Grade 9 Integrated Science Notes

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INTEGRATED SCIENCE
GRADE 9
NOVEMBER
2024
GRADE 9
FIRST EDITION INTEGRATED SCIENCE
STRAND 1: MIXTURES, ELEMENTS S AND COMPOUNDS
Simple Structure of the Atom

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The are there are about 119 known elements
The following illustration shows the names and symbols of first 20 elements of the
periodic table.
Atoms are very small particles of an element, but they contain even smaller particles
called sub-atomic particles as follows;
• Protons - found in the nucleus, they are positively charged (+ve)
• Electrons - found in the nucleus, they are negatively charged (ve)
• Neutrons - they can be imagined as circulating the nucleus in energy levels,
they have no charge
• In a neutral atom, Number of protons = Number of electrons
GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

Particles present in an atom are summarized below.
Sub-atomic Particle Mass Charge Where found in atom
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Proton 1 + (Positive) inside nucleus
Neutron 1 0 (Neutral) inside nucleus
Electron 1/1840 - (Negative) outside nucleus
Structure of the Atom
The various energy levels in an atom are represented by a series of circles sharing the
same centre (nucleus), separated from each other by roughly equal distances
The nucleus of the atom is at the centre of the circles. The electrons in the energy
levels are represented by dots (.) or crosses (x). The energy levels are labelled 1st, 2nd,
3rd, 4th and so on starting from the one nearest to the nucleus as shown below;

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The electrons that occupy the 1st energy level have lower energy than those in the
2nd energy level. Subsequently those in the 2nd energy level have lower energy than
those in the 3rd energy level and so on. The 1st energy level usually has a maximum of
two electrons while the 2nd energy level has a maximum of eight (8) electrons.
We can summarise the electrons, and their arrangement in each energy level as
shown in the table below.
Element Symbol Electron Configuration
Hydrogen H 1
Helium He 2
Lithium Li 2.1

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Beryllium Be 2.2
Boron B 2.3
Carbon C 2.4
Nitrogen N 2.5
Oxygen O 2.6
Fluorine F 2.7
Neon Ne 2.8
Sodium Na 2.8.1
Magnesium Mg 2.8.2
Aluminium Al 2.8.3

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Silicon Si 2.8.4
Phosphorous P 2.8.5
Sulphur S 2.8.6
Chlorine Cl 2.8.7
Argon Ar 2.8.8
Potassium K 2.8.8.1
Calcium Ca 2.8.8.2

Atomic Characteristics
Atomic Number and Mass Number
The atomic number tells us how many protons are there in a nucleus. It is denoted by Page | 7
letter Z.
It also tells us the number of electrons in an atom
Atomic Number = Number of Protons = Number of Electrons
The mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons, therefore it is always bigger
than the atomic number. It is denoted by letter A.
Roughly the mass number is double the atomic number.
To get the number of neutrons, we just subtract the atomic number from the mass
number, that is A Z.
Number of Protons:
Atom Symbol Neutrons Mass Number, A
Atomic number, Z
Hydrogen H 1 0 1
Carbon C 6 6 12
Nitrogen N 7 7 14
Sodium Na 11 12 23
Chlorine Cl 17 18 35

Example
Calculate the number of neutrons in a chlorine atom given that the atomic number, Z =
17 and mass number, A = 35

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The number of neutrons
=AZ
= 35 17
= 18
Usually, the atomic number, Z, and mass number A, of an atom of an element X can
be written alongside the symbol of that element, one as a superscript and the other a
subscript as shown below
NOTE: The top number is referred to as the superscript and bottom number as the
subscript

Metal and alloys
Alloys
Metal alloys are created by combining two or more elements to form a new material.
These alloys can be composed entirely of metals or a mix of metals and non-metals.
While the combination results in a new alloy, it retains the properties of the original
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metals, such as electrical conductivity, opacity, ductility, and luster.
However, they may exhibit traits distinct from pure metals, such as increased hardness or
strength. In some cases, an alloy can retain the essential properties of a metal while
reducing overall material costs. Additionally, the chemical combination in alloys can impart
synergistic qualities to the component metals, such as enhanced corrosion resistance or
improved mechanical strength.
For practical applications, alloy components are usually measured by mass percentage,
while atomic fraction is used in fundamental scientific research. Alloys are categorized
based on their atomic arrangement: substitutional alloys, where some atoms of the base
metal are replaced by another element; interstitial alloys, where smaller atoms fit into the
gaps between metal atoms; and heterogeneous alloys, which consist of two or more
distinct phases. Additionally, alloys can be classified as intermetallic compounds or
homogeneous alloys, which have a single phase. An alloy may either be a blend of
different metallic phases or a solid solution, where all metal grains (crystals) share the
same composition.

Characteristics of Alloys
✓ An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements that creates a material with metal-like
properties, combining at least one metal with other elements. Unlike impure metals,
such as wrought iron, which are less controlled but still useful, alloys are carefully
engineered to achieve specific characteristics. The main metal in the alloy is often
called the base metal or primary metal, and the alloy may be named after it. Page |
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✓ The additional elements in an alloy, which may or may not be metals, are soluble in
the molten base metal and integrate into the mixture.
✓ The mechanical characteristics of alloys are frequently very different from those of
their base metal. Alloying a metal with another soft metal, such as copper, can
change a metal that is typically highly soft (malleable), such as aluminum.
✓ Despite the fact that both metals are relatively ductile and soft, the final alloy of
aluminum will be stronger.
✓ By adding a small amount of non-metallic carbon to iron, its excellent ductility is
exchanged for the increased strength of an alloy known as steel. Steel is a highly
practical and widely-used alloy due to its remarkable strength, substantial toughness,
and the ability to undergo significant modification through heat treatment.
✓ Additionally, steel can be enhanced for specific purposes: chromium can be added to
improve corrosion resistance (resulting in stainless steel), or silicon can be
incorporated to enhance electrical conductivity (producing silicon steel).
Metals
➢ Pure metals consist of a single type of atom and exhibit a uniform structure, making
them single-phase metals. In contrast, alloyed metals are combinations of pure
metals mixed in specific percentages to create a composite with distinct properties.
➢ Pure metals have defined mass, melting point, and physical characteristics.
However, pure metals, with some exceptions, generally lack the strength,
toughness, and durability of alloyed metals, which is why they are often used as
components in alloys.
➢ All metal products incorporate a form of pure metal that has been alloyed. While the
periodic table lists numerous pure metals, only a few are widely used in commercial
products and are present in various metal items.
➢ Metals such as iron, aluminum, copper, zinc, titanium, chromium, and nickel are
commonly used to manufacture both commercial and industrial products.
➢ Alloys derived from pure metals play a crucial role in modern society. Metallurgists
and engineers continually explore innovative methods to blend pure metals,
creating alloys that are both strong and durable. During the Bronze Age, early
metallurgists developed techniques to mix pure metals, resulting in stronger and
more resilient products. To qualify as "pure," a metal must consist of 99% or more
of that metal without any alloying.

Copper
Copper was among the first metals discovered by humans. Known for its
remarkable malleability, it also boasts excellent thermal and electrical conductivity.
Copper's resistance to corrosion and its durability make it a valuable material.

Unlike many pure metals, copper is frequently utilized in its pure form, especially in Page |
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electronic products, due to its superior conductivity.
Additionally, its resilience in high-moisture environments contributes to its long-

lasting nature.
Aluminum
Similar to copper, aluminum is utilized in its pure form because of its excellent
thermal and electrical conductivity, ease of workability, and resistance to corrosion.
Pure aluminum, which is soft and has a silvery-white appearance, belongs to the
boron group of metals and has an atomic number of 13.
In addition to its various alloys, pure aluminum is commonly used in power lines,
beer kegs, window frames, automobiles, and kitchen utensils.
When exposed to oxygen, aluminum develops a protective oxide layer that

safeguards its surface from environmental damage.
Iron
Iron is a hard, brittle metal that corrodes when exposed to moisture and high
temperatures.
Most of the iron mined is used to produce steel by alloying it with carbon. Its
widespread use is due to its affordability and strength.
Iron is a gray, silvery metal with magnetic properties and reacts readily with acids.
It rusts easily in the presence of air and water, which is why it is typically alloyed to
maintain its strength.
Pure iron is 99.8% iron, with small amounts of carbon, manganese, and other
elements.

