f2 Physics Simplified Notes SP

PHYSICS NOTES
FORM 2 SIMPLIFIED TUTORIAL
QUICK REVISION NOTES

An Updated Well-Organized Detailed Revision Notes for the
Current Form 2 Syllabus.
SERIES 1
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Page | 2
PROPERTIES OF  Repulsion is the only sure test for polarity of magnet. This is
MAGNETS because repulsion can only occur between like poles of
magnets. Attraction is not sure test because it can occur
1. Magnetic poles between unlike poles of magnets or between a magnet and
 Magnetic poles refer to the ends of a magnet where unmagnified magnetic material.
the power of attraction or repulsion is greatest.
 The force of attraction of a magnet is greatest at its Exercise
poles. The force reduces away from poles. This is why 1) Describe how you would verify the basic law of
when a bar magnet is dipped in iron fillings, the fillings magnetism given two bar magnets and a piece of thread
cling mainly around the ends of the magnet. Solution
Procedure
Suspend one bar magnet. Bring the north pole of another magnet
towards the north pole of the suspended magnet and observe
2. Directional property of a magnet what happens.
 If a magnet is suspended by a thread and is free to Bring the same pole towards the south pole of the suspended
rotate it rotates and finally rests in the in the North- magnet.
Observations and conclusion
south direction. This is called the directional property
A north pole attracts a south pole and repels a north pole while a
of a magnet.
south pole repels a south pole. Hence, like poles repel while unlike
poles attract.
Magnetic field patterns

Magnetic field
 The space around a magnet where the magnetic influence
(magnetic force of attraction and repulsion) is felt
The field is stronger near the poles of the magnet and is weaker
farther away from the poles.
3. Magnetic and non- magnetic materials Exercise

 Magnetic materials are those that can be attracted 2) Describe how you would verify the basic law of
magnetism given two bar magnets and a piece of thread
by magnets e.g. Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, Iron alloy like
Solution
steel,
Procedure
 Nickel alloy etc. Suspend one bar magnet. Bring the north pole of another magnet
 Non-magnetic materials are those that cannot be towards the north pole of the suspended magnet and observe
attracted by a magnet e.g. Copper, Brass, Aluminium, what happens.
Glass, wood, Graphite Bring the same pole towards the south pole of the suspended
 Ferromagnetic materials are magnetic materials that magnet.
are strongly attracted by magnet e.g. soft iron Observations and conclusion
A north pole attracts a south pole and repels a north pole while a
south pole repels a south pole. Hence, like poles repel while unlike
4. The Basic Law of Magnetism
poles attract.
It states that like poles of magnets repel while unlike poles
attract.
Magnetic field patterns
Magnetic field
 The space around a magnet where the magnetic influence
(magnetic force of attraction and repulsion) is felt
The field is stronger near the poles of the magnet and is weaker
farther away from the poles.

Page | 3
Magnetic field lines  Point x is called neutral point. The resultant
magnetic field at the neutral point is zero.
 These are lines of force which represent a magnetic  Magnetic field lines get concentrated along the soft
field. These lines form a magnetic field patterns. iron.
Direction of magnetic field
 The direction of magnetic field at a point is the
direction to which a free north pole would move if
placed at that point in the field.
Characteristics/ properties of magnetic field

lines
a) Magnetic field lines start from the North Pole and end
 The soft iron ring concentrates the magnetic field
at the South Pole. lines thus preventing them from pausing through
region P. This is called magnetic shielding and
region P is therefore said to be shielded by the ring
from magnetic fields.
b) They repel each other sideways and form closed

Practical application of magnetic shielding
paths as shown above.  The soft iron rods and rings are used in magnetic shielding
c) They do not intersect each other. where some electrical measuring instruments and watches
are shielded and protected from stray magnetic fields.
Exercise
1. Describe how you would shield a magnetic
material from a magnetic field. State one
application of magnetic shielding.
d) They are closer together where the field is stronger. 2. Explain the meaning of the following
i. Magnetic field
ii. Magnetic lines of force
3. The diagram below the magnetic field patterns
between two magnets P and Q
 Consider two bar magnets with opposite poles

adjacent. 1. Identify poles A and B
2. State which of the two magnets P and Q is
stranger. Explain.

Page | 4
4. Sketch the magnetic field patterns for the MAGNETIZATION
arrangement below.  Magnetization is the process of making a magnet from
magnetic material. During this process, dipoles get aligned.
In a partially magnetized material most but not all domains
are aligned in one direction.
 When a material is fully magnetized all the domains are
aligned in one direction. At this state the material is said to
be magnetically saturated.
 There are four common methods of magnetization; these
are:
1. Induction
2. Stroking
3. Hammering in north-south direction
4. Electrical method using direct current.
1. Electrical method
 Direct current is used.
 The magnetic material to be magnetized is placed inside the
solenoid connected in series with the battery. The switch is
closed and current is passed through the solenoid for some
time.
 The polarities of the magnet depend on the direction of the

electric current.
 The poles of the magnet can be identified using the right hand
grip rule for current carrying coil which states that: If a coil
carrying a current is grasped in the right hand such that the
fingers point in the direction of current in the coil, then the
thumb points in the direction of North Pole.
The Domain Theory of Magnetism Notes:

 Magnets consist of small magnetic groups referred to as I. Allowing the current to flow for a long time does not
magnetic domains. Domains have a common magnetic increase the extent of magnetic saturation. It only causes
axis. Domains comprise smaller sub – atomic magnets overheating of the solenoid which adversely affects
(molecular magnets) called dipoles. The dipoles in a magnetism.
particular domain point towards a common direction. II. A solenoid is a coil with many turns of insulated copper wire.
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Materials.

