith ball is observed to rise from the bottom.

kinetic energy
The kinetic energy per unit volume=
volume ;
1 2
mv 2 m
2 m v ; but ρ=
= V
V 2V
1 2
 The blown air causes reduction of pressure at the top ∴ kinetic energy per unit volume= ρ V
therefore, there is a net force upwards as the pressure 2
difference pushes the pith ball upwards.
potential energy
Potential energy per unit volume=
3. When air is blown horizontally between two suspended volume
balloons in the horizontal direction, the balloons are
observed to move towards each other. mgh
= ρgh
V
∴ Bernoulli ’ s principle can be expressed as :
1 2
P+ ρ V + ρgh=constant
2
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle

 Moving air leads to reduced pressure on the inner sides of 1. The Aero foil
the balloons. The higher atmospheric pressure acting on  It is a structure designed in such way that the fluid moving
the outer surfaces causes the balloons to move closer to above it moves with a higher speed than the one moving
each other. below

 The pressure above the aero foil is therefore lower than  Air velocity at constriction is higher. This makes the
the pressure below it. The pressure difference between pressure at the constriction drop. The atmospheric
the top and bottom gives rise to the lift of the aero foil. pressure being higher pushes the petrol to the
This is called dynamic lift. constriction.

2. Bunsen burner Revision Exercise

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1. The figure below shows a pith ball placed in a flask.

When a jet of air is blown over the mouth of the flask as
shown, the pith ball is observed to rise from the bottom.

 When gas is made to flow into the Bunsen burner, its

velocity increases as it passes through the nozzle; this
decreases the pressure above the nozzle. Because of
higher atmospheric pressure outside the barrel, air is then Explain this observation
drawn in.
 The air and the gas then mix as they rise up and when 2. State Bernoulli’s principle
ignited a flame is produced. 3. A pipe of radius 6mm is connected to another pipe of
radius 9mm. If water flows in the wider pipe at the speed
3. Spray Gun of 2ms-1, what is the speed in the narrower pipe?
4. The figure below shows a tube of varying cross- section
area. v 1 , v 2 , v 3 ¿ v 4 represent the speed of water as it
flows steadily through the sections of the tube

Arrange the speeds v 1 , v 2 , v 3 ¿ v 4 in decreasing

order starting with the highest.

 When the piston is pushed forward air is made to flow 5. The figure below shows a sheet of paper rolled into a
through the barrel and therefore causes low pressure in tube.
the barrel. High atmospheric pressure on the surface of
the liquid compels the liquid to move up the tube.
 The velocity of the liquid is increased as it pushes through
the nozzle due to reduced cross section area. The liquid
therefore emerges as a fine spray.
When a fast stream of air is blown into the tube as shown in
4. The carburetor. the diagram the paper tube collapses. Explain the
observation.

6. The figure below shows a horizontal tube with two

vertical tubes X and Y. water flows through the horizontal
tube from right to left. The water level in tube X is higher
than water level in tube Y.

Explain this observation

Chapter Ten REFLECTION AT CURVED SURFACES

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Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the learner should 1. Concave, convex and parabolic reflectors
be able to: 2. Principal axis, principal focus, centre of
curvature and related terms
a) Describe concave, convex and parabolic 3. Location of images formed by curved
reflectors mirrors by construction method
b) Describe using ray diagrams the principal axis, (experiment on curved mirrors required)
principal focus centre of curvature and related 4. Magnification formula
terms. 5. Applications of curved reflectors
c) Locate images formed by curved mirrors by
construction
d) Determine experimentally the characteristics
of images formed by concave mirror
e) Define magnification
f) Explain the applications of curved reflectors

Introduction 3. Parabolic Reflector/ Mirror

 It is a curved reflector whose reflecting surface curves
 Curved reflectors are obtained from hollow spheres, more inwards than that of the concave reflector. It is
cones or cylinders. The surfaces of these hollow solids are obtained by highly polishing the outside of a glass cone.
then highly polished from the inside or outside depending
on the type of curved reflector being made. Concave and
convex mirrors are also called spherical mirrors.

