Chapter 6

Atoms and atomic physics

 Content of chapter 6
1. Principle of radiation:
2. atomic structure and nucleus components
3. Nuclear binding energy
4. Types of radiation (Alpha particles –Beta particles – gamma ray - X-
ray)
 6.1 The atom
It is now known that atoms are not solid, indivisible objects
as the Greek philosophers believed but are composed of
even smaller particles. These particles, from which all atoms
are constructed, are called protons, neutrons and electrons.

The basic atom consists of a central, positively charged

nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively-charged
electrons.
3
 6.1.1 The nucleus
 Protons and neutrons together
makeup the nucleus of an atom.
 The nucleus determines both the
identity of the element and its
atomic mass.
Protons and neutrons have nearly the same mass
however only proton carry a charge while
neutrons are electrically neutral.

Small nucleus is surrounded by orbiting electrons

4
 6.1.1 The nucleus (continue)
 In an electrically neutral atom, the number of
protons dictates the number of electrons
bounded to the nucleus, while the electron
configuration affects the atom's chemical
characteristics.
 Each chemical element's nucleus contains a
unique number of protons. For example, carbon
atoms contains six protons, but oxygen always
has eight.
5
 6.1.1.1 Protons
Protons are positively and sub atomically charged
particles. They can be present in the atomic nuclei of all
elements. The number of protons in the nucleus of the
atom is equal to the atomic number (Z), that determines
the element configuration in the periodic table of
elements. Hydrogen atom contains only a single
proton and no neutrons.
Particle Symbol Mass (kg) Atomic Mass Unit (amu)
Proton P+ 1.673×10-27 1.007

6
 6.1.1.2 The neutrons
Neutrons are particles located in the nucleus of an atom.
Unlike protons and electrons, neutrons do not carry an
electrical charge and are therefore considered "neutral.“
Atoms of a specific element can vary in the number of
neutrons they contain.

Particle Symbol Mass (kg) Atomic mass unit (amu)

neutron n 1.675×10-27 1.009

7
 6.1.1.3 The electrons
Electrons are negatively charged particles surrounding
the nucleus in “orbits” similar to how moons orbit
planets.
The exchange of electrons between atoms creates chemical
bonds, which are used to form new molecules and compounds.
Particle Symbol Mass (kg) Atomic Mass Unit (amu)
Electron e- 9.109×10-31 0.0005486
8
 6.2 The atomic structure and nucleus components

•An atom's neutrons and protons form a central core or nucleus,

around which electrons inhabit multiple orbits known as shells.
The shell nearest to the nucleus can have a maximum of two
The inner shell is known as the k shell, the second is called the l shell, the third the m shell, the fourth the n shell and so on.
electrons, the second can have up to eight, and the outer shells
The maximum numbers of electrons in the K, L, M and N shells are 2, 8, 18 and 32, respectively.
have Forincreasing numbers
example, the atomic system .of zinc, illustrated in figure, has 30 electrons arranged in four shells.

• The inner shell is referred to as the k shell, the second as the l

shell, the third as the m shell, the fourth as the n shell, etc. The K,
L, M, and N shells have a maximum of 2, 8, 18, and 32 electrons,
respectively. For example, the atomic system of zinc, depicted in
the figure, has 30 electrons organized in four shells.
9
 6.2 The atomic structure and nucleus components
(continue)
• Normally, each atom has the same number of protons
and electrons. This implies that the total positive charge
on the nucleus equals the total negative charge and the
atom is generally electrically neutral since it contains
electrons.
• The figure depicts two basic atoms—hydrogen and
helium. It's important to remember that this hydrogen
atom is the only one without neutrons. 10
 6.3 The elements and atomic number
 The atomic number Z of an element is equal to the
number of protons in the nucleus of that element.
 The mass number A of an element is equal to the
total number of nucleons (protons + neutrons(.
The mass number A of any element is equal to the sum
of the atomic number Z and the number of neutrons N :
A= N + Z
A
Z
X Mass number
Atomic number Symbol
For example, consider beryllium (Be( that 9
4Be
11
 6.3 The elements and atomic number (continue)