Page | 5
Exercise
1. In an experiment to magnetized two substance X
and Y using current two curves wave obtained as
shown below.
Explain the difference between X and Y

2. The graph in the figure below show the relationship
between the attractive force of an electromagnetic
and the magnetizing current 5. Stroking method
 In this method a magnetic material bar is repeatedly
stroked using one end of a strong magnet. Stroking
aligns domains and therefore the magnetic material
becomes a magnet. There are two types of stoking:
a) Single stroke method

 In this method the magnetic material is stroked with one
pole of the magnet from one end to another, lifting it
Explain the shape of the curve at point AB using the
away as shown. The stroking is repeated several times
domain theory.
while keeping the inclination of the magnet the same.
3. Hammering (mechanical method)
 This method makes the use of the earth’s magnetic
field. A steel bar to be magnetized is placed in the
north-south position and the upper end is
hammered. The end pointing northward becomes a
north pole and the one pointing southward the South
Pole.
 The end of the magnetic material bar where the magnet

finishes stroking acquires an opposite polarity to that of
the stroking magnet.
Disadvantages of single stroke method

 It produces magnets in which one pole is nearer the end of the
magnetized material than the other.
 N/B This disadvantage can be avoided by use of double stroke
4. Induction method.
 In this method, a magnet induces magnetism in a
magnetic material in contact with it. The end of the
material in contact with the magnet attains a polarity
opposite to the pole of the magnet.

Page | 6
b) Double stroke method Demagnetization can be hastened by any of the
 In this method, the magnetic material bar is following methods;
stroked from the centre repeatedly in opposite  Heating
directions, using opposite polarities of two bar  Hammering in east-west position
magnets as shown in (a) below or like poles as in  Dropping on a hard surface
(b) below.  Electrical method using alternating current.
1. Hammering
 Hammering a magnet placed in the east- west
direction or dropping it evidently on the hard
surface floor several times makes it lose most of the
magnetism.
2. Heating
 Heating a magnet until red hot and cooling it
suddenly when resting in the east- west direction
makes it lose its magnetism.
3. Electrical method
 Placing a magnet in a solenoid placed in east west
direction and passing an alternating current
demagnetizes it. This is because alternating current
reverses many times per second, disorienting the
magnetic dipoles.
Exercise
With the aid of a diagram explain how you would
magnetized a steel bar so as to obtain a south pole at
marked end of the bar by
a. Using a permanent magnet

b. Using an electric current
Which of the above method produce stranger magnet?

Hard and soft magnetic material
Give a reason.
Soft magnetic material
 These are those magnetic materials magnetized easily
but do not retain their magnetism for long. Examples:
DEMAGNETIZATION iron, alloy of iron and nickel.
 This is the process by which a magnet losses Applications of soft magnetic materials
magnetism. In this process domains reverse their 1. Making electromagnets
direction and get misaligned (disoriented) 2. Making transformer cores
3. Used for magnetic shielding
 A magnet can undergo self-demagnetization if
Hard magnetic materials
poorly stored or the process can be influenced  These are magnetic materials that are difficult to
externally by giving the dipoles enough energy to magnetize but once magnetized they retain their
overcome the forces holding them in a particular magnetism for a long time. Example – steel.
direction. Application of hard magnetic materials: Used in making
permanent magnets

Page | 7
6. State the polarities of ends X and Y.
Storing magnets
7.
With the aid of a diagram explain how bar
 Bar magnets are stored in pairs with soft iron
magnets are stored so as to minimize self
keepers placed across their ends to prevent self-
demagnetization
demagnetization. Unlike poles of the magnets
8.
Describe a simple experiment to show the
are placed close to each other.
existence of magnetic poles
9. Name two properties of a magnet
10. What are ferromagnetic materials?
11. Using the domain theory of magnetism, explain
why
a) The stray of a magnet cannot be measured
beyond a certain point.
 The magnets magnetize soft iron keepers b) The temperature increase weaker or destroy
through induction. The aligned dipoles form a the magnetism of a magnet.
closed loop or chain round the magnets and the 12. The graphs below are for two magnetic materials.
keepers, with no free poles.
Uses of magnets
1. Used in hospitals for removing pieces of iron
from the eyes of patients.
2. Used to industries as stirrers, lifting iron scrap
metals.
3. Weather stations for resetting six’s minimum
and maximum thermometer. a) Which material is easier to magnetize?
4. Navigation for showing direction as in compass b) Which material forms a stronger magnet?
needles c) State one application of each.
5. Magnetic tapes used in audio and video
recorders. 13. Two similar razor blades are placed one on a
wooden block and the other on a soft iron block as
shown below.
Revision Questions
14. Why is soft iron used as magnet keeper?
15. Describe how you would shield a magnetic material from
a magnetic field. State one application of magnetic
shielding
16. Use the domain theory to explain a difference between
magnetic and non- magnetic materials.
17. A coil of insulated wire is wound around a u-shaped soft
iron care XY and connected to a battery as shown in the It was observed that the razor blade on the
figure below. wooden block was attracted to the magnet
while the other on the soft iron was not. Explain.