Nickel
Nickel, similar to aluminum, develops a passivation layer when exposed to oxygen,
which safeguards it against corrosion.
While both nickel and aluminum are silver-white metals, nickel has a distinct golden
hue. Page |
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Nickel is a hard, ductile metal with chemical reactivity and is magnetic at room
temperature.
Its corrosion resistance makes it a popular choice for alloys and coatings. Nickel is
commonly used in products such as wiring, batteries, and electrodes.
Additionally, like copper and aluminum, nickel exhibits excellent thermal

conductivity, which is why it is also utilized in heat exchangers.
Chromium
Chromium is a pure metal known for its ability to form a protective oxide layer. It is a
lustrous, brittle, and hard metal primarily used in producing stainless steel and for
plating, thanks to its bright, polished finish.
Chromium can exist in various oxidation states ranging from -2 to +6, with the +0,
+3, and +6 states being the most stable.
Its widespread use stems from its shiny appearance, which enhances the aesthetic
appeal of products like cars and household appliances.
Zinc
Pure zinc is utilized as a protective coating because of its excellent corrosion
resistance. This bluish-white metal is commonly used in alloys.
In the galvanization process, a layer of zinc is applied to iron and steel, significantly
enhancing their resistance to corrosion.
Zinc is also alloyed with aluminum and copper to boost their strength, durability,
and other properties.
As the zinc content increases, copper and aluminum alloys become stronger, more
durable, and highly resilient, though they also become more challenging to work
with.
Titanium
Titanium boasts a high strength-to-weight ratio, is highly resistant to rust, and can
withstand a wide range of chemicals.
The pure titanium grades are 1, 2, 3, and 4. Grade 1 is the softest and most
formable, while Grade 2 offers increased strength. Grade 3 provides even more
strength, is weldable, and highly resistant to corrosion.

Grade 4 is the strongest of the pure titanium grades, though it is the least
malleable. It is durable, strong, and weldable, and can be cold worked. Among pure
metals, titanium is particularly versatile, as it can be used in its pure form or alloyed
with other metals to create exceptionally durable materials.
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Different types of metal alloys

The different types of metal alloys are:
Steel
❖ Steel is an alloy primarily composed of iron with a small amount of carbon, which
enhances its strength and resistance to fractures.
❖ The temperature of steel affects its crystalline structure, which can be either body-
centered cubic or face-centered cubic.
❖ The way iron's allotropes interact with other elements in the steel imparts its
distinctive and unique properties.
Properties of Steel
• Hardness: Hardness is the ability of a metal to withstand friction and abrasion,
which is one of the most important properties of steel.
• Toughness: Toughness is the ability of a metal to absorb impact without cracking,
fracturing, or rupturing and is measured in foot lbs per square inch. Material that can
deform with breaking is extremely tough.
• Yield: Yield is a measurement of the amount of force necessary to deform a metal
such as bending or warping.
• Tensile Strength: Tensile strength is a calculation of the amount of force
necessary to break a metal.
• Ductility: Ductility refers to how much a metal can be stretched, bent, compressed
or endure plastic deformation.

Aluminum Alloys
Alloys made of aluminum are very robust, reliable, and adaptable. They are one of the
most popular metal materials, along with steel, and are highly sought-after in engineering,
construction, and automotive applications. Iron, copper, magnesium, silicon, and zinc are
elements commonly used in aluminum alloys. When aluminum is molten (liquid), the alloy
components are combined, and when it cools, a homogeneous solid solution is created. Page |
These other elements could account for up to 15% of the alloy's bulk. 14
Alloys containing aluminum are often valued for their lightweight nature and corrosion
resistance. While pure aluminum has notable properties, it lacks the strength needed for
many high-durability applications. To address this, aluminum is alloyed with other
elements to enhance its robustness and suitability for industrial uses. Aluminum alloys are
particularly advantageous when engineers need to reduce the weight of a product, such
as an airplane, without compromising its strength.
With the right combination of components, aluminum can become significantly stronger
and, in some cases, even surpass steel. Many aluminum alloys offer the benefits of pure
aluminum while being more cost-effective, thanks to their lower melting points.
Nickel Alloys
Nickel readily alloys with various metals like chromium, iron, molybdenum, and copper,
allowing for the creation of diverse alloys with remarkable properties. These alloys often
display exceptional high-temperature strength, excellent corrosion resistance, and
resistance to high-temperature scaling. Additionally, they may feature unique properties
such as shape memory, where the metal returns to its original shape upon heating, and a
low coefficient of expansion, which measures how much the material expands when
heated.
The chemical industry relies on pure nickel for its excellent corrosion resistance,
particularly against alkalis. Additionally, its ability to shield against electromagnetic
interference makes it valuable for use in transducers.
Nickel-iron alloys are chosen for glass-to-metal seals and soft magnetic materials due to
their thermal expansion properties. Invar (UNS K93600), with 36% nickel and the
remainder iron, is particularly notable for its minimal thermal expansion at room
temperature. This characteristic makes Invar ideal for applications requiring high
dimensional stability, such as precision measuring instruments and thermostat rods.
Due to its exceptionally low thermal expansion rates, this material is also suitable for
cryogenic temperatures. Alloys containing 7283 percent nickel exhibit the best soft
magnetic properties and are commonly used in transformers, inductors, magnetic
amplifiers, magnetic shields, and memory storage devices. Nickel-copper alloys, such as
the widely used Alloy 400, are highly resistant to corrosion from seawater, non-oxidizing
salts, and alkaline solutions.
Without the presence of oxidizing ions such as cupric (copper-based) and ferric (iron-
based), or dissolved oxygen, nickel-molybdenum alloys exhibit significant resistance to
reducing acids. On the other hand, nickel-chromium alloys are noted for their exceptional Page |
electrical resistance, robust high-temperature strength, and impressive corrosion 15
resistance at both standard and elevated temperatures, including resistance to scaling.
Bronze Alloys
Historically significant, bronze remains widely used due to its unique properties.
Compared to pure copper, bronze is more durable because it is alloyed with tin or other
metals. It also melts more easily, facilitating casting. Moreover, bronze is more corrosion-
resistant and tougher than pure iron. Although iron eventually replaced bronze in tools
and weapons due to its greater availability, rather than superior strength, bronze
continues to be valued for its durability and historical significance.
Aluminum Bronze
Aluminum bronze contains between 6% and 12% aluminum, iron, and nickel. This robust
alloy is known for its excellent wear and corrosion resistance, making it an ideal choice for
applications such as pumps, valves, and other hardware subjected to corrosive fluids.
Cupronickel
Cupronickel is a bronze alloy composed of copper and 2% to 30% nickel. It is renowned
for its excellent thermal stability and corrosion resistance, particularly in steam or moist air
environments. Cupronickel outperforms other bronze types in seawater, making it ideal for
use in ship hulls, pumps, valves, electronics, and marine equipment.
Silicon Bronze
Cupronickel is a bronze alloy composed of copper and 2% to 30% nickel. It is renowned
for its excellent thermal stability and corrosion resistance, particularly in steam or moist air
environments. Cupronickel outperforms other bronze types in seawater, making it ideal for
use in ship hulls, pumps, valves, electronics, and marine equipment.
Nickel Silver
Despite its name, nickel silver contains no actual silver. The name comes from its silvery
appearance. Nickel silver is composed of zinc, nickel, and copper. It offers moderate
strength and fair corrosion resistance. This versatile material is commonly used in
dinnerware, decorative items, optical devices, and musical instruments.
Tin Bronze
Tin bronze, also referred to as phosphor bronze, contains 0.01% to 0.035% phosphorus
and 0.5% to 1.0% tin. This alloy is known for its fine grain, low friction coefficient, and
excellent fatigue resistance, making it both durable and strong. Phosphor bronze is
commonly used in applications such as bellows, washers, electrical equipment, and
springs. Page |
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Titanium Alloys
Titanium alloys come in various types, each consisting of pure titanium combined with
other metals or elements. For example, alpha titanium alloys incorporate alpha stabilizers
such as oxygen or aluminum, which impart their unique properties.
Advantages of Alloy Metals

❖ Strong Mixtures of Positive Qualities
Metal alloys are blends of different metals designed to enhance desirable properties while
minimizing drawbacks. These mixtures often result in materials that are more durable than
their pure metal counterparts. Pure metals can be brittle, so alloys are created to combine
strength with improved workability. Unlike pure metals, where all atoms are identical,
metal alloys contain a variety of atoms. This variation makes it more difficult for atoms to
move, resulting in alloys that are generally stronger and harder than pure metals. Utilizing
alloys allows for the construction of more robust structures and the creation of more
resilient products. For example, stainless steel is a particularly strong alloy.
❖ Built to Withstand Corrosion