Types of Curved Reflectors

1. Concave Reflector/ Mirror

 This is a reflector whose reflecting surface curves inwards.
It is obtained by highly polishing the outside of a glass Terms Associated with Curved Reflectors
sphere portion.
 Consider the diagrams below;

2. Convex Reflector/ Mirror

 This is a reflector whose reflecting surface curves
outwards. It is obtained by highly polishing the inside of a
glass sphere portion.

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a. Aperture
 This is the width of the mirror
b. Pole, P j. Focal length, f
 This is the geometrical centre of the mirror.  This is the distance from the pole of the mirror to its
c. Centre of curvature, C principal focus.
 This is the centre of the sphere of which the mirror forms
Note: In optics full lines represent real rays and objects while
a part. The centre of curvature of a concave mirror is in
dotted lines represent virtual rays and images.
front while that of a convex mirror is behind the mirror.
d. Radius of curvature, r Exercise
 It is the radius of a sphere of which the curved mirror
forms a part. The figure below shows two parallel rays incident on a
e. Principal/ main axis concave mirror. F is the focal point of the mirror.
 This is the line passing through the pole and the centre of
curvature of the curved mirror.
f. Paraxial rays and marginal rays
 These are rays which are close and parallel to the principal
axis while marginal rays are those that are parallel but not
close to the principal axis.
g. Principal focus, F, of a concave mirror
 It is the point at which all the rays parallel and close to the Sketch on the same diagram the path of the rays after striking
principal axis converge after reflection. Principal focus of a the mirror.
concave mirror is real because reflected rays actually pass
Relationship between Radius of Curvature and Focal Length
through it.
h. Principal focus, F, of a convex mirror  It can be shown through geometry that the radius of
 These is the point at which all rays parallel and close to curvature is twice the focal length i.e.
the principal axis appear to emerge/ diverge from after
reflection. The principal focus of a convex mirror is virtual r =2 f
because reflected rays only appear to pass through it.
i. Focal plane Laws of Reflection in Curved Mirrors
 This is a plane perpendicular to the principal axis and
passes through the principal focus. For a concave mirror,  Reflection at curved surfaces also obeys laws of reflection:
parallel rays which are not parallel to the principal axis 1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
converge at a point on the focal plane after reflection. For at the point of incidence
a convex mirror, parallel rays which are not parallel to the 2. The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray all lie
principal axis appear to emerge from a point on focal on the same plane at the point of incidence.
plane after reflection.

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3. A ray through the centre of curvature (for concave) or

appearing to pass through centre of curvature (for convex
mirror) is reflected along the same path.

Ray Diagrams

 Ray diagrams are used to show and explain how images

are formed by curved mirrors and the characteristics of
these images. 4. A ray at an angle to the principal axis and incident at the
pole is reflected in such a way that the angle of incidence
Four Major Cases in the Construction of Ray Diagrams is equal to the angle of reflection.

1. A ray close and parallel to principal axis passes through

principal focus (for concave mirror) or appears to emerge
from the principal focus (for convex mirror) after
reflection.

Characteristics of Images Formed by Curved Reflectors

A. Concave mirrors

i. Object at infinity
2. A ray through the principal focus of a concave or
appearing to be directed to the principal focus of convex
mirror is reflected parallel to the principal axis.

 Image is real, formed at F, inverted and smaller than the

object.

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ii. Object at c  The image formed is behind the mirror, virtual, upright
and larger than the object.

B. Convex mirror
 Irrespective of the distance of the object in front of the
mirror, images formed by convex mirrors are always
upright, smaller than the object and between P and F.

 Image formed is at C, real, inverted and same size as the

object.

iii. Object beyond C

Example

A lady holds a large concave mirror of focal length 1 m, 80

cm from her face.

a. Using suitable construction illustrate how her image

 Image formed is between C and F, real, inverted and is formed
smaller than the object.

iv. Object between C and F

b. State two characteristics of her image in the mirror.

o Image upright
o Image magnified

Exercise
 The image formed is beyond C, real, inverted, larger than
the object (magnified) 1. The figure below shows a ray of light incident on a
v. Object at F convex mirror

Using suitable construction, determine the radius of

 The image is formed at infinity because the rays emerge curvature of the mirror.
parallel after reflection.
2. The figure below shows parabolic surface with a source
vi. Object between F and P of light placed at its focal point F

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Draw rays to show reflection from the surface when rays ii. Size of the image
from the source strike the surface at points A, B, C and D iii. Nature of the image
iv. magnification
3. The figure below shows a vertical object, O, placed in
front of a convex mirror solution

On the same diagram draw the appropriate rays and

locate the image formed.