Page | 8
Chapter Two 𝐌𝐄𝐀𝐒𝐔𝐑𝐄𝐌𝐄𝐍𝐓 𝐈𝐈

Specific objectives Content
By the end of this topic, the leaner should be able 1. Measurement of length using vernier
to: calipers and micrometer screw gauge
2. Decimal places, significant figures and
a) Measure length using vernier calipers
standard form
and micrometer screw gauge
3. Estimation of the diameter of the molecule
b) Express quantities in correct number of
of oil (relate to the size of the HIV virus,
decimal places and correct number of
mention effects of oil spills on health and
significant figures.
environment.)
c) Express measurements in standard form
d) Estimate the diameter of a molecule of
4. Problems in measurements.
oil
e) Solve numerical problems in
measurement.
Using Vernier Calipers

Vernier Calipers 1. Place the object whose diameter (length) is to
measured between the outside jaws.
2. Close the jaws till they just grip the object.
3. Record the reading of the main scale, opposite and
to the left of the zero mark of the vernier scale.
4. Read the vernier scale mark that coincides exactly
with a main scale mark and multiply it with the
least count (accuracy) of the Vernier calipers. This
is the Vernier scale reading.
5. The sum of the vernier scale reading and the main
scale reading gives the diameter (length) of the
 The Vernier calipers has two scales. The main scale object.
is contained on the steel frame and is graduated in Vernier calipers reading = vernier scale reading
centimeters but also has millimeters divisions. The +main scale reading
Vernier scale is contained on the sliding jaw and has
Example
10 equal divisions.
 The length of Vernier scale is 0.9cm implying that
each division of the vernier scale is 0.09cm.
 The difference between the main scale division and
the Vernier scale division is called the least count.
This is the accuracy of the Vernier calipers i.e.(𝟎. 𝟗 −
𝟎. 𝟎𝟗)𝒄𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝒄𝒎
 Vernier calipers has inside jaws used to measure
internal diameters and outside jaws used to
measure external diameters.

Page | 9
Exercise (ii) Negative Error
1. Describe how you would measure the  Occurs when the zero mark of the main scale
internal diameter of 100cm3 beaker using is to the right of the zero mark of the vernier
vernier calipers. scale
2. Write down the vernier calipers reading in
diagram (a) (b) and (c) showed below. Example
Correction of the Negative Error

 The negative error is corrected by adding
zero error to the reading obtained.
Exercise
Zero Error of the Vernier Calipers The figure below shows a vernier calipers
 Vernier calipers is said to have a zero error if the
zero marks of the main scale and vernier scale
do not coincide when the jaws of the calipers are
closed without an object.
 There are two types of errors:
State the correct reading of scale if the
instrument has a zero error of – 0.02cm.
(i) Positive Error
 Occurs when the zero mark of the main scale is
to the left of the zero mark of the vernier scale.
Example Micrometer Screw Gauge
 It is used to measure very small lengths such
as the diameter of a thin wire.
Correction of the Positive Error

 The positive error is corrected by subtracting the
zero error from the reading obtained.

Page | 10
 The micrometer screw gauge consist of a thimble
which carries a circular rotating scale known as
thimble scale and a spindle which moves forward
and backwards when the thimble is rotated.
 The sleeve has a linear scale in millimeters and half
millimeter called sleeve scale and the thimble has a
circular scale of 50 or 100 equal divisions.
 The ratchet at the end of the thimble prevents the
user from exerting more pressure on an object when
the micrometer screw gauge is in use.
 The distance moved by the spindle in one complete
rotation of the thimble is called the pitch of the
micrometer. A spindle moves forward or backwards
by 0.5mm per a complete rotation of the thimble
with 50 divisions. The zero error of the micrometer screw gauge
 Therefore each division of thimble scale represents a  It occurs if the zero mark of the thimble scale does not
spindle travel of coincide with the horizontal (centre) line of the sleeve
𝟎. 𝟓𝒎𝒎 scale when the micrometer is closed without an object.
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝒎𝒎
𝟓𝟎
 This means that if the thimble rotates through one
division, the spindle moves forward or forward by
Positive error of micrometer screw gauge
 Occurs when the zero mark of the thimble scale is below
0.01mm. This is the least count (accuracy) of the
the horizontal line.
micrometer screw gauge.
Example
 Least count of the screw gauge is defined as the
distance moved by the spindle when the thimble
rotates through one division.
Using a micrometer screw gauge

 The positive error is corrected by subtraction of the
1. Place the object whose diameter/length is to be
error from the reading given by the micrometer screw
measured between the anvil and the spindle.
gauge.
2. Close the micrometer using ratchet until the object is
held gently between the anvil and the spindle. Note
that the ratchet should slip only once when the grip Negative error
is firm enough to give accurate reading.  It occurs when the zero mark of the thimble scale is
3. Read the sleeve scale and record it as: above the horizontal line of the sleeve scale.
Sleeve scale reading = --------------mm Example
E.g. consider the screw gauge below:
4. Read the thimble scale and multiply it by the least
count of the screw gauge (0.01mm) and record it as:
Thimble scale reading= ……x 0.01=………….mm
5. Micrometer reading = sleeve scale reading + thimble
scale reading  The negative error is corrected by adding the error to
the reading obtained by the screw gauge
Examples