Metal alloys are combinations of various metals and non-metals. Unlike pure metals,
which are prone to chemical reactivity and corrosion, alloys can be engineered to resist
these effects. Corrosion can rapidly degrade pure metals, leading to costly repairs. Metal
alloys, with their enhanced resistance to corrosion, help mitigate and delay this persistent
issue, making them more durable and cost-effective over time.
❖ Workable and Easily Adaptable
Metal alloys offer greater adaptability compared to pure metals. They can be tailored to
enhance specific properties suited for various applications, whereas pure metals only
exhibit their inherent qualities, for better or worse. By combining the best characteristics of
different materials, metal alloys provide a broader range of possibilities for diverse
projects. Page |
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Applications of Alloy Metals

➢ Stainless steel is utilized in its wire and ribbon forms for screening, staples, belts,
cables, weldments, catheters, and suture wires.
➢ Gold and silver alloys are used to create jewelry. White gold, an alloy of gold, silver,
palladium, and nickel, is often utilized as a less expensive alternative to platinum.
➢ Numerous industries employ a variety of alloys in welding applications.
➢ Alloys are useful in situations where there is a lot of moisture because they are
corrosion-resistant materials.
➢ Many petrochemical and aeronautical industries require high-temperature alloys.
Additionally, these alloys have been applied to the welding of wire in difficult conditions
at high temperatures.
➢ Alloys have been utilized in situations where maintaining high strength and corrosion
resistance is necessary.
➢ Magnetic alloys are utilized in dry reed switches and magnetic cores in order to
continually maintain high standards of homogeneity and performance; magnetic alloys
are useful for quality control techniques like magnetic testing.
➢ Nickel-chromium, nickel-chromium-iron, and iron-chromium-aluminum alloys have
been employed as high-temperature heating elements.
➢ Several alloys are utilized as resistance elements to regulate or measure electric
current. Wire-wound resistors, rheostats, potentiometers, and shunts are among the
many items relying on these qualities for their applications.
➢ Thermocouple alloys are used in a variety of temperature-sensing and temperature-
control applications.
➢ Alloys are also employed to create automotive components, radio and electrical
equipment, precision tools for flight controls, and telecommunications devices.

STRAND 2: LIVING THINGS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
NUTRITION IN PLANTS
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Introduction 18
➢ Nutrition refers to the process by which living organisms obtain and assimilate
(utilize) nutrients.
➢ It is one of the fundamental characteristics of living things.
➢ The nutrients obtained are useful to the living organisms in many ways:
- The nutrients are required for growth and development of the living organisms.
- The nutrients are required for energy provision as they are broken down to
release energy.
- The nutrients are also required for repair of worn out tissues
- Nutrients are required for synthesis of very vital macromolecules in the body
such as hormones and enzymes.
Modes of Nutrition
There are two main nutrition modes:

1. Autotrophism: mode of nutrition through which living organisms
manufacture their own food from simple inorganic substances in the environment such
as carbon (IV) oxide, water and mineral ions. Organisms that make their own food
through this mode are autotrophs.
2. Heterotrophism: mode of nutrition in which living organisms depend on
already manufactured food materials from other living organisms. Heterotrophs are the
organisms that feed on already manufactured food materials.
Autotrophism
In this mode of nutrition, organisms manufacture their own food from readily
available materials in the environment. These organisms use energy to combine
carbon (IV) oxide, water and mineral salts in complex reactions to manufacture food
substances.
Depending on the source of energy used to manufacture the food There are two
types of autotrophism:
1. Chemosynthesis

This is the process whereby some organisms utilize energy derived from
chemical reactions in their bodies to manufacture food from simple substances in the
environment.
This nutrition mode is common in non green plants and some bacteria which
lack the sun trapping chlorophyll molecule. Page |
2. Photosynthesis 19
This is the process by which organisms make their own food from
simple substances in the environment such as carbon (IV) oxide and water using
sunlight energy.
Such organisms often have chlorophyll which traps the required sunlight
energy.
This mode of nutrition is common in members of the kingdom Plantae. Some
protoctists and bacteria are also photosynthetic.
Importance of Photosynthesis
1. Photosynthesis helps in regulation of carbon (IV) oxide and oxygen gases in the
environment.
2. Photosynthesis enables autotrophs make their own food, thus, meet their nutritional
requirements.
3. Photosynthesis converts sunlight energy into a form (chemical energy) that
can be utilized by other organisms that are unable to manufacture their own food.
Photosynthesis largely occurs in the leaf.
To understand the process of photosynthesis, it is important to understand the leaf
structure.

External Leaf Structure
Externally, the leaf has a petiole through which it attaches to the leaf branch or stem,
lamina- the broad flat surface, margin- the outline and the leaf apex.
The leaf margin can be smooth, dentate, serrated or entire. Page |
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The size of a leaf depends on its environment. Plants in arid areas have small sized
leaves with some leaves reduced to needle like shape. This helps reduce the rate of
water loss in such plants. However, the plants in areas of water abundance have
broad leaves to enable them lose the excess water.
The image below shows types of leaves margins.

Internal Leaf Structure
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1. Cuticle
This is the outermost layer of the leaf.

It is a thin non-cellular, waxy, transparent and waterproof layers that coats the
upper and lower leaf surfaces.
Functions of the cuticle
1. Being waterproof, it minimizes water loss from the leaf cells to the
environment through transpiration and evaporation.
2. It protects the inner leaf tissues from mechanical damage.
3. It prevents entry of pathogenic microorganisms into the leaf.
2. Epidermis
This is the outermost one cell thick layer covering upper and lower leaf surfaces.
Its cells are flattened and lack chloroplasts.
Functions of the epidermis:
It protects the leaf from mechanical damage.

It also protects the leaf from entry of disease-causing microorganisms.
It secretes the cuticle.
There are many small pores on the epidermis known as stomata (singular-
stoma) through which exchange of materials occur. The opening and closing
of the stomata is controlled by the guard cells. Each stoma is controlled by two
guard cells.
The guard cells have chloroplasts and are bean shaped. They have thicker
inner cell wall and thinner outer cell wall.
Adaptations of the guard cells

They have differentially thicker walls to enable them bulge as they draw water
through osmosis from the neighboring cells making them to open the stomata.
They contain chloroplasts that manufacture sugars which increase osmotic
pressure of the guard cells.
As they draw water through osmosis, they bulge making the stomata to open.
3. Palisade mesophyll
This is the chief photosynthetic tissue in plants. Its cells are regular in shape.
Its cells contain numerous chloroplasts for photosynthesis.

Their close packing and location just below the epidermis enables them to trap
maximum sunlight for photosynthesis.
Location of palisade layer on the upper surface explains why upper leaf
surfaces are greener than the lower surfaces.
4. Spongy mesophyll layer
This layer contains loosely arranged irregular cells. This leaves large airspaces
between the cells which permits free circulation of gases carbon (IV) oxide and Page |
oxygen into the photosynthetic cells. Spongy mesophyll cells contain fewer 22
chloroplasts compared to palisade cells.
5. Vascular bundle/tissue
This is found in the midrib and leaf veins. Vascular bundle is made of phloem
and xylem tissues. Xylem tissues conduct water and some dissolved mineral
salts from the roots to other plant parts while phloem translocates manufactured
food materials from photosynthetic areas to other plant parts.
6. Chloroplast
This is the organelle in which photosynthesis takes place. It is an oval
shaped double membrane bound organelle.
Internally, it is made up of membranes called lamellae suspended in a fluid filled
matrix called stroma.
Lamellae forms stacks at intervals called grana (singular-granum).
Chlorophyll molecules are contained in the grana.
Within the stroma, fat droplets, lipid droplets and starch grains are found.
The stroma contains enzymes and forms the site where light independent
reactions take place.

Adaptations of the Leaf to Photosynthesis
The leaf has a flat and broad lamina to increase surface area for trapping sunlight
energy and for gaseous exchange.
The leaf has numerous stomata through which photosynthetic gases diffuse. Page |
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The leaf is thin to reduce the distance through which carbon (IV) oxide has to
diffuse to the photosynthetic cells.
The palisade mesophyll cells contain numerous chloroplasts which contain
chlorophyll molecules which trap sunlight energy for photosynthesis.
The photosynthetic mesophyll is located towards the upper surface for maximum
absorption of sunlight energy.
The leaf has an extensive network of veins composed of xylem which conducts
water to the photosynthetic cells and phloem to translocate manufactured food
materials to other plant parts.
The epidermis and cuticle are transparent to allow light to penetrate to the
photosynthetic cells.
Raw Materials for Photosynthesis
Water
Carbon (IV) oxide
Conditions for Photosynthesis
Light energy
Chlorophyll
Photosynthesis Process
Photosynthesis is a complex process that involves a series of reactions. It can be

summarized into two main reactions.
- Light reaction/Light stage
This is the first stage of photosynthesis. It occurs in the presence of light.