Name of the Element Symbol of the Element Atomic Number

 Up to the heaviest naturally occurring
Hydrogen H 1
element, uranium (U), which has an
Helium He 2
atomic number of 92.
Lithium Li 3  About 20 or so elements of a higher
Beryllium Be 4 atomic number have been artificially
Boron B 5 produced in the past 70 years or so.
Carbon C 6  They are all unstable and can only be
Nitrogen N 7 made under special conditions which
Oxygen O 8 are not found naturally on Earth.

12
 6.4 The isotopes of elements
Isotopes are atoms that have the same number of protons (Z 1= Z 2), but a
different number of neutrons (N(.)A1  A2 (
Carbon, Chlorine and Helium isotopes are atoms
with different number of neutrons
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟒
Carbon Isotopes 𝟔𝐂 𝟔𝐂 𝟔𝐂
𝟑𝟓 𝟑𝟔 𝟑𝟕
Chlorine Isotopes 𝟏𝟕𝐂𝐥 𝟏𝟕𝐂𝐥 𝟏𝟕𝐂𝐥
𝟑 𝟒 𝟓
Helium Isotopes 𝟐𝐇𝐞 𝟐𝐇𝐞 𝟐𝑯𝒆

• Example: The helium atom contains two protons and

two neutrons and so has a mass number of 4. Helium can
also occur with one or three neutrons in the nucleus.
• These three isotopes are normally referred to as helium-
3,helium-4 and helium-5, which are often shortened to He-
3, He-4 and He-5. 13
 6.5 A list of some terms used in nuclear physics
 A nucleon can be either a proton or a neutron.
 A nuclide refers to a nucleus or atom having a specified nuclear
composition, including the number of neutrons.
 Isotopes have the same number of protons but a different number of
neutrons.
 Isotone atoms have the same number of neutrons but different
numbers of protons.
 Isobars are atoms with the same number of nucleons but a different
number of protons (A remains constant, while Z changes).
 Isomer atoms contain the same number of protons and neutrons. They
have different nuclear energy states. 14
 6.6 Mass Defect
• According to nuclear particle experiments, the total mass
of a nucleus (mnuc) is less than the sum of the masses of its
constituent Nucleons (protons and neutrons). The mass
difference, or mass defect , is given by
Δm=Zmp+(A−Z)mn−mnuc
• Where Zmp is the total mass of the protons, (A−Z)mn is
the total mass of the neutrons, and mnuc is the mass of the
nucleus.
15
 6.7 Nuclear binding energy
The binding energy is equal to the amount of energy released in
forming the nucleus ( is the minimum energy that is required to
disassemble the nucleus of an atom into its constitutes protons and
neutrons known collectively as nucleons), and is therefore given by

EB=(Δm)c 2
• Noting that 1amu=931.5MeV/c2
16
 Example (6.1)
Calculate the mass defect and the binding energy of the deuteron. The mass of
the deuteron is mD=3.34359×10−27kg; or 1875.61MeV/c2.
Solution
For the deuteron Z=1 and A=2., the mass defect for the deuteron is