Page | 11
Significant Figures Exercise
 Significant figures refer to the number of digits Express the following in cm giving the answers in
used to specify the accuracy of a value. standard form
Note: a) 0.1mm
1. The digits 1-9 are all significant when they b) 125 mm
appear in a number. c) 3.8m
2. The first digit from the left of a number is the d) 0.015m
first significant figures e) 7.8 km
3. The number of significant figures is determined
by counting the number of digits from the first Decimal places
significant figure on the left.  Refer to number of digits to the right of the decimal
4. Zero may be significant or not depending on the point and this determines the accuracy of the
position of the digit number e.g. 6.0345 (4d.p)
5. If zero occurs between non- zero digits it is
significant e.g. 1004(4sf), 15607(5sf), Exercise
180.45(5sf)
Find the volume of a cube whose side is 2.22 cm.
6. When zero occurs at the left end of a number it
Express your answer correct to 3 d.p
is not significant e.g. 0.00546(3sf), 0.0002(1sf)
Standard Prefixes Used With SI Units
7. If the zero occurs at the right hand end of an
 The table below shows multiples and sub- multiples
integer it may or may not be significant. E.g.
used with SI units, their prefixes and symbol for the
60000.It can be correct to 1 significant figure
prefixes.
therefore the zeros are not significant. If all the
zeros are counted (ended) then it will be correct Sub- prefix Symbol for
to 6 significant figures. multiple/ prefix
8. If the zero occurs at the right hand end after the multiple
decimal point, it is always significant e.g. 10-1 deci d
2.000(4sf), 3.0(2sf) 10-2 centi c
Exercise 10-3 milli m
Write down the number of significant figures in 10-6 micro µ
each of the following
10-9 nano n
a) 40000
b) 609 10-12 pico p
c) 0.000675 10-15 femto f
d) 5237.8 10-18 atto a
e) 0.0000600 101 deca da
f) 0.002304
102 hecto h
Standard Form
 This is a way of writing a number especially a 103 kilo k
very large or very small number in which only 106 mega M
one integer appears before the decimal point. 109 giga G
 A positive number is said to be in standard form 1012 tera T
when written as AX10n, where A is such that 1≤A
1015 peta P
<10 and the index n is an integer e.g.3567=
3.567x 103 1018 exa E
 If the number lies between zero and 1 then the
index n becomes a negative
e.g.0.0003567=3.567x10-4

Page | 12
The Oil Drop Experiment Possible Sources of Error in the Experiment
 This is an experiment used in the estimation of a) Error in measuring the diameter ( or volume) of oil
diameter/ size /thickness of a molecule. drop
 In this experiment, a tray is filled with water to b) Error in measuring diameter of oil patch
the brim, and lycopodium powder is lightly Exercise
sprinkled on the water surface. 1. In an experiment to estimate the size of an oil
 An oil drop is carefully placed at the centre of the molecule, the diameter of the patch was
tray and allowed to spread on the surface of measured to be 200mm for an oil drop of radius
water until it is one molecule thick. This forms a 0.25mm. Determine the diameter of the molecule
patch whose diameter is measured of the oil
2. In an experiment to estimate the diameter of oil
molecule 100 drops of oil are released from
burette and level of oil in burette changes from
0.5cm3 to 20.5 cm3. One of the drops is placed on
water and spreads over a circular patch of
diameter 20 cm.
a. Determine:
I. The volume of the oil drop
II. The area of the patch covered by the oil
III. The diameter of the oil molecule
b. State:
i. Assumptions made in this experiment
ii. Two possible sources of errors in this
 Thickness of oil molecule is estimated as d experiment
volume of oil drop = volume of oil patch
𝟒 𝟑 Revision Questions
𝝅𝒓
𝟑 1. What are the zero errors of the micrometer
𝒅 𝟐 screw gauges shown in the figures below?(the
= 𝝅( )
𝟐 micrometers are closed).if the micrometers
× 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔, 𝒕, 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒄𝒉 (𝒐𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆) were used to measure the diameter of a wire
Functions of lycopodium powder whose diameter is 1.00 mm, what would be the
1. It breaks surface tension reading on each?
2. it clearly shows the extent of spread of the oil
drop
Function of beams:
 Used to estimate diameter of the spread oil
patch
Assumptions made in oil drop experiment
a) The oil drop is perfectly spherical
b) The oil patch is perfectly cylindrical
c) The oil patch is one molecule thick.

Page | 13
2. Compare and contrast the scales of two
micrometer screw gauges with a pitch of
0.5mm and 1.0mm.
3. What are the two limitations of the
micrometer screw gauge?
4. List down the advantages and
disadvantages of the micrometer screw
gauge over the vernier calipers
5. Sketch a micrometer screw gauge scale
reading:
a) O.23 mm
b) 5.05 mm
6. (a)What are the zero errors of the vernier
calipers in figures (a) and (b) below?
(b) If the correct diameter of an object is 4.01 cm,

what would be the readings of both calipers for
this diameter?
( c) The calipers in figure (a) was used to measure

the diameter of a cylindrical object and recorded
4.55 cm while the one in figure (b) was used to
measure the diameter of a sphere and recorded
5.05cm. Calculate correct volumes of these objects This is a Property of Mwalimu Consultancy
in m3. (Take π = 3.142) Ltd. Contact Mr Isaboke
0746-222-000 for more Educational Materials.