Without light it cannot take place.
Light stage occurs in the grana of the chloroplasts.
During light stage, two fundamental processes occur:
i. Photolysis of water
This refers to the splitting of water molecules using sunlight energy to
give hydrogen ions and oxygen gas.
This is aided by the fact that the grana contain chlorophyll molecules
that trap sunlight energy for photolysis.
The oxygen gas produced can either be released into the
atmosphere or be utilized by the plant for respiration.
Water → Hydrogen atoms + Oxygen gas
ii. Formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Some of the sun light energy is used to combine Adenosine
Diphospate molecule in the plant tissues with a phosphate molecule
to form Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). ATP is an energy rich
molecule that stores energy for use in the dark stage when sunlight
energy could be unavailable.
ADP+P→ATP Page |
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The hydrogen ions and ATP formed during light stage are later used in
dark stage.
Dark reaction/Dark stage
These reactions are light independent. The energy that propels these
reactions are derived from the ATP formed during light stage.
Also known as carbon (IV) oxide fixation, dark stage involves combination
of carbon (IV) oxide molecule with hydrogen ions to form a simple
carbohydrate and a water molecule.
Dark reactions take place in the stroma.
CO2 + 4H+ → (CH2O)n + H2O
Other food materials are then synthesized from the simple sugars
through complex synthesis reactions.
The simple sugar formed in dark stage is quickly converted to starch which
is osmotically inactive. When a lot of simple sugars accumulate in the
chloroplasts, osmotic pressure of the guard cells would increase causing the
guard cells to draw a lot of water through osmosis. This makes the guard
cells to bulge and open the stomata. This can result into excessive water
loss. To prevent, this, the simple sugars are quickly converted to starch. To
test whether photosynthesis has taken place in a leaf, therefore, a test for
presence of starch and not simple sugars is carried out.

Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis
- Carbon (IV) oxide concentration
While the concentration of carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere is fairly constant
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at 0.03%, an increase in carbon (IV) oxide concentration translates into an 25
increase in the rate of photosynthesis upto a certain point when the rate of
photosynthesis becomes constant.
At this point, other factors such as light intensity, water and temperature
become limiting factors. 2. Light intensity
The rate at of photosynthesis increases with an increase in light intensity up to a
certain level. Beyond the optimum light intensity the rate of photosynthesis
becomes constant. To this effect, plants photosynthesize faster on bright and
sunny days than on dull cloudy days.
Light quality/wavelength also affects the rate of photosynthesis. Most plants

require red and blue wavelengths of light for photosynthesis.
Light duration also affects photosynthesis rate.
3. Temperature
Photosynthesis is an enzyme controlled process.
At very low temperatures the rate of photosynthesis is slow because the
enzymes are inactive.
As temperature increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases because the
enzymes become more active. Rate of photosynthesis is optimum at (35-40)
°C.
Beyond 40°C the rate of photosynthesis decreases and eventually stops since
the enzymes become denatured.
4. Water
Water is a raw material for photosynthesis. At extreme level of water shortage,
rate of photosynthesis will be severely affected.
Experiment to Investigate the Gas Produced During Photosynthesis
Requirements
Water plant e.g. elodea, spirogyra, Nymphea (water lily),

glass funnels,
beakers,
small wooden blocks,
test tubes,
wooden splints and
sodium hydrogen carbonate.

Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure below
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26
- Place the set up in the sunlight to allow photosynthesis to take place.

- Leave the set up in the sun until sufficient gas has collected in the test tube.
- Test the gas collected with a glowing splint.
- Record your observations.
Note:
In this experiment, sodium hydrogen carbonate is added to the water to boost the
amount of carbon (IV) oxide in the water since water has a low concentration of
carbon (IV) oxide.
A water plant is also selected because water plants are adapted to
photosynthesis under the low light intensity in water where terrestrial plants
cannot easily photosynthesize.
This experiment can also be used to investigate the factors affecting the rate of
photosynthesis:
Carbon (IV) oxide concentration
Carry out the experiment using different amounts of dissolved sodium
hydrogen carbonate e.g 5g, 10g, 15g, 20g and examine the rate at which
the gas collects.
Light intensity:
An artificial light source can be used. Illuminate the plant and vary the
distance between the set up and the light source while recording the time it
takes for the gas jar to fill or counting the number of bubbles per unit time.
Temperature:
carry out the experiment at varying temperatures and record the rate at
which the gas collects.

Experiments on Factors Necessary for Photosynthesis
Light
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Requirements 27
Methylated spirit, iodine solution, water, white tile, droppers, beaker, source of
heat, boiling tube, light proof material e.g. aluminium foil, potted plant and clips.
Procedure
Cover two or more leaves of a potted plant with a light proof material.
Place the plant in a dark place for 48 hours (keeping the plant in the dark for 48
hours is to ensure that all the starch in it is used up. This makes the leaves ideal
for investigating whether starch would form in the experimental period. This is
called destarching).
Transfer the potted plant to light for 5 hours.
Detach and uncover the leaves and immediately test for starch in one of the
covered leaves and one that was not covered.
Carbon (IV) oxide
Requirement
Sodium hydroxide pellets, flask, jelly
Procedure
Destarch the plant for 48 hours
Place a few pellets of sodium hydroxide in the flask
Bore a hole in the cork of the same size as the petiole of the leaf being used
Cut the cork lengthwise.
Chlorophyll
For this experiment, a variegated leaf is required. This is a leaf in which some patches
lack chlorophyll.
These patches could be yellow. They lack chlorophyll hence photosynthesis does not
take place in them.
Procedure
Detarch or remove variegated leaf that has been exposed to light for at least
three hours.
Draw a large diagram of the leaf to show the distribution
of the chlorophyll Test the leaf for starch and record
observations.

NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
Heterotrophism
This is a mode of nutrition in which organisms take in already manufactured complex Page |
food substances such as carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. 28
Heterotrophs are organisms that feed on already manufactured food substances.
These substances are broken down in the bodies of the Heterotrophs into simple
soluble food substances that can be absorbed and be utilized by the cells.
Modes of Heterotrophism
There are four main heterotrophic modes on nutrition:
1. Holozoic - Where organisms ingest, digest and assimilate solid complex food
substances.
2. Saprophytism Where organisms feed on dead decaying matter causing
decomposition.
3. Parasitism - a feeding association in which one organism (parasite) feeds on or
obtain nutrients on another organism, the host.
4. Symbiosis/Mutualism - An association where two organisms live together and
mutually benefit from each other.
Parasitism
There are two main types of parasites:

Endo parasites - Live inside the host Ecto-
parasites - Found on the external surface of
the host.
The parasite benefits but the host does not. Some of the parasites cause diseases
to the hosts and damage their tissues thereby weakening them.
Symbiosis
In symbiotic relationships, both organisms benefit:

Symbiotic r/ships include
Rhizobium and leguminous plants: rhizobium fixes nitrogen for the legume
while the bacteria obtains manufactured food from the legumes.
Lichen: association of fungi (absorbing water and nutrients) and algae
(manufacturing food for the association.
Catalase digesting bacteria and ruminants.
Dentition
Large animals depend on complex manufactured food substances.

These food substances once ingested must be broken down to simpler forms that can
be utilized by the cells.
The breakdown is both physical and chemical.
Most of the large animals have teeth to enhance physical breakdown of the complex
food substances.
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Dentition refers to the description of types of teeth, their arrangement and 29
specialization.
Types of Dentition
1. Homodont dentition: Teeth arrangement and description where an organism has
teeth of the same size and shape. Fishes and birds have homodont dentition.
2. Heterodont dentition: where an organism has teeth of different sizes and shapes
that is incisors, canines, premolars and molars. Heterodont dentition is common
with mammals and reptiles.
Types of Teeth
1. Incisors
Are flat and chisel shaped with sharp ridged edges for cutting and biting food.

They have one root.
2. Canines
Are conical teeth with sharp pointed edges modified for seizing and tearing
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prey among carnivores. They have one root 30
3. Premolar and molar
They have cusps on their surface to suit their grinding action.

Premolars have two roots.
Molars have either two or three roots.
Classes of Holozoic Heterotrophs
Holozoic heterotrophs are classified according to the type of food they consume.
These are:
Herbivores: heterotrophs that exclusively feed on vegetation.
Carnivores: heterotrophs that exclusively feed on flesh.
Omnivores: heterotrophs that feed on both flesh and vegetation.
Dentition of heterotrophs is based on the kind of food they consume.
Dental Formula
This is the description of the number, type and position of teeth in the jaws of animals.
Number of teeth recorded represents half the total teeth in the upper and lower jaws.
The teeth names are abbreviated as
1. i-incisors.
2. c-canines.
3. pm-premolars.
4. m-molars.

