Computer Networks (End Sem)

List different types of media used in computer networking and explain any 2 in details?
Ans:
A transmission media is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel
through which data is sent from one place to another.
Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:
The different types of Transmission media of two main types-
1) Guided Media:
The guided media is further classified into three types-
1. Twisted-pair cable
The twisted-pair cable is divided into two types which are-
 Unshielded Twisted pair
 Shielded Twisted pair
2. Coaxial cable
3. Fiber optics/cable
2) Unguided Media
Twisted Pair Cable –
o It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.

o Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath.
o They are the most widely used Transmission Media.
o Twisted Pair is of two types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

o UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another.
o This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend
on a physical shield for this purpose.
o It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages:
o Least expensive
o Easy to install
o High-speed capacity
Disadvantages:
o Susceptible to external interference

o Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
Applications:
Used in telephone connections and LAN networks
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

o This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil shield) to block
external interference.
o It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages:
o Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

o Eliminates crosstalk
o Comparatively faster
Disadvantages:
o Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture

o More expensive
o Bulky
Applications:
o The shielded twisted pair type of cable is most frequently used in extremely cold climates,
where the additional layer of outer covering makes it perfect for withstanding such
temperatures or for shielding the interior components.
Coaxial Cable –
o It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and 2
parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover.
o The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode (dedicated cable
bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges).
o Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages:
o High Bandwidth
o Better noise Immunity
o Easy to install and expand
o Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
Applications:
Radio frequency signals are sent over coaxial wire.
It can be used for cable television signal distribution, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer network
connections (like Ethernet), and feed-lines that connect radio transmitters and receivers to their
antennas.
Differentiate between transmission mode simplex, half-duplex, full duplex?
Ans:
What is ISDN (integrated service digital Networks)?
Ans:
ISDN (integrated service digital Networks):
 ISDN stands for Integrated Services Digital Network.

 It’s a set of communication standards that uses digital transmission to make
phone calls, video calls, transmit data and other network services over the
circuits of the traditional PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) ISDN splits
the traditional copper telephone line into multiple digital channels.
 These channels operate concurrently on a single copper line, allowing multiple
phones to make and receive calls simultaneously using one physical line.
 ISDN provides two primary types of channels:
B channels (Bearer channels) for data and D channels (Delta channels) for
signaling and control.
B channels carry the actual data, such as voice or digital information, while D
channels manage the setup and teardown of calls.
 Advantages of ISDN:
o ISDN channels have a reliable connection.
o ISDN is used to facilitate the user with multiple digital channels.
o It has faster data transfer rate.
o Efficient use of bandwidth
 Disadvantages of ISDN:
o ISDN lines costlier than the other telephone system.
o It requires specialized digital devices.
o It is less flexible.
o Limited coverage
X.25 Protocol:
 X.25 is generally a protocol that was developed by Telecommunication

Standardization Sector (ITU-T) of International Telecommunication Union.
 It usually allows various logical channels to make use of same physical line.
 It basically defines a series of documents particularly issued by ITU.
 These documents are also known as X.25 Recommendations.
 X.25 also supports various conversations by multiplexing packets and also with the
help of virtual communication channels.
 X.25 basically encompasses or suits to the lower three layers of the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) reference model for networking.
 Physical Layer:
o This layer is basically concerned with electrical or signaling.
o This layer provides various communication lines that transmit or transfer
some electrical signals.
 Packet Layer:
o Packet layer is also known as Network Layer protocol of X.25.
o This layer generally governs the end-to-end communications among various
DTE devices.
o It also defines how to address and deliver X.25 packets among end nodes
and switches on a network with the help of PVCs (Permanent Virtual
Circuits) or SVCs (Switched Virtual Circuits).
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode):
o We use an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) network because it is driven by the

integration of performance and service, which is the requirement for both data network and
telephony.
o Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is an International Telecommunication Union-
Telecommunications Standards Section (ITU-T) that is very efficient for the relay of calling.
o Also, it is used to transfer all the services like voice, data, or video.
o These services can be conveyed in a small fixed-sized packet called the cell.
o These cells are connected in a network that transmits the data asynchronously.
o ATM Cell Format:
 In Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), the data are transmitted through a fixed-size
unit called cells.
 As we know, each cell has 53 bytes long.
 There are two types of Asynchronous transfer modes (ATM). These are as follows:
1. UNI header: This is used in the private connection in the Asynchronous transfer
mode (ATM) network between ATM switches and ATM endpoints.
2. NNI header: It communicates between the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
switches.
Ethernet:
 Ethernet is a type of communication protocol that is created at Xerox PARC in 1973 by