Page | 14
Chapter Three 𝐓𝐔𝐑𝐍𝐈𝐍𝐆 𝐄𝐅𝐅𝐄𝐂𝐓 𝐎𝐅 𝐀 𝐅𝐎𝐑𝐂𝐄

Moment of a Force 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
 Basically, moment of a force refers to the turning = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
effect of the force. ∴ 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒊𝒗𝒐𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵 × 𝟎. 𝟒 𝒎
 It is defined as the product of the force and the = 𝟖 𝑵𝒎
perpendicular distance between the point of
support (pivot or fulcrum) and the line of action of The Principle of Moments (the Law of the Lever)
the force.  Consider a meter rule balanced (at equilibrium) on a
pivot at its centre by weights W1, W2, W3 and W4 as
shown below.
𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
= 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
× 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
 SI unit of moment of a force is the newton meter
(Nm)  The forces W1 and W2tend to make the rule turn in the
anticlockwise direction about the pivot. Therefore, the
Factors Affecting Moment of a Force moments due to these weights are referred to as an
1. Amount of force – moment of force is directly anticlockwise moments.
proportional to the amount of force applied.  Similarly, the forces W3 and W4 tend to make the rule
2. Perpendicular distance between line of action of turn in a clockwise direction and therefore, their
force and point of support – moment is directly moments about the pivot are clockwise moments.
proportional the distance 900. Sum of clockwise moment =W3d3 + W4d4
Sum of anticlockwise moment =W1d1 + W2d2
Examples of Activities in Which Force Produces a At equilibrium (balance), Sum of clockwise moment = Sum
Turning Effect of anticlockwise moment
1. Opening and closing a door W3d3 + W4d4 = W1d1 + W2d2
2. Closing a lid of a container e.g.( geometrical  This can be summarized by the principle of moments
instrument box) which states “for a system in equilibrium the sum of
3. A pair of scissors or garden shears in use clockwise moments about a point must be equal to the
4. Children playing on “ see saw” sum of anti clockwise moments about the same point”.
5. A wheelbarrow being used to lift heavy loads N/B: A body is said to be at equilibrium when it is balanced
6. A screwdriver being used to tighten or loosen a under the action of a number of forces.
screw.
7. Beam balance in use.
Examples
Find the moment of the force about the pivot in the
figures below

Page | 15
Examples Exercise
1. State the law of the lever ( as above) A half meter rule is suspended vertically from a pivot
2. A uniform meter rule pivoted at its centre is at the 0 cm mark. It is maintained in the vertical
balanced by a force of 4.8N at 20cm mark and position by four horizontal forces acting in the
some other two forces, F and 2.0N on the 66cm directions shown in the figure below
and 90cm marks respectively. Calculate the
force F.
The 10.0 N force acts through the 15 cm mark, 4.0 N

At equilibrium (balance), force through the 20 cm mark and 5.0 N force
Sum of clockwise moment = Sum of anticlockwise through the 40 cm mark. Calculate F which acts
moment through the 30 cm mark.
𝐹 × 0.16 + 2.0 × 0.40 = 4.8 × 0.30 Parallel forces
0.16𝐹 + 0.80 = 1.44  Consider a uniform rod below balanced by the
0.16𝐹 = 0.64 forces F1, F2, F3, F4, F5 and R which is the normal
0.64 reaction on pivot.
𝐹=
0.16
𝐹 = 4.0 𝑁
3. A boy of mass 40kg sits at a point 2.0m from
the pivot of a seen saw. Find the weight of a
girl who can balance the see-saw by sitting at
a distance of 3.2m from the pivot. (Take g
=10nkg)  The forces F1, F2, F3, F4, F5 and R are parallel.
solution
 For parallel forces:

a) The sum of forces acting on one side of the
system is equal to the sum of forces acting on
opposite direction i.e. the algebraic sum of
parallel forces is zero.
b) The sum of clockwise moments is equal to the
At equilibrium (balance), sum of anticlockwise moments i.e. the algebraic
Sum of clockwise moment = Sum of anticlockwise sum of the moments of parallel forces is zero.
moment
𝑁
𝑊𝑔 × 3.2𝑚 = (40𝑘𝑔 × 10 ) × 2.0𝑚
𝑘𝑔
Exercise
3.2𝑊𝑔 = 800 A uniform metal rod of length 80cm and mass 3.2kg is
800 supported horizontally by two vertical spring’s
𝑊𝑔 = balances C and D balance C is also from one end while
3.2
𝑤𝑔 = 250 𝑁 balance D is 30cm from the other end. Find the reading
on each balance.

Page | 16
Anti – parallel forces (Couples) III. Forces applied on the steering wheel of a car when
going round a bend
 Anti – parallel forces or a couple refers to equal, IV. Forces applied on bicycle handle
parallel but opposite forces.
 The total moment of anti-parallel forces is the
product of one of the forces and the
perpendicular distance between the forces.
Revision Exercise
Example 1. Explain why the handle of a door is placed as far as
possible from the hinges.
Two vertical equal and opposite forces act on a 2. Explain why it is easier to loosen a tight nut using
meter rule at 20 cm and 90 cm marks respectively. a spanner with a long handle than the one with a
If each of the forces has a magnitude of 4.0 N, short handle.
calculate their moment on the meter rule about 3. The figure below shows a uniform bar in
the 40 cm mark. equilibrium under the influence of two forces
solution
Total moment
= one of the force, F X perpendicular distance

between the forces, d
= 4.0𝑁 × (0.9 − 0.2)𝑚
= 4.0 𝑁 × 0.7
= 2.8 𝑁𝑚
Examples of couples
I. Forces applied on a wheel spanner when

tightening or loosening a nut
II. Forces applied when opening a water tap
Chapter Four 𝐄𝐐𝐔𝐈𝐋𝐈𝐁𝐑𝐈𝐔𝐌 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝐂𝐄𝐍𝐓𝐑𝐄 𝐎𝐅 𝐆𝐑𝐀𝐕𝐈𝐓𝐘