4. The figure below shows a bright behind a screen which

has a hole covered with wire gauze. A concave mirror of
focal length 25 cm is placed in front of the screen. The
i. Image position is 13.6 X 2 = 27.2 cm from P in front of
position of the mirror is adjusted until a sharp image of
the mirror.
the gauze is formed on the screen.
ii. Size of the image is 6.6 X 2 = 13.2 cm
iii. Nature of the image: the image is inverted, real and
magnified
image height 13.2 cm
iv. magnification= = =4.4
object height 3 cm

2. A convex mirror of focal length 15 cm produces an image

10 cm away from the mirror. If the image is 3 cm high,
Determine the distance between the screen and the mirror. determine by scale drawing
i. The object distance
Graphical Construction of Ray Diagrams ii. Object height/ size
iii. Magnification
 Images are drawn to scale in a ray diagram and this is best
done on graph paper. Solution

Linear (Transverse) Magnification

 It is the ratio of the image height to the object height. It

can also be defined as the ratio of the image distance to
the object distance.

Linear ( transverse ) magnification

image height image distance

¿ =
object height object distance i. The object distance is 6 X 5 = 30 cm
ii. Object height/ size is 1.4 X 5 = 7 cm
Examples
image height
iii. Magnification=
1. An object 3 cm high is placed 6 cm in front of a concave object height
mirror of radius of curvature 10 cm. By scale drawing
determine the:

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i. Position of the image 3 cm

¿ =0.4285
7 cm
Exercise 2. An object is placed 10 cm in front of a convex mirror of
focal length 20 cm. Determine the position and nature of
1. A concave mirror of focal length 10 cm forms a sharp the image.
image at 40 cm from the mirror. Determine
graphically the position of the object and Solution
magnification of the image.
2. A concave mirror of focal length 20 cm forms a real f is negative (-20 cm) according to real-is-positive convention
image two times the size of the object. If the object
height is 10 cm, determine by scale drawing: 1 1 1
= +
i. The object distance f u v
ii. The image distance
−1 1 1
The Mirror Formula
= +
20 10 v
The object distance u , the focal length f and the image 1 −1 1 −3
distance v related by the mirror formula : = − =
v 20 10 20
1 1 1 −20
= + v= =−6.667 cm
f u v 3
Real-Is-Positive Convention
The image is virtual ( because v is negative), upright and
 This is a sign convention used with the mirror formula in diminished (because v is smaller than u)
order to determine the position and nature of the image
3. A concave mirror with radius of curvature 10 cm produces
formed by a curved mirror. According to the real-is-
an inverted image two times the size of an object placed
positive sign convention:
in front of it and perpendicular to the principal axis.
a) All distances are measured from the mirror as the
Determine the position of:
origin.
a. The object
b) Distances of real objects and images are considered
b. The image
positive e.g. focal length of concave mirrors.
c) Distances of virtual objects and images are Solution
considered negative e.g. focal length of convex
mirror. r 10 v
f = = =5 cm ; m= =2 ; v =2u
Examples
2 2 u

1. An object is placed 10 cm in front of a concave mirror of 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3

= + ; = + ↔ = + =
focal length 20 cm. Determine the position and nature of f u v f u 2u 5 u 2 u 2u
the image.
3 1
Solution
= ↔ u=7.5 cm∧∴ v=2×7.5 cm=15 cm
2u 5
1 1 1 Exercise
= +
f u v
1. The distance between an erect image and the object is
1 1 1 40 cm. The image is twice as tall as the object.
= + Determine:
20 10 v
i. The object distance.
ii. The radius of curvature.
2. A vertical object 10 cm high is placed 20 cm away from
a con vex mirror of radius of curvature 30 cm.