Δm=mp+mn−mD
Δm =938.28MeV/c2 + 939.57MeV/c2 −1875.61MeV/c2 = 2.24MeV/c2.
The binding energy of the deuteron is then
• EB= (Δm)c2= (2.24MeV/c2)(c2) =2.24MeV.
17
 6.7 Binding energy per nucleon (BE/N)
• To compare nuclear stability, consider the binding energy per nucleon. The
binding energy per nucleon is defined as the binding energy of a nucleus
divided by the number of nucleons in the nucleus, as provided by:
𝑬𝑩
𝑩𝑬𝑵 =
𝑨
• A greater binding energy per nucleon suggests increased stability. In other
words, it takes more energy to pull the nucleus apart.
• Iron (A = 56) has the greatest binding energy per nucleon, making it the most
stable element.
• The quantity (BEN) describes the average energy necessary to remove a single
nucleon from a nucleus, similar to the ionization energy of an electron in an
atom.
18
 Example (6.2)
Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of an 4He(αparticle). Or determine the total
binding energy ( 𝑬𝑩 ) using the equation EB=(Δm)c2, where Δm is the mass defect.
The binding energy per nucleon (BEN) is 𝑬𝑩 divided by A.
Solution
For 4He, we have Z=N=2. The total binding energy is 𝑬𝑩 =[2mp+2mn]−m(4He)c2.

These masses are m(4He)=4.002602amu, mp=1.007825amu, and mn=1.008665amu.

Thus we have
EB=(0.030378u)c2
• Noting that 1amu=931.5MeV/𝒄𝟐 , we find EB=(0.030378)(931.5MeV/𝒄𝟐 )𝒄𝟐 =28.3MeV.
𝑬𝑩 𝟕.𝟎𝟕
• Since A=4, the total binding energy per nucleon is 𝑩𝑬𝑵 = = 𝑴𝒆𝑽
𝑨 𝑨

19
 Example (6.3)
Calculate the binding energy per nucleon for an alpha particle whose mass defect is
calculated as 0.0292amu.
Solution
Given: 𝒎𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕 = 0.0292amu; Convert the 𝒎𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕 into kg (1amu =1.660610-27 kg)
Mass defect =(0.0292 )( 1.6606 x 10-27 )= 0.04848 x 10-27 kg/nucleus
Convert this mass into energy using EB = ∆mc2, where c = 2.9979 x 108 m/s.
EB = (0.04848 x 10-27)(2.9979 x 108 )2 = 0.4357 x 10-11 J/nucleus
Convert Energy in terms of kJ/mole where (1 kJ = 1000 J) we can convert to mole
by multiplying with the Avogadro number (6.022 x 1023 nuclei/mol)
Therefore, EB = (0.4357 x 10-11)(6.022 x 1023)/1000
Binding Energy EB = 2.62378 x 109 kJ/mole

20
 6.8 Types of Radiation
• Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of a nucleus
into a separate nucleus and one or more extra particles.
• The nuclear equation shows the radioactive decay of an
element.
𝟏𝟒 𝟏𝟒 𝟎
𝟔 𝑪 → 𝟕 𝑵 + −𝟏𝒆
• Nuclear Forces: A strong nuclear force pulls neutrons and
protons together to form a nucleus, opposing electromagnetic
repulsion.
• The weak nuclear force operates inside individual nucleons,
producing some types of radioactivity. 21
 6.8.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum
 The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into separate bands.
 each band has a different name as shown below .
 The spectrum, which varies in frequency and wavelength, includes ionizing
radiation through the visible and ends with nonionizing radiation.
Ionizing Radiation Visible Nonionizing Radiation
Infrared
Ultraviolet Near Far Radar
X Rays FM
Gamma Rays TV
Short wave
Cosmic Rays Broadcast Power
Transmission

10-14 10-12 10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1 102 104 106 108
Wavelength in Meters

1010 108 106 104 102 1 10-2 10-4 10-6 10-8 10-10 10-12 10-14

High Low 22
Energy - Electron Volts
 6.8.2 Band of stability
Elements with Z > 82 are all unstable and radioactive.
Black squares indicate stable
nuclei. Decay occurs to move
isotopes towards the black line

23
 6.9 Radioactive decay
As heavier atoms become more unstable, their nuclei release
particles and photons, indicating that they are radioactive.
All elements with Z greater than 83 are radioactive.