Page | 17
Centre of Gravity 3. For circular plate construct diameters. The point of
intersection, which is the centre of the circle, is the
 Centre of gravity (COG) of a body is the point of centre of gravity.
application of the resultant force due to earth’s
attraction. It is the point where the whole
weight of the body appears to act from. The
resultant force is the weight (𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈) of the
body.
Centre of Gravity of Regular Shapes

Examples
 The centre of gravity of a uniform body (body
with weight evenly distributed) lies at the 1. A uniform meter rule is balanced at 20cm mark
body’s geometrical centre. For example, a when a load of 1.2N is hung at the zero mark.
uniform meter rule balances at the 50 cm mark a) Draw a diagram of meter rule showing all the
when suspended. forces acting on it.
b) Calculate the weight and mass of the meter

rule
 The centre of gravity of regular shapes can also
be determined by construction e.g.
solution
1. For square and rectangular plates, diagonals are
constructed. The point of intersection is the At equilibrium (balance), Sum of clockwise
centre of gravity. moment = Sum of anticlockwise moment
𝑊 × 0.3 𝑚 = 1.2 𝑁 × 0.2 𝑚
0.3 𝑊 = 0.24
0.24
∴𝑊= = 0.8 𝑁
0.3
c) Determine the reaction on the pivot.

2. For triangular plate, perpendicular bisectors of solution
the sides are constructed. The point of
intersection is the centre of gravity. 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑝 𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑅 = 1.2 + 𝑊
𝑅 = 1.2 + 0.8
𝑅 = 2.0 𝑁

Page | 18
2. The diagram below shows a metal plate 3m 4. The figure below shows a diagram, of mass 150kg
long, 1m wide and negligible thickness. A and radius 0.5m being pulled by horizontal force F
horizontal force of 100N applied at point D just against a step 0.1 m high. What initial force, F, is
makes the plate tilt. Calculate the weight of the just sufficient to turn the drawn so that it rises
plate. over the step. If the diagram below shows
spherical balls placed at different positions on a
surface.
Equilibrium States
Solution  State of equilibrium refers to state of balance of a
At equilibrium (balance), Sum of clockwise body. There are three states of equilibrium:
moment = Sum of anticlockwise moment
100 𝑁 × 3 𝑚 = 𝑊 × 0.5 𝑚
300 = 0.5 𝑊 1. Stable equilibrium
300  A body is said to be in a stable equilibrium if it
∴𝑊= = 600 𝑁 returns to the original position after being displaced
0.5
slightly. The funnel does not topple over since the
Exercise line of action of weight still falls inside the base of
the funnel.
1. A uniform half- meter rule is pivoted at the
10cm mark. Find the position of a 2.0 N
weight that will balance the rule horizontally
if the weight of the rule is 0.4 N.
2. Unstable equilibrium.
2. The figure below shows a uniform plank of  A body is in unstable equilibrium if on being
length 6.0m acted upon by the forces shown. displaced slightly, it does not return to its original
If the plank has a weight of 300 N, draw the positions but occupies a new position. The funnel
diagram showing all the forces acting on the below topples over because the line of action of
plank. Calculate the tension T in the string weight falls outside the base of the funnel.
and the reaction at the pivot.
3. Neutral equilibrium
 A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium if on being
displaced it occupies a new position which is similar
to the original position.
3. Define the centre of gravity of a body

Page | 19
Conditions for Equilibrium Exercise

1. State the conditions of equilibrium for a body
1. The sum of forces on the body in one direction is acted upon by a number of parallel forces.
equal to the sum of forces acting on the body in 2. Explain why:
the opposite direction a) It is not safe for a double Decker bus to carry
2. The sum of the clockwise moments about any standing passengers on the upper deck.
point is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise b) Bus body- builders build luggage
moments about the same point. compartments under the seats rather than
on roof racks.
c) Laboratory stands are made with a wide
Factors Affecting the Stability of a Body
heavy base.
1. The position of COG of the body - the lower the 3. When is an object said to be in equilibrium?
position of the centre of gravity the more stable 4. What type of equilibrium has:
a body is. I. A marble at the bottom of a watch
2. Base area of the body- a body is more stable glass?
when the base is wide. A narrow base makes the II. A tight rope walker?
body to be less stable. III. A cylinder sitting on its base?
IV. A sphere on a level table top?
V. A bird perched on a thin horizontal
Examples of Application of Stability branch of a tree?
5. State:
1. Containers for holding liquids such as conical I. Two ways in which the stability of a body can
flask in the laboratory have broad base to be increased.
improve their stability. II. Two practical application of stability.
2. Racing cars (e.g. formula one car) have wider 6. Explain how a cyclist maintains the stability of
wheels and lower positions of center of gravity a moving bicycle.
than ordinary cars. 7. Describe the state of equilibrium of the ball in
3. Most buses carry their cargo in space below the each position
passenger level instead of the roof rack in order
to keep the centre of gravity positions low.
4. A hydrometer is able to stay upright in a liquid
because it is weighted at its base and therefore
its centre of gravity is at the base.
5. A Bunsen burner has a wide heavy base to
increase stability
6. A person carrying a bucket of water in one hand
has to lean his body to the other side to adjust
the position his centre of gravity.
7. Chairs, stools, tripod 73 stands, tables etc are
provided with three or more legs. The legs are
often made slightly inclined outwards to improve
stability.
Chapter Five SOUND