Herbivores
Most do not have upper incisors. Instead they have a horny pad against which grass
is pressed and cut by the lower incisors.
They have a long tongue that assists in the cutting and moving food.
They have a gap in the lower jaw separating canines from premolars known as Page |
31
diastema which allows the tongue to manipulate food.
Herbivore teeth have open enamel which allows for continuous growth to replace
worn out surfaces due to grinding.
Their incisors are wedge shaped to cut grass and vegetation together with the horny
pad
The jaws have movable joints to allow the sideways movement of lower jaw to
facilitate grinding of grass.
Carnivores
Their incisors are chisel shaped and closely fitting to seize the prey.
Their canines are long, conical and curved to hold, kill and tear the prey.
Some of their premolars in the lower and upper jaw are modified into specialized
carnassial teeth which have smooth sides and sharp edges to slice through flesh and
crush bones
Premolars and molars are broad with cusps for crushing bones.
Their jaws are attached to powerful muscles that move the jaws
up and down Carnivores are adapted to fast running by
possessing well developed leg muscles.
Dental Diseases
a) Dental Carries

- Caused by lack of hard food, too much sweet or sugary food, lack of calcium in diet, lack
of vitamin D, lack of cleaning teeth and general ill-health. The bacteria in the mouth break
down the sugars to form energy and organic acids. The acids corrode the enamel.
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32
b) Periodontal Diseases
- Caused by lack of vitamins A and C, lack of massage of the gums and imperfect cleaning
of gums.
- The gums become flabby and soft so they do not support the teeth. Common in adults
than children.
- Are of two types:
1. Gingivitis - Characterized by reddening of gums, bleeding and pus in the gums.

2. Pyorrhea - The teeth become loose due to infection of the fibres holding the teeth in
the sockets.
Dental Hygiene
- Proper teeth care requires:
Regular cleaning or brushing teeth after every meal

Avoid eating too much sugary foods.
Eating hard foods e.g. raw carrots, cassava, yams, sugar cane.
Eating diet rich in calcium, phosphate and vitamins A, C and D.
Teeth should be used for their correct purpose.
Regularly visit the dentist if necessary.

Digestion
The process through which complex food substances is broken down physically and
chemically into simpler food substances that can be absorbed by body cells
However, small molecules like those of vitamins, mineral salts and water are Page |
directly absorbed into the bloodstream without undergoing digestion. 33
Digestion occurs in the mouth, stomach, duodenum and ileum.
There are glands also associated to the digestive system. These include the
pancreas, gall bladder, salivary glands.
Digestion in the Mouth
At the mouth both physical and chemical digestion takes place.

The food is mechanically broken down by the teeth through grinding and chewing.
This process is called mastication.
Mastication reduces the food into small size to increase the surface area for
enzymatic action.
The tongue helps in manipulation of the food as it mixes the food with the saliva
secreted from the salivary glands. The salivary glands are:
Sublingual salivary gland; beneath the tongue
Sub mandibular gland: under the jaw
Parotid gland: Found in the cheeks in front of the ears.
All the glands have ducts through which saliva is directed to the mouth.
The tongue also rolls the food into small round masses called boluses.
The boluses are then pushed to the back of the mouth to initiate the swallowing
process.
The boluses are then moved to the stomach via oesophagus.
Movement is facilitated by a wave of muscular contractions of longitudinal and
circular muscles of the oesophagus known as peristalsis.
There is a flap of cartilage, epiglottis which closes the wind pipe (trachea) during
swallowing.
Digestion in the Stomach
Upon swallowing, the boluses move down the gullet to the stomach. The boluses
enter the stomach via the cardiac sphincter (a muscular valve).

The stomach has thick circular and longitudinal muscle layers which contract and
relax to produce movements that mix the contents of the stomach. The mixing
process is known as churning and results in formation of a fluid called chyme
Arrival of food in the stomach stimulates secretion of the hormone gastrin which
stimulates the gastric glands in the stomach walls to secrete gastric juice which
contains: Page |
1. Pepsinogen-This is activated to pepsin which breaks down proteins to peptides. 34
2. Rennin- Digests caseinogens protein in milk to casein (curd).
3. Hydrochloric acid- This:
4. Mucus- Forms a protective barrier to the stomach wall against corrosion by the
HCl. Mucus is secreted by goblet cells in the epithelial membrane of the
alimentary canal.
Duodenum
The chyme then passes down to the duodenum through the pyloric sphincter.
Duodenum is the first section of the small intestine. In humans it measures about 25-
38 cm. The chyme is let down into the duodenum in small quantities.
Secretions that contribute to digestion at the duodenum are received from:
1. Gall bladder in the liver - Secretes bile.
2. Pancreas - Secrete hormones and
digestive enzymes. Arrival of food in the
duodenum stimulates secretion of
1. Secretin hormone from the pancreas: Secretin stimulates secretion of
pancreatic juice into the duodenum
2. Cholecystokinin from the duodenal wall: This stimulates secretion of bile

from the gall bladder. Pancreatic juice contains:
1. Pancreatic amylase - This facilitates breakdown of the remaining starch into
maltose
2. Trypsin- Digests proteins into peptides.
3. Pancreatic juice-Digests lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
4. Sodium hydrogen carbonate- This:
Provides alkaline medium for activity of the duodenum enzymes.
It also neutralizes the acidic chyme.
The bile juice contains bile salts that include sodium glycocholate and sodium
taurocholate. These salts:
1. Aid in emulsification (breakdown of fat molecules into tiny fat droplets to
increase surface area for digestion).
2. The salts also provide a suitable alkaline medium for action of the duodenal
enzymes.

3. In addition they neutralize the acidic chyme.
Digestion in the Ileum
Ileum is the final part of the small intestine.

The inner cells contain secretory cells some of which secrete mucus while some Page |
35
secrete an alkaline fluid known as succus entericus (intestinal juice). The arrival of
chyme in ileum stimulates secretion of intestinal juice which contains:
Maltase: speeds up breakdown of maltose to glucose
Sucrase: speeds breakdown of sucrose to glucose and fructose
Peptidase: speeds breakdown of peptides to amino acids
Lipase: speeds breakdown of lipids to fatty acids and glycerol.
Lactase: speeds breakdown of lactose to glucose and galactose.
Polypeptidase: speeds breakdown of plypeptides into amino acids
Note:
The mucus secreted by the goblet cells lubricates food along the alimentary canal
and also protect the canal from being digested by enzymes.
At the end of digestion in the ileum, the resulting watery emulsion is called chyle; it
contains soluble end products of digestion ready to be absorbed.
Absorption
This is the process through which the soluble end products of digestion diffuse into
the cellular lining of the villi.
Absorption of micronutrients such as water soluble vitamins, mineral salts and

alcohol are absorbed at the stomach. Alcohol is equally absorbed here without
undergoing digestion.
Most absorption of end products of digestion occurs in the ileum.
Molecules of amino acids and glucose pass through the epithelial lining and
capillary walls into the blood system by active transport.
The capillaries drain into the hepatic portal vein where the absorbed products are
transported to the liver before they are circulated to other body parts.
The fatty acids are absorbed into the lacteals of the villi which drain into the
lymphatic vessels. The lymphatic vessels later join the blood circulatory system
which transports them to other body parts.
The ileum is adapted to absorption in many ways

It is long to provide a large surface area for absorption
It has a narrow lumen so as to bring the digested food into close contact with the
walls of the ileum for easier absorption
It is highly coiled to slow down movement of food thus allowing more time for
digestion and absorption of food.
The inner surfaces have numerous villi and microvilli to increase surface area Page |
for absorption of end products of digestion. 36
The epithelial lining is one cell thick to reduce the distance through which
digested food diffuses.
Has a dense network of blood capillaries into which digested food
materials diffuse to increase transport and thus maintain a steep
concentration gradient.
Have lacteal vessels in the villi for absorption of fatty acids and glycerol.
Egestion
This is the process through which the undigested and indigestible food substances
are eliminated from the body.
Caecum and Appendix

While these have no roles in man, they play vital roles in the ruminant animals and
other herbivores. They contain some bacteria which secrete cellulose enzyme.
These enzymes digest cellulose since most digestive systems cannot secrete
cellulose digesting enzyme.
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37
The bacteria and the herbivores are in a symbiotic relationship.
Assimilation
This is process of incorporation of the end products of digestion into the cell
metabolism. It involves utilization of the end products of digestion into various
uses.
Importance of Vitamins, Mineral Salts, Roughage and Water in Human