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1 1 1 −1 determine:
= − = i. The image distance.
v 20 10 20
ii. The height of the image.
v=−20 cm iii. The magnification of the image.

The image is virtual ( because v is negative), upright and

magnified (because v is greater than u)

3. The distance between an object and its magnified real  Therefore, a graph of uv against u+v is a straight line
image produced by a concave mirror is 40 cm when through the origin whose gradient is positive. The
the object is placed 20 cm from the pole of the mirror. gradient of the graph gives f
Determine the:
i. Transverse magnification of the image. 3. Graph of m against v
ii. The focal length of the mirror. 
Graphical Analysis of the Mirror Formula 1 1 1
¿ the mirror formula = + , multiplying all through by v giv
f u v
1 1
1. Graph of against v v v v v
u v = + ↔ = +1
 It is a straight line graph with a negative gradient, f u v f u
implying that the image is inverted relative to the object.
v v
=m+1 , since =m
f u
v
∴ m= −1
f

1 1 1
 The −intercept ∨the −intercept gives
u v f
2. Graph of uv against u+ v
1 1 1
 From the mirror formula = + ,
f u v
1 v+ u uv
= ;f=
f uv v +u
 Therefore, a graph of m against v is a straight line with a
1
gradient of and m−intercept is -1. Also the
f
v−intercept gives the focal length , f

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Exercise

A concave mirror and an illuminated object are used to

produce a sharp image of the object on a screen. The object
distances and image distances are given below.

Object distance , 80.0 26.7 22.4 20.6 19.6

u(cm)
Image distance , 20.0 40.0 56.0 72.0 88
v (cm)
u+ v (cm)
2
uv (c m )
Magnification ,
m 5. Used as solar concentrators to bring light energy into
1. Complete the table focus.
2. Using suitable values:
1 1 B. Convex Mirrors
i. Plot a graph of against
u v
ii. Determine theradius of curvature , f from 1. Used as car and motorcycle side mirrors because they form
the graph upright images and have a wide field of view
3. Plot a graph of uv against u+v and use it to find the 2. Used in supermarkets to monitor movement of customers
radius of curvature , f because they form upright images and have a wide field of
4. Plot a graph ofmagnification , m against v and use it view
to find the radius of curvature , f

Applications of Curved Mirrors

A. Concave Mirrors

1. Used as shaving mirrors because they produce magnified

and upright images when the object is between principal
focus, F and the pole, P.  Note: The defect of spherical mirrors in which marginal
2. Used by dentist when examining teeth they produce rays are not brought into focus at the principal focus
magnified and upright images when the object is between resulting in blurred images is called spherical aberration.
principal focus, F and the pole, P.
Disadvantage of Convex Mirror

1. Convex mirror forms diminished images giving an

impression that the vehicles behind are farther away than
they actually are.

C. Parabolic Mirrors
 Used for propagation of parallel light beams of high

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3. Used as reflector behind projector lamp to reflect light intensity in hand torches, searchlights and car head lights.
travelling away from the projector. The lamp is placed at
the centre of curvature of the concave mirror. Advantage of Parabolic Mirrors over Concave Mirrors

 Unlike concave mirrors in which marginal rays are not

converged at principal focus, parabolic mirror converges
all rays parallel to principal axis and incident on its surface
at its principal focus.

4. Used in telescopes to bring distance objects (objects at

infinity) like stars into focus at the focal point.

Revision questions
1. With the aid of a well labeled diagram, explain the
wide field of view of a convex mirror.
2. State on application of each of the following
i. Convex mirror.
ii. Parabolic mirror
3. The figure below which is drawn to a scale of 1:5
represent an object O and its image I formed by a
convex mirror.

By drawing suitable rays, locate and mark on the

figure the position of the principal focus, F of the
mirror. Determine the focal length, f.
4. The figure below shows a point object O placed in
front of a convex mirror.

Draw appropriate rays to locate the image of the

object.

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5. State the advantage parabolic mirror over concave

mirror.

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