Page | 20
Specific objectives Content
By the end of this topic the leaner should be able
1. Sound: nature and sources (experimental
to:
treatment required)
a) Perform and describe simple experiments to
2. Propagation of a sound
show that sound is produced by vibrating
3. Compressions and rarefaction
bodies
4. Speed of a sound by echo sound
b) Perform and describe an experiment to
5. Factors affecting the speed of a sound
show that sound requires a material
6. Problems on velocity of a sound
medium for a propagation.
c) Explain the nature of sound waves.
d) Determine the speed of sound in air by the
echo method.
e) State the factors affecting the speed of sound.
f) Solve numerical problems involving velocity
of sound.
Definition of Sound
 Sound is a form of energy that originates from
vibrating objects. It is a longitudinal mechanical
wave.
Some Sources of Sound
1. Vibrating wooden strip
2. Vibrating wire e.g. guitar wire being pluck.
3. Vibrating drum
4. Tuning fork- the prongs of tuning fork are made
to vibrate by striking them against a hard Exercise
surface. 1. The figure below shows a vibrating fork. The time
5. Vibrating air columns e.g. blowing air a cross the interval for the prong to go from A to B is 0.005 s.
mouth of a test- tube. Find:
6. Air siren- it is a form of disk with a ring of equally a) The frequency of the fork
spaced holes which are equidistant from the b) The wavelength of the vibrations, if the
centre. It is rotated at a constant rate as air is velocity of sound in air is 340 m/s.
blown through the holes.
7. Cog-wheel and card
8. Voice box (larynx)
Propagation of Sound Energy

 Sound wave is propagated in form of
compressions (areas of high pressure) and
rarefactions (areas of low pressure) through
propagating medium. Sound requires a material
medium for propagation.

Page | 21
2. The diagram below shows sound waves passing 2. Close the switch and observe what happens.
through air. Study it and answer the questions Observation: It is observed that the bell begins to ring
that follow. and the sound is heard outside.
3. Gradually pump out some air and note the effect this
has on sound reaching you.
Observation: The intensity of sound decreases
gradually.
4. Pump as much air out of the jar as possible and listen
a. Label the following: to the sound produced.
i. Compression Observation: Sound is found to have almost
ii. Rarefaction disappeared though the hammer can be seen vibrating
iii. wavelength Conclusion
b. If the wave front takes 0.1 s to travel from The above observations show that the sound cannot
A to B, find: travel through a vacuum. It needs a material medium
i. The frequency for propagation.
ii. The wavelength, if velocity of sound
in air is 330 m/s.
Factors Affecting Velocity of Sound In Air
a) Temperature of the air - sound travels faster in
Experiment hot air than in cold air.
Aim: b) Humidity of the air - the velocity of sound on air
To show that sound requires a material medium to increases with humidity
travel. (I.e. sound does not travel in vacuum) c) Direction of wind -wind blowing in the same
Apparatus direction as sound increases the velocity of the
Electric bell latter.
Switch Sound Transmission in Solids, Liquids and
Bell glass- jar Gases
Vacuum pump  Sound travels fastest in solids, followed by liquids
Wires and then gases.
Cells  Speed of sound in materials varies from solid to
Glass plate solid, liquid to liquid and gas to gas depending on
the density of the material. Denser material
Procedure transmits sound faster.
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram
below. Reflection Property of Sound Waves
 Reflected sound is called echo. Sound is reflected
when it falls on hard surfaces.
 Reflections of sound waves also obey the laws of
reflection:
i. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection at point of incidence
ii. The incident sound, the reflected sound and the
normal lie on the same plane.