Nutrition
1. Glucose
Oxidized to release energy
Excess glucose is stored under the skin to provide heat insulation
Glucose is used to synthesize complex polysaccharide such as cellulose that is
an important structural compound in plants.
2. Fatty acids and glycerol
Oxidized to release energy
Combine to form neutral fats stored under the skin to provide heat insulation
Used to build structures
3. Amino acids
Used to synthesize proteins for general body growth
Oxidized during starvation to release energy.
4. Vitamins
These are organic chemical compounds that are essential for a healthy body.
Some are synthesized in the body through the action of some
microorganisms while some are also obtained in fresh fruits and vegetables.
Vitamins are destroyed when foods are excessively cooked. They are required
in small quantities.
They play vital roles in metabolic reactions. Some act as co-enzymes while
some influence the intake of certain substances. In particular, vitamin C
influences uptake of iron while vitamin D influences absorption of calcium ions
in the gut.
Lack of vitamins in the body results into abnormities that manifest through
various deficiency diseases. These deficiency diseases can be corrected by
inclusion of the deficient vitamins in the diet or taking the vitamin supplements.
There are two classes of vitamins owing to their solubility:

Fat soluble vitamins- They dissolve in fats and are often stored in the liver.
Include Vitamins A, D, E, K.
Water soluble vitamins- Dissolve in water. Include vitamins B1,
B2, B5, B12 and C. 5. Mineral salts
These are important inorganic compounds containing elements
required for essential body functioning. Depending on body Page |
38
requirements, mineral salts are of two classes:
1. Macro-nutrients: Nutrients required in large quantities. These include
nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorous, calcium, sodium, iron and
magnesium.
2. Micro-nutrients: Nutrients required in small quantities. Include copper,
manganese, boron, iodine and cobalt.
6. Roughages
This is the indigestible material in food. Mainly composed of cellulose from plant
cell walls.
They are found in full cereals, fresh fruit fibres like lemons, oranges, mangoes
and vegetables.
Importance of roughage
1. It rubs against the walls of the alimentary canal stimulating secretion of
digestive enzymes and mucus to lubricate the epithelial lining.
2. Roughage enhance peristalsis since as they rub against the walls of the
alimentary canal, they stimulate contraction and relaxation of the muscles.
3. Roughage is an absorbent; it extracts water from the alimentary canal
making the fecal matter bulky and moist hence can be easily propelled by
peristaltic movements. This prevents constipation.

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
- In flowering plants, the flower is the reproductive organ which is a specialised shoot
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consisting of a modified stem and leaves. 39
- The stem-like part is the pedicel and receptacle, while modified leaves form corolla
and calyx.
Structure of a Flower
Parts of a Flower
(Image Courtesy of shutterstock)
- A typical flower consists of the following parts:
a) Calyx
- Made up of sepals.
- They enclose and protect the flower when it is in a bud. Some flowers have an outer
whorl made of sepal-like structures called epicalyx.
b) Corolla
- Consists of petals.
- The petals are brightly coloured in insect-pollinated flowers.
c) Androecium

- Is the male part of the flower. It consists of stamens.
- Each stamen consists of a filament whose end has an anther.
- Inside the anther are pollen sacs which contain pollen grains.
d) Gynoecium (pistil)
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40
• Is the female part of the flower.

• It consists of one or more carpels.
• Each carpel consists of an ovary, a sty le and a stigma.
• The ovary contains ovules which become seeds after fertilisation.
• A monocarpous pistil has one carpel e.g. beans.
• A polycarpous pistil has many carpels.
• If the carpes are free, it is called apocarpous as in rose and Bryophyllum.
• In carpels that are fused it is called syncarpous as in Hibiscus.
• A complete flower has all the four floral parts.
• A regular flower can be divided into two halves by any vertical section passing
through the centre. e.g. morning glory.
• Irregular flower can be divided into two halves in only one plane e.g. crotalaria.
Pollination
Definition of Pollination
- This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
Types of Pollination
• Self pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the
stigma of the same flower.
• Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to
the stigma of a different flower, of the same species.
Agents of Pollination
• Agents of pollination include wind, insects, birds and mammals.

• Insect pollinators include bees, butterflies and mosquitoes.
Fertilization in Plants
• The pollen grain contains the generative nucleus and a tube nucleus.
• When the pollen grain lands on the stigma, it absorbs nutrient and germinates
forming a pollen tube.

• This pollen tube grows through the style pushing its way between the cells.
• It gets nourishment from these cells.
• The tube nucleus occupies the position at the tip of the growing pollen tube.
• The generative nucleus follows behind the tube nucleus, and divides to form two
male gamete nuclei.
• The pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle. Page |
• When the pollen tube penetrates, the ovule disintegrates and the pollen tube 41
bursts open leaving a clear way for the male nuclei.

• One male nucleus fuses with the egg cell nucleus to form a diploid zygote which
develops into an embryo.
• The other male gamete nucleus fuses with the polar nucleus to form a triploid
nucleus which forms the primary endosperm.
• This is called double fertilisation.
Changes in a Flower After Fertilisation
• The integuments develops into seed coat (testa).

• The zygote develops into an embryo.
• The triploid nucleus develops into an endosperm.
• The ovules become seeds.
• The ovary develops into a fruit.
• The ovary wall develops into pericarp.
• The style, dries up and falls off leaving a scar.
• The corolla, calyx and stamens dry up and fall off.
• In some the calyx persists.
Fruit formation
• Fruit development without fertilisation is called parthenocarpy

• e.g. as in pineapples and bananas.
• Such fruits do not have seeds.
Classification of Fruits
• False fruits develops from other parts such as calyx, corolla and receptacle,
• e.g. apple and pineapple which develops from an inflorescence.
• True fruits develop from the ovary, e.g. bean fruit (pod).
• True fruits can be divided into fleshy or succulent fruits e.g. berries and drupes
and dry fruits.
• The dry ones can be divided into Dehiscent which split open to release seeds
and indehiscent which do not open.

Methods of Fruit and Seed Dispersal
1. Animal Dispersal of Seeds

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• Fleshy fruits are eaten by animals. 42
• Animals are attracted to the fruits by the bright colour, scent or the fact that it is
edible.
• The seeds pass through the digestive tract undamaged and are passed out with
faeces. E.g. tomatoes and guavas.
• Such seeds have hard, resistant seed coats.
• Others have fruits with hooks or spines that stick on animal fur or on clothes.
• Later the seeds are brushed of or fall off on their own e.g. Bidens pilosa (Black
jack).
2. Wind Dispersal of Seeds
• Fruits and seeds are small and light in order to be carried by air currents.
• A fruit that is a capsule e.g. tobacco split or has pores at the top e.g. Mexican
poppy.
• The capsule is attached to along stalk when swayed by wind the seeds are
released and scattered.
• Some seeds have hairy or feather-like structures which increase their surface
area so that they can be blown off by the wind e.g. Sonchus.
• Others have wing-like structures e.g. Jacaranda and Nandi Flame.
• These extensions increase the surface area of fruits and seeds such that they
are carried by the wind.
3. Water Dispersal of Seeds
• Fruits like coconut have fibrous mesocarp which is spongy to trap air, the trapped
air make the fruit light and buoyant to float on water.
• Plants like water lily produce seeds whose seed coats trap air bubbles.
• The air bubbles make the seeds float on water and are carried away.
• The pericarp and seed coat are waterproof.
4. Self Dispersal (Explosive) Mechanism
• This is seen in pods like bean and pea.

• Pressure inside the pod forces it to open along lines of weakness throwing seeds
away from parent plant.

INTERDEPENDENCE OF LIFE
Abiotic factors (environmental factors)

1. Temperature Page |
- Is the hotness or coldness of an area or habitat. 43
- It directly affects the distribution and productivity (yield) of populations and
communities.
- Most organisms are found in areas where temperature is moderate.
- However, certain plants and animals have adaptations that enable them to live
in areas where temperatures are in the extremes such as the hot deserts and the
cold polar regions.
- Temperatures not only influence distribution of organisms but also determine the
activities of animals.
- High temperature usually accelerates the rates of photosynthesis, transpiration,
evaporation and the decomposition and recycling of organic matter in the
ecosystem.
2. Light
- Light is required by green plants for photosynthesis.
- Light intensity, duration and quality affect organisms in one way or another.
3. Atmospheric Pressure
- The force per unit area of atmospheric air that is exerted on organisms at
different altitudes.
- Growth of plants and activity of animals is affected by atmospheric pressure.
- e.g., rate of transpiration in plants and breathing in animals.
4. Salinity
- This is the salt content of soil or water.
- Animals and plants living in saline conditions have special adaptations.
5. Humidity
- This describes the amount of moisture (water vapour) in the air.
- Humidity affects the rate of transpiration in plants and evaporation in animals.
6. pH
- Is the measure of acidity or alkalinity of soil solution or water.
- pH is very important to organisms living in water and soil.
- Most prefer a neutral pH.
7. Wind:
- Is moving air currents and it influences the dispersion of certain plants by
effecting the dispersal of spores, seeds and fruits.
- Air currents also modify the temperature and humidity of the surroundings.
8. Topography:
- These are surface features of a place.
- The topographical factors considered include altitudes, gradient (slope),
depressions and hills.
- All these characteristics affect the distribution of organisms in an area.
- e.g., the leeward and windward sides of a hill.