Examples are:
 Alpha particles 
 Beta particles  ( (electrons) and  (positrons))
 Gamma rays 

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 6.9.1 Radioactive decay of Alpha  particles
An alpha decay particle  is the nucleus of a helium atom 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆 consisting of two
protons and two neutrons tightly bound, together, with total spin zero.
When an unstable nucleus (such as radium-226) decays into a different nuclide (such as radon-
222), it can emit an alpha particle.
When a nucleus emit an alpha particle,
Emit an alpha
its N and Z values each decrease by 2 particle

and A decreases by 4.

𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 decays by
The nuclide 𝟐𝟐𝟔
alpha emission to 𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏

Alpha decay is possible when ever the mass of the original neutral atom is greater than the
sum of the masses of the final neutral atom and a neutral 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆 atom.
25
 6.9.2 Radioactive decay of gamma  radiation

A gamma ray  has very high electromagnetic radiation carrying energy away from the
nucleus.
26
 6.9.2 Radioactive decay of beta β particles
6.9.2.1 𝜷−𝟏 decay
Beta-minus  decay results when a neutron decays into a proton and an electron. Thus, the
Z-number increases by one.
𝒏 → 𝒑 + 𝜷−𝟏 + 𝝂𝒆
𝑨
𝒁𝑿 → 𝑨
𝒁+𝟏𝒀 + −𝟏𝟎𝜷 + 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈
𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎
Example: 𝟐𝟕𝑪𝒐 → 𝟐𝟖𝑵𝒊 + −𝟏𝟎𝜷 (Z increases by 1, and A remains unchanged.)
6.9.2.2 𝜷+𝟏 decay
Beta-plus  decay results when a proton decays into a neutron and a positron. Thus, the Z-
number decreases by one. +𝟏
𝒑→𝒏+𝜷 + 𝝂𝒆
𝑨
𝒁𝑿 → 𝑨
𝒁−𝟏𝒀 + +𝟏𝟎𝜷 + 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈
𝟓𝟕 𝟓𝟕
Example: 𝟐𝟕𝑪𝒐 → 𝟐𝟔𝑭𝒆 + +𝟏𝟎𝜷 (Z deceases by 1, and A remains unchanged.)
27
 6.9.3 Radioactive due to Gamma () decay
 Unlike charged particles like  and  particles gamma-rays are
electromagnetic radiation with high frequency.
 Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves of short wavelength and
high frequency. The wavelength ranges from 0.005 Angstrom to 0.5
Angstrom.
 They pass through with the velocity of light and are not charged
particles like alpha or beta rays.
 They produce a fluorescence effect on a photographic plate.
 They ionize the gas they travel through, but the ionization produced
is very small.
 They are highly penetrating rays, and they are even more
penetrative than alpha and beta particles. For instance, gamma rays
can even pass through 30 cm-thick iron.
28
 6.9.3 Radioactive due to Gamma () decay (continue)
 Gamma rays are not affected by electric or magnetic fields.
 They are diffracted by crystals just like X-rays.
 When atoms decay by emitting a or b particles to form a new atom,
the nuclei of the new atom formed may still have too much energy to
be completely stable.
 This excess energy is emitted as gamma rays (gamma ray photons
have energies of ~ 1 x 10-12 J).
 Gamma ray is known as a high energy photon Example:
𝟐𝟑𝟖
𝟗𝟐𝑼 → 𝟐𝟑𝟒
𝟗𝟎 𝑻𝒉 + 𝟒
𝟐 𝑯𝒆 + 𝟐 𝟎
𝟎𝜸
 Net effect is no change in mass number or atomic number.

29
 6.10 Electron Capture Decay
Electron capture results when a proton and an electron decays into a
neutron and a neutrino .
• Electron capture is a process in which an electron from an inner
orbit is captured by the nucleus, resulting in the conversion of a
proton to a neutron:
𝟏
𝟏𝒑 + −𝟏𝟎𝒆 → 𝟏𝟎𝒏
201 201
80𝐻𝑔 + −10𝑒 → 79𝐴𝑢 + 𝜈 + 00𝛾
•
Net effect is to change a proton to a neutron
30
 6.11 X- rays
 X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation, similar to visible light.
 Unlike light, however, x-rays have higher energy and can pass through most objects,
including the body.
 Medical x-rays are used to generate images of tissues and structures inside the body.