Page | 22
Reverberation 𝑚
∴ 2𝑥 = 330 × 0.7𝑠
 Reverberation refers to the effect in which 𝑠
330 × 0.7
original sound seems prolonged due to overlap 𝑥 = = 115.5 𝑚
2
with the echo sound. It occurs in some halls, 𝑚
sound waves are reflected from walls, floor and 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 2(𝑑 − 𝑥) = 330 × (0.7 + 0.2)𝑠
𝑠
ceiling and since the echo time is short; the echo 297
𝑑= +𝑥
overlaps with the original sound. 2
 To reduce reverberation in places like 𝑑 = 148.5 + 115.5
broadcasting studios and concert halls, walls are = 264 𝑚 (𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑓)
made using absorbent materials like cotton 2. A time keeper in 100m race stands at the finishing
wool and foam rubber. point. He starts his watch the moment he hears the
sound of a gun. What error does he make in the
Applications of Reflection of Sound timing of the race? (Speed of sound in air is 330ms -
1)
a) Determination of Speed of Sound
 In this case, sound is produced in front of an
obstacle whose distance away is known. The Solution
time for the sound to reach the obstacle and The error is equal to the time taken for the sound from
back to the source (i.e. time for echo to be the gun to reach the time keeper, i.e. time taken for
heard) is measured using a stop watch. sound to travel 100m at the speed of 330ms-1 the sound
takes:
100𝑚
T=330𝑚𝑠−1 = 0.303 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
=============================================
b) Determination of Distances by Producing Sound of
a Known Speed (pulse-echo technique)
 Pulse-echo technique involves measuring distances
𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐝, 𝟐𝐝 by producing sound of known speed and measuring
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒐𝒇𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 = time taken to receive an echo.
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧 , 𝐭
𝟐𝐝  Ultrasound (sound of frequency of over 20 KHz) is
= used in pulse-echo technique because it penetrates
𝐭
Example deepest and can be reflected easily by tiny grains.
1. A man standing in a valley between two cliffs Exercise
strikes a gong. He hears an echo from one cliff A fishing boat uses ultrasound of frequency 6.0x104
0.7s later and from the other 0.2 s after the Hz to detect fish directly below. Two echoes of the
first. Determine the width of the valley. (Speed ultrasound are received, one after 0.09s coming from
of sound in air, v=330ms-1) the shoal of fish and other after 0.12s coming from the
Solution sea bed. If the sea bed is 84m below the ultrasound
transceiver, calculate:
i. The speed of ultrasound waves in water
ii. The wavelength of the ultrasound waves in
water
iii. The depth of the shoal of fish below the boat
𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑑
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑜𝑓𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Page | 23
Applications of Pulse- Echo Technique 5. In an experiment to determine speed of sound in
a) In the ship to determine the depth of the sea. air, a drum at a point 150m from a vertical wall
b) In under water exploration of gas and oil. was struck at varying frequency while listening to
c) In fishing boats with pulse echo equipment to the echo. The echo coincides with the sound from
locate shoals of fish. the drum at a time when to successive strikes were
d) In special types of spectacles used by the blind made within a time of 18.5s.
people to tell how far objects are ahead of i. Determine the time taken for an echo to be
them. heard
e) By bats to detect the presence of obstacles in ii. Determine the speed of sound in air at the
their flight path. place
iii. What difference would you expect if the
experiment was repeated on a colder day?
Revision Exercise
6. A boy strikes a railway line with a hammer. A
1. State how the pitch of sound wave is affected
railway walker 600m a way hears two sounds, one
by frequency
from the railway line and the other from air. If the
2. The following diagram shows a set up that was
time interval between the two sounds is 1.65 s and
used to demonstrate that sound requires a
the speed of sound in air is 340ms -1, determine the
material medium for transmission.
speed of sound in the railway line.
i. State what happens to the sound from

the bell as air continues to be drawn
from the jar
ii. What happens to the sound if some air
is allowed back into the jar
iii. Give possible reasons why it is not
possible to reduce sound completely in
this experiment This is a Property of Mwalimu Consultancy
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cliff blows a whistle and hears an echo 1.10s
later. If the speed of a sound in air is 350ms -1, 0746-222-000 for more Educational Materials.
determine how for the girl is from the foot of
the cliff.
4. A loudspeaker placed between two walls but
nearer to wall A than wall B is sending out
constant sound waves. Determine how far the
loudspeaker is from wall B if it is 100m from
wall A and the time between the two echoes
received is 0.2 seconds. (Speed of sound in air=
340ms-1)

Page | 24
Chapter Six HOOKE’S LAW
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PHYSICS NOTES

FORM 2 SIMPLIFIED TUTORIAL

QUICK REVISION NOTES

THIS IS A FREE SAMPLE OF THE

CONTACT US FOR FULL VERSION OF THE NOTES

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for the use of brief quotations in a book review.

Mwalimu Consultancy Ltd.

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Magnetic field patterns

3. Magnetic and non- magnetic materials Exercise

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Characteristics/ properties of magnetic field

b) They repel each other sideways and form closed

 Consider two bar magnets with opposite poles

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 The polarities of the magnet depend on the direction of the

The Domain Theory of Magnetism Notes:

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Explain the difference between X and Y

a) Single stroke method

 The end of the magnetic material bar where the magnet

Disadvantages of single stroke method

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a. Using a permanent magnet

Which of the above method produce stranger magnet?

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Chapter Two 𝐌𝐄𝐀𝐒𝐔𝐑𝐄𝐌𝐄𝐍𝐓 𝐈𝐈

Using Vernier Calipers

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Correction of the Negative Error

Correction of the Positive Error

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Using a micrometer screw gauge

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(b) If the correct diameter of an object is 4.01 cm,

( c) The calipers in figure (a) was used to measure

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Chapter Three 𝐓𝐔𝐑𝐍𝐈𝐍𝐆 𝐄𝐅𝐅𝐄𝐂𝐓 𝐎𝐅 𝐀 𝐅𝐎𝐑𝐂𝐄

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The 10.0 N force acts through the 15 cm mark, 4.0 N

 For parallel forces:

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= one of the force, F X perpendicular distance

= 4.0𝑁 × (0.9 − 0.2)𝑚

I. Forces applied on a wheel spanner when

Chapter Four 𝐄𝐐𝐔𝐈𝐋𝐈𝐁𝐑𝐈𝐔𝐌 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝐂𝐄𝐍𝐓𝐑𝐄 𝐎𝐅 𝐆𝐑𝐀𝐕𝐈𝐓𝐘

Centre of Gravity of Regular Shapes

b) Calculate the weight and mass of the meter

c) Determine the reaction on the pivot.

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3. Define the centre of gravity of a body

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Conditions for Equilibrium Exercise

Chapter Five SOUND