Biotic factors:
- These are the living components in an ecosystem,
• competition
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• predation 44
• symbiosis
• parasitism
• human activities
Inter-relationships Between Organisms

- The relationships between organisms in a given ecosystem is primarily a feeding
one.
- Organisms in a particular habitat have different feeding levels referred to as
trophic levels.
- There are two main trophic levels:
1. Producers:
- These organisms that occupy the first trophic level.
- They manufacture their own food hence are autotrophic.
2. Consumers:
- These are the organisms that feed on organic substances manufactured by
green plants.
They occupy different trophic levels as follows:
Primary consumers:
- These are herbivores and feed on green plants.
Secondary consumers:
- These are carnivores and feed on flesh.
- First order carnivores feed on herbivores while second order carnivores feed on
other carnivores, i.e., tertiary consumers.
Omnivores:
- These are animals that feed on both plant and animal material.
- They can be primary, secondary or tertiary consumers.
Competition:
- This describes the situation where two or more organisms in the same habitat
require or depend on the same resources.
- Organisms in an ecosystem compete for resources like food, space, light, water
and mineral nutrients.
- Competition takes place when the environmental resource is not adequate for
all.
Intraspecific competition. - This is competition between organisms of the same
species.
- For example, maize plants in a field compete for water and nutrients among
themselves.
Interspecific competition.- This refers to competition between organisms of
different species, e.g., different species of predators can compete for water and
prey among themselves.
3. Predation
- It is a relationship whereby one animal (the predator) feeds on another (the
prey).

Saprophytism
- Saprophytism is the mode of nutrition common in certain species of fungi and
bacteria.
- Such organisms feed on dead organic material and release nutrients through
the process of decomposition or decay. Page |
- Saprophytes produce enzymes, which digest the substrates externally. 45
- The simpler substances are then absorbed.
- Saprophytes help in reducing the accumulation of dead bodies of plants and
animals.
- Harmful saprophytes cause rapid decay of foods such as fruits, vegetables, milk
and meat.
- Others damage buildings by causing wood rot.
- Some fungi produce poisonous substances called aflatoxins.
- These substances are associated with cereal crops which are stored under
warm, moist conditions.
- If the infected grain is eaten, it may cause serious illness, and death.
Parasitism
- This is an association between members of different species.
- The parasite lives on or in the body of another organism, the host.
- The parasite derives benefits such as food and shelter from the host but the
heist suffers harm as a result.
Symbiosis
- This is an association in which organisms of different species derive mutual
benefit from one another.
- Some symbiotic associations are loose and the two partners gain very little from
each other.
- Other symbiotic associations are more intimate and the organisms show a high
degree of interdependence.
Nitrogen cycle
- Is the interdependence of organisms on one another and the physical

environment as nitrogen is traced from and back into the atmosphere.
- Although nitrogen is abundant in the atmosphere, most organisms are not able
to utilise it directly.
- Some bacteria are capable of converting atmospheric nitrogen into forms which
can be used by other living organisms.
- These bacteria are referred to as nitrogen fIxing bacteria.
- Symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria live in the root nodules of leguminous plants
such as beans and peas.
- Non-symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria live in the soil.
- Nitrifying' bacteria convert ammonia into nitrites and nitrates.
- Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates into atmospheric nitrogen.
Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
- Most of the energy used in an ecosystem is derived from the sun.
- Solar energy is trapped by photosynthetic plants.
- It flows through different trophic levels.
- At each level energy is lost as heat to space and also through respiration.
- Besides animals lose energy through excretion and defecation.
- The amount of energy passed on as food from one trophic level to another
decreases progressively.
- The energy in the organisms is recycled back to plants through the various
nutrient or material cycles. Page |
46
Food Chains
- A food chain is a linear relationship between producers and consumers.

- It represents the transfer of food energy from green plants through repeated
stages of eating and being eaten.
Types of Food Chain

- Grazing food chain - starts with green plants.
- Detritus food chain - starts with dead organic material (debris or detritus).
Detritivores:
- Detritivores feed on organic wastes and dead matter derived from the grazing
food chain.
- Many different types of organisms feed on detritus.
- They include fungi, protozoa, insects, mites annelids and nematodes.
Examples of Food Chains
• Green plants → aphids → lady-bird beetle

• Grass → antelope → lion
• Algae → Tilapia → kingfisher
• Plant debris → bacteria → eprotozoa → mosquito larva
• Phytoplankron → eZooplankton → Tilapia → Nile perch → Human
Food Web
- In a natural community, several food chains are interlinked to form a food web.
- Several herbivores may feed on one plant.
- Similarly, a given herbivore may feed on different plants and may in turn be eaten
by different carnivores.
Decomposers
- These are mainly bacteria and fungi.
- These organisms feed on dead organic matter thereby causing decomposition and
decay and releasing nutrients for plants.
- They form a link between the biotic and the abiotic components.

Ways Human Activities Impact the Environment Negatively
Pollution Air, CO2, Water, Light

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47
Pollution remains one of the most concerning and pressing environmental concerns.
Air pollution, largely driven by industrial emissions and vehicle exhaust, leads to
smog, respiratory problems, serious weather events, and climate change. (CO2)
emissions further influence global warming and feed the core problem. Water
pollution, resulting from the discharge of pollutants into rivers and oceans, threatens
aquatic ecosystems and human health. Even light pollution disrupts natural
ecosystems and disrupts the behavior of nocturnal creatures. But we are past the
point of minor influence and it is time to take charge in making a change for a better
world.
Habitat Destruction
Human activities often involve the destruction of natural habitats to make way for
urban development, agriculture, and infrastructure projects. This habitat loss
threatens the survival of countless species and disrupts the delicate balance of
ecosystems. Companies involved in land-intensive industries must consider the
consequences of their actions on local wildlife and plant life. We have failed to see
how we are all connected and need to put ethical practices above monetary gain.
Deforestation and Desertification
Deforestation, driven by logging and land conversion for agriculture, significantly

contributes to habitat loss and carbon emissions. Similarly, desertification, often
linked to unsustainable agricultural practices, transforms fertile lands into arid
deserts. Both deforestation and desertification have severe consequences for
biodiversity, climate, and local communities.
Fossil Fuel Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions
The reliance on fossil fuels for energy production is a major contributor to

environmental problems. The burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases,
including carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, into the atmosphere. These
gasses trap heat, leading to rising global temperatures and climate-related disasters.
Companies, especially those in the energy sector, play a significant role in
contributing to these emissions.

Residential and Industrial Waste Generation and Management
The waste generated by human activities and industries poses a significant

challenge to the environment. Improper waste disposal, including plastic pollution in
oceans and landfills, harms wildlife and ecosystems. Companies must adopt
Page |
responsible waste management practices and invest in sustainable packaging to 48
reduce their negative impact on the environment.
Industrialization, Mining, and Agriculture
Industrialization, mining, and agriculture are essential for economic development but
can have detrimental environmental consequences. These activities often result in
soil degradation, water pollution, and the release of hazardous chemicals into the
environment. Sustainable practices and responsible resource management are
crucial for mitigating these impacts.
Gene Modification
While genetic modification has the potential to improve crop yields and address food
security, it also raises concerns about unintended consequences (GMOs) can
potentially disrupt local ecosystems and harm non-target species. Companies
involved in biotechnology and agriculture must adhere to strict regulations to
minimize negative environmental impacts.
Tourism and Migration
The tourism industry, while contributing to economic growth, can also strain local
environments and infrastructure. Overcrowding, resource consumption, and the
development of tourist destinations often have negative environmental
consequences. Similarly, large-scale human migration driven by social, economic, or
environmental factors can place immense pressure on host environments. Being
mindful of our choices should be the way we think and make choices for our own
well-being. Otherwise, we all pay a dear price
Overpopulation
Overpopulation is a root cause of many environmental challenges. As the global

population continues to grow, demands for resources and space increase, leading to
deforestation, habitat loss, and resource depletion

Consumerism and Resource Depletion
Consumerism drives high levels of resource consumption and waste generation. The
demand for different products often results in the extraction of finite resources, such
as minerals and fossil fuels, at unsustainable rates.
Page |
49
Ways of mitigating human-environment degradation
✓ Improve their environmental practices, including reducing plastic waste and

carbon emissions.
✓ Raising awareness, adopting sustainable practices, and supporting policies and

initiatives that prioritize environmental conservation.
✓ It is up to people and companies to embrace sustainability, adopt eco-friendly

practices, and make responsible choices that protect our planet.