31
 6.12 Radioactive decay law- half life
 The decay of a radioactive sample is statistical in nature, and it is impossible to predict when any
atom will disintegrate.
 The consequence of this random behavior of radioactive atoms is that the radioactive decay law is
exponential in nature.
 The law of radioactive decay describes quantitatively the decay in a large set of radioactive elements.
Mathematically, the law is formulated as follows:
𝑁 = 𝑁𝜊 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
 Where N is the number of atoms in the given sample at time t , 𝑁𝜊 is the number of atoms at
time t=0 and λ is the decay constant.
 The decay constant is related to the often used half-life in the following way:
𝒍𝒏𝟐 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝒕𝟏 = =
𝟐 𝝀 𝝀
 The half-life characterizes the respective isotope. In radiation context, the SI
unit for activity is Becquerel (Bq), it is equal to desintigration/second.
 The common unit for activity is curie it is used for a relatively large amount
which is defined as 3.7×10 10 Bq (radioactive decays per second), or 1 Ci = 3.7 x
10 10 Bq. Its fractions, such as mill curie (mCi) or microcurie (µCi), are more
commonly used. 32
 6.12 Radioactive decay law- half life (continue)
Mean lifetime
 If the decaying quantity, N(t), is the number of discrete elements in a certain
set, it is possible to compute the average length of time that an element remains
in the set.
 This is called the mean lifetime (or simply the lifetime), where the exponential
time constant, 𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 , relates to the decay rate constant, λ, in the following way:
𝑡1 𝑡1
1
𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 2 = 2
𝜆 𝑙𝑛2 0.693
 The mean lifetime can be looked at as a "scaling time", because the exponential
decay equation can be written in terms of the mean lifetime, 𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 , instead of the
decay constant, λ.

33
 Example (6.3)
The isotope 𝟓𝟕𝑪𝒐 decays by capture to 𝟓𝟕𝑭𝒆 with a half- life of 272 day. The 𝟓𝟕𝑭𝒆 nucleus is
produced in an exited state, and it almost instantaneously emits gamma rays that we can
detect.
(a)Find the mean lifetime and decay constant for 𝟓𝟕𝑪𝒐.
(b) what will be activity after one year(1y=3.156× 𝟏𝟎𝟕 s) If the radiation source is now 2 µCi?
Solution:
𝒔
(a) 𝒕𝟏 =272 days× (86400 )= 2.35× 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝐬
𝟐
𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝒕𝟏 𝟕
2.35 × 𝟏𝟎
𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 𝟐 = 𝒔 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝐬 = 𝟑𝟗𝟐 𝐝𝐚𝐲𝐬
𝒍𝒏𝟐 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝟏 1 −𝟏 −𝟖 −𝟏
𝝀= = 𝟕 𝒔 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 𝒔
𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝟑. 𝟑𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎
(b) 𝑵 = 𝑵𝝄 𝒆−𝝀𝒕 = 𝑵𝝄 𝒆−(𝟐.𝟗𝟓×𝟏𝟎 𝒔 )(3.156×𝟏𝟎 s) =0.394 𝑵𝝄
−𝟖 −𝟏 𝟕

The number of nuclei has decreased to 0.394 of the original number this equation -
𝒅𝑵(𝒕)
= 𝝀 𝑵(𝒕) says the activity is proportional to number nuclei, so the activity has
𝒅𝒕
decreased
34 by this same factor to (0.394) (2 µCi)=0.788 μCi
 6.13 Radiation units and doses
• As previously stated, gas ionization provides a way of detecting radiation, and the first
widely used radiation unit, the roentgen, was based on X and g radiation's ionizing
action on air.