Robert Metcalfe and others, which connects computers on a network over a wired
connection.
 It is a widely used LAN protocol, which is also known as Alto Aloha Network.
 It connects computers within the local area network and wide area network.
 Numerous devices like printers and laptops can be connected by LAN and WAN within
buildings, homes, and even small neighborhoods.
 Ethernet ports are slightly wider, and they look similar to telephone jacks.
Advantages of Ethernet
o It is not much costly to form an Ethernet network, As compared to other systems of

connecting computers, it is relatively inexpensive.
o Ethernet network provides high security for data as it uses firewalls in terms of data
security.
Disadvantages of Ethernet
o It needs deterministic service; therefore, it is not considered the best for real-time
applications.
o The wired Ethernet network restricts you in terms of distances, and it is best for using in
short distances.
Internet Protocol Security:
 It consists of a set of protocols designed by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

 It provides security at network level and helps to create authenticated and confidential
packets for IP layer.
 the various type of Internet Security Protocols :
1) SSL Protocol : (Short note)
o SSL Protocol stands for Secure Sockets Layer protocol, which is an encryption-based
Internet security protocol that protects confidentiality and integrity of data.
o SSL is used to ensure the privacy and authenticity of data over the internet.
o SSL is located between the application and transport layers.
o At first, SSL contained security flaws and was quickly replaced by the first version of
TLS that’s why SSL is the predecessor of the modern TLS encryption.
o TLS/SSL website has “HTTPS” in its URL rather than “HTTP”.
o SSL is divided into three sub-protocols: the Handshake Protocol, the Record
Protocol, and the Alert Protocol.
What is IPV6?
IPV6:
 IPv6 is the next generation Internet Protocol (IP) address standard intended to supplement
and eventually replace IPv4, the protocol many Internet services still use today.
 Every computer, mobile phone, home automation component, IoT sensor and any other
device connected to the Internet needs a numerical IP address to communicate between
other devices.
 The original IP address scheme, called IPv4, is running out of addresses due to its widespread
usage from the proliferation of so many connected devices
Advantages of using IPv6
 IPv6 provides a solution to address the global issue of depleting address spaces due to
increased demand for IP addresses due to technological advancements.
 It offers reliability and faster speeds.
 IPv6 supports multicast addresses, meaning bandwidth intensive packet flows like media
streams can reach many destinations simultaneously.
Types of IPv6:
Anycast address:
Used to identify a group of interfaces on different nodes.
Multicast address:
An address used to define multicast Multicasts are used to send a single packet to multiple
destinations at one time.
Unique local addresses:
This is the other type of internal address that is not routed on the internet.
Unique local addresses are equivalent to the IPv4 addresses.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
 A client that wants to access the document in an internet needs an address and to facilitate
the access of documents, the HTTP uses the concept of Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
 The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a standard way of specifying any kind of information
on the internet.
 The URL defines four parts: method, host computer, port, and path.
Method:
o The method is the protocol used to retrieve the document from a server.
o For example, HTTP.
Host:
o The host is the computer where the information is stored, and the computer is given an alias
name.
o Web pages are mainly stored in the computers and the computers are given an alias name
that begins with the characters "www".
o This field is not mandatory.
Port:
o The URL can also contain the port number of the server, but it's an optional field.
o If the port number is included, then it must come between the host and path and it should
be separated from the host by a colon.
Path:
o Path is the pathname of the file where the information is stored.

o The path itself contain slashes that separate the directories from the subdirectories and files

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List different types of media used in computer networking and explain any 2 in details?

Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

The different types of Transmission media of two main types-

Twisted Pair Cable –

o It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

o Susceptible to external interference

Used in telephone connections and LAN networks

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

o Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

o Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture

Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

Radio frequency signals are sent over coaxial wire.

Differentiate between transmission mode simplex, half-duplex, full duplex?

What is ISDN (integrated service digital Networks)?

ISDN (integrated service digital Networks):

 ISDN stands for Integrated Services Digital Network.

 X.25 is generally a protocol that was developed by Telecommunication

o We use an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) network because it is driven by the

 Ethernet is a type of communication protocol that is created at Xerox PARC in 1973 by

o It is not much costly to form an Ethernet network, As compared to other systems of

Internet Protocol Security:

 It consists of a set of protocols designed by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

Used to identify a group of interfaces on different nodes.

Unique local addresses:

Unique local addresses are equivalent to the IPv4 addresses.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

o Path is the pathname of the file where the information is stored.

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