STRAND 3: FORCE AND ENERGY
Concave and Convex Mirrors
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-They are also known as spherical mirrors and are formed when a spherical glass 50
is silvered.
-If the inside is silvered a convex or diverging is formed while
a concave or converging mirror is formed when the outside is silvered.
Parts of a Spherical Mirror
1. Centre of curvature (C) this is the centre of the sphere of which the
mirror is part of. The centre itself is called the pole (P).
2. Principal axis this is the line joining the centre of curvature (C) to the
pole (P).
3. Principal focus (F) is a point on the principal axis through which a ray is
reflected when it hits a concave mirror. In a convex mirror the ray is

reflected and appears to originate from the point. F is virtual for a convex
mirror while it is real for a concave mirror.
4. Radius of curvature (r) - this is the distance from the pole to the centre of Page |
51
curvature. The distance from the pole to the principal focus is called the
focal length (f).
Parabolic Mirrors
- They produce a wide parallel beam or converge a large beam of light to a point.
- They are widely used in making car headlights or in spotlights.
Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors

Location of images using ray diagrams
- When drawing ray diagrams the following symbols are used to represent the
mirrors. Page |
52
The image is located by drawing any two of the following rays:
A ray parallel to the principal axis which is reflected through the principal focus.
1. A ray through the centre of curvature which is reflected along its own path
since it hits the mirror normally.
2. A ray through the principal focus which is reflected parallel to the principal
axis.
- Virtual images are formed when rays diverge and as such the rays are extended
backwards using dotted line till they meet.
- A real image is formed by intersection of real rays.
a) Concave mirror

a) Object at infinity: image is formed at F. It is real, inverted and diminished.
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53
b) Object at C: image formed at C. It is real, inverted and the same size as the
object.

c) Object behind C: image is formed between C and F. It is real, inverted and
diminished.
Page |
54
d) Object between F and C: Image is formed behind C. It is real, inverted and
magnified.

e) Object at F: Image formed is at infinity.
Page |
55
f) Object between F and P: Image is formed behind the mirror. It is virtual, erect
and magnified.

b) Convex mirror
a) Image is always formed behind the mirror. It is virtual, erect
and always diminished. Page |

56
Applications of curved reflectors

a) They are used in satellite dishes.
b) They are used in making shaving mirrors.
c) They are used in telescopes.
d) They are used in driving mirrors.
Magnification
- Magnification is the ratio of the image size to the object size.
- Magnification (M) = height of the image / height of the object.
- When the ratio is greater than one we say the image is magnified and when less Page |
57
than one we say it is diminished.
- Also magnification = image distance from the mirror / object distance from
the mirror.
Practice Example 1
1. Determine the size, position and nature of the image of an object 5.0 cm tall,
placed on the principal axis of a concave mirror of focal length 15 cm, at a
distance 35 cm from the mirror.
Solution
Let 1 cm represent 5 cm. Then the focal length is 3 cm.
Object distance = 7 cm, object height = 1 cm.
From the scale drawing,
Image position = 5.4 cm × 5 = 27 cm in front of the mirror.
Image size = 0.75 cm × 5 = 3.75 cm.
Image is real and inverted.
Practice Example 2

2. A vertical object 5 cm high is placed 10 cm in front of a convex mirror of focal
length 15 cm. find the position, size and nature of image formed. Determine the
magnification of the image. Page |

58
Solution
Let 1 cm represent 5 cm, then the focal length = 3 cm, object size = 1 cm
Object distance = 2 cm.
From the scale drawing,
Image position = 1.2 cm × 5 = 6.0 cm behind the mirror.
Image size = 0.6 cm × 5 = 3.0 cm.
The image is virtual and erect.
Magnification = image distance / object distance. Hence 6 /10 = 0.6 (diminished).
Waves
Introduction
- A wave is simply a disturbance that moves through a medium. Other waves do
not require a medium to travel i.e. they can travel in a vacuum, are known
as electromagnetic waves e.g. radio, X-rays, gamma rays UV rays etc. Page |
59
- Other waves require a material medium to be transferred and are
called mechanical waves i.e. water, sound waves etc.
Transverse and Longitudinal Pulses and Waves
1. Transverse waves
They consist of a crest and a trough.
- In this case the displacement of the medium caused by these pulses are
perpendicular to the direction in which the wave (disturbance) travels.
- A pulse is a single non-repeated disturbance.
- If the pulses are repeated periodically (regularly) they produce a series of waves
called periodic transverse wave train.
- They can be produced as shown below.
2. Longitudinal waves
- These are waves whereby the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the
direction of movement of the disturbance.

- When several turns of a spring are pulled together (compression) and then
released they tend to spread out to their original position.
- When pulled apart (rarefaction) they also turn to their original position. Page |
60
- In this case the displacement of the spring is parallel to the motion of the wave
and this is known as longitudinal.
Characteristics of waves
1. All waves have speed which depends on the nature of disturbance.
2. All waves have wavelength (distance between two successive points in a
wave). Represented by the symbol λ and is measured in metres.
3. All waves have frequency - ' f ' which is the number of waves passing a
point in one second. It is measured in cycles per second or hertz (Hz). The
period of a wave is the time required for a complete wave to pass a given
point.
Therefore T = 1 / f or f = 1 / T (period is measured in seconds).
The speed 'v' is given as: v = λ / T, since f = 1 / T then v = (1 / T) x λ = f λ
or v = f λ. This is the wave equation.
4. All waves have amplitude which is the maximum displacement of the
particles of the medium as the wave passes.
Practice Example 1
1. A rope is displaced at a frequency of 3 Hz. If the distance between two
successive crests of the wave train is 0.8 m, calculate the speed of the waves

along the rope.
Solution Page |
61
v = f λ = 3 x 0.8 = 2.4 m
Hz = 2.4 m/s.
Practice Example 2
2. The figure below illustrates part of the displacement-time graph of a wave
travelling across water at a particular place with a velocity of 2 ms-1 Calculate the
wave's:
a) Amplitude
b) Frequency (f)
c) Wavelength (λ)

Solution
a) From the graph, maximum displacement
(a) = 0.4 cm. Page |

62
b) From the graph, period T = time for one cycle = 0.20 seconds.
So f = 1 / T = 1 / 0.20 = 5 Hz.
c) Velocity = f λ hence λ = 2 / 5 = 0.4 m.

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CBC Page | 1

Simple Structure of the Atom

called sub-atomic particles as follows;

• Protons - found in the nucleus, they are positively charged (+ve)

• Electrons - found in the nucleus, they are negatively charged (ve)

• Neutrons - they can be imagined as circulating the nucleus in energy levels,

they have no charge

• In a neutral atom, Number of protons = Number of electrons

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

Sub-atomic Particle Mass Charge Where found in atom

Proton 1 + (Positive) inside nucleus

Neutron 1 0 (Neutral) inside nucleus

Electron 1/1840 - (Negative) outside nucleus

Structure of the Atom

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

shown in the table below.

Element Symbol Electron Configuration

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

Atomic Number and Mass Number

It also tells us the number of electrons in an atom

Atomic Number = Number of Protons = Number of Electrons

than the atomic number. It is denoted by letter A.

Roughly the mass number is double the atomic number.

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

17 and mass number, A = 35

subscript as shown below

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

Copper's resistance to corrosion and its durability make it a valuable material.

Additionally, its resilience in high-moisture environments contributes to its long-

When exposed to oxygen, aluminum develops a protective oxide layer that

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

Additionally, like copper and aluminum, nickel exhibits excellent thermal

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

Different types of metal alloys

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

Advantages of Alloy Metals

❖ Built to Withstand Corrosion

Applications of Alloy Metals

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

There are two main nutrition modes:

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

The image below shows types of leaves margins.

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

This is the outermost layer of the leaf.

Functions of the cuticle

Functions of the epidermis:

It protects the leaf from mechanical damage.

Adaptations of the guard cells

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

GRADE 9 INTEGRATED SCIENCE

Raw Materials for Photosynthesis

Conditions for Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a complex process that involves a series of reactions. It can be

- Light reaction/Light stage

• Electrons - found in the nucleus, they are negatively charged (ve)