• This unit had significant restrictions, thus two new units, the rad, and the rem, were
added. These two units were eventually superseded in the SI system by the gray (Gy)
and Sievert (Sv).

• • The International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU)

adopted the gray and Sievert, which are used by the International Commission on
Radiological Protection (ICRP). 35
 6.13.1 Absorbed dose
• Absorbed dose is a measure of energy deposition in any medium by
any type of ionizing radiation. The original unit of absorbed dose
was the rad, which was defined as an energy deposition of 0.01 joule
per kilogram (J/kg).
The unit of absorbed dose in SI units is the gray and is defined as an
energy deposition of 1 J/kg. Thus:
1 Gy = 1 J/kg
When quoting an absorbed dose, it is important to specify the
absorbing medium.

36
 6.13.2 Equivalent dose
 In biological systems, the amount of radiation absorbed does not necessarily produce the same degree
of damage. For example, 0.05 Gy of fast neutrons can cause as much damage as 1 Gy of g radiation.
 To obtain the total biologically effective dose, we multiply the absorbed dose of each type of radiation
by a radiation weighting factor (𝑤𝑅), which reflects the ability of the particular type of radiation to
cause damage.
 The equivalent dose, H, obtained when the absorbed dose is multiplied by the radiation weighting
factor is known as the equivalent dose.
 The unit of equivalent dose in SI units is the Sievert, which is related to the gray as follows:
Equivalent dose(H) (Sv) = Absorbed dose (Gy) 𝒘𝑹
 The value of the radiation weighting factor depends on the density of ionization caused by the
radiation. For g radiation, the weighting factor is assigned 1 and for other types, it is related to their
ionization densities.
 The value of the radiation weighting factor for neutrons depends on neutron energy and varies from
2.5 to 3.5.
37
 6.13.4 Radiation weighting factor
Table 6.1 Summary of values of radiation weighting factor

No Type of radiation Radiation weighting factor

1 X-rays, y-rays and electrons 1
2 Protons 5
3 Thermal neutrons 2.5
4 Fast neutrons 2.5-20*
5  particles, fission fragments 20
*Depending on energy.
weighting factor
6.13.5 Radiation effective dose
 Different organs and tissues have varying radiation sensitivities, requiring the
concept of effective dose (E) to address uneven exposure.
 E is calculated by summing equivalent doses to all tissues and organs multiplied by
a weighting factor for each tissue or organ. The effective dose is expressed as
𝑬= 𝑯𝑻 𝝎𝑻
𝑻
 Where 𝑯𝑻 represents the equivalent dose in tissue T. E also uses units of Sieverts. 38
 Example (6.4)
In 1 year a worker receives a 𝛾 dose of 0.01 Gy, a thermal neutron
(𝑁𝑠) dose of 0.002 Gy and a fast neutron dose (𝑁𝑓) of 0.0002 Gy.
What is his total equivalent dose? (Take the radiation weighting
factor for fast neutrons as 20.)
Solution
Equivalent dose = absorbed dose × radiation weighting factor
Equivalent dose, 𝛾 = 0.01 × 1 = 0.01 Sv
Equivalent dose, 𝑁𝑠 = 0.002 × 2.5 = 0.005 Sv
Equivalent dose, 𝑁𝑓 = 0.0002 x 20 = 0.004 Sv
Total equivalent dose = 0.019 Sv
39
 Example (6.5)
On three successive days, a nuclear reactor operator received the following doses of 
radiation:
Day 1 95 µSν
Day 2 5µSv
Day 3 1mSv
What was his total dose in mSv over the 3 days?
Solution
Day Dose mSv
1 𝟗𝟓 0.095
95µSv = 𝒎𝑺𝒗
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
2 𝟓 0.005
5µSv = 𝒎𝑺𝒗
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
3 1mSv 1.000
Total dose = 1.100 mSv

40
Good Luck

41