Zen Education and Learning

1. INTRODUCTION
ELECTROSTATICS
The branch of physics which deals with electric effect of static charge is called electrostatics.

2. ELECTRIC CHARGE
Charge of a material body or particle is the property (acquired or natural) due to which it produces and
experiences electrical and magnetic effects. Some of naturally charged particles are electron, proton, -
particle etc.
2.1 Types of Charge
(i) Positive charge : It is the deficiency of electrons compared to protons.
(ii) Negative charge : It is the excess of electrons compared to protons.

2.2 Units of Charge

Charge is a derived physical quantity. Charge is measured in coulomb in S.. unit. In practice we use mC
(10–3C), C (10–6C), nC(10–9C) etc.
C.G.S. unit of charge = electrostatic unit = esu.
1 coulomb = 3 × 109 esu of charge
Dimensional formula of charge = [MºLºT11]
2.3 Properties of Charge
(i) Charge is a scalar quantity : It adds algebrically and represents excess, or deficiency of electrons.
(ii) Charge is transferable : Charging a body implies transfer of charge (electrons) from one body to
another. Positively charged body means loss of electrons, i.e., deficiency of electrons. Negatively
charged body means excess of electrons. This also shows that mass of a negatively charged
body > mass of a positively charged identical body.
( ii i ) Charge is conserved : In an isolated system, total charge (sum of positive and negative) remains
constant whatever change takes place in that system.

(iv) Charge is quantized : Charge on any body always exists in integral multiples of a fundamental
unit of electric charge. This unit is equal to the magnitude of charge on electron (1e = 1.6 × 10–19
coulomb). So charge on anybody Q = ± ne, where n is an integer and e is the charge of the
electron. Millikan's oil drop experiment proved the quantization of charge or atomicity of charge
1 2
Note : Recently, the existence of particles of charge ± e and ± e has been postulated. These
3 3
particles are called quarks but still this is not considered as the quantum of charge because
These are unstable (They have very short span of life).
(v) Like point charges repel each other while unlike point charges attract each other.
(vi) A charged body may attract a neutral body or an oppositely charged body but it always repels a
similarly charged body.
Note : Repulsion is a sure test of electrification whereas attraction may not be.
(vii) Charge is always associated with mass, i.e., charge can not exist without mass though mass can
exist without charge. The particle such as photon or neutrino which have no (rest) mass can never
have a charge. As charge can not exist without mass, the presence of charge itself is a convincing
proof of existence of mass.
(viii) Charge is relativistically invariant: This means that charge is independent of frame of reference,

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i.e., charge on a body does not change whatever be its speed. This property is worth mentioning
as in contrast to charge, the mass of a body depends on its speed and increases with increase in
speed.
(ix) A charge at rest produces only electric field around itself; a charge having uniform motion produces
electric as well as magnetic field around itself while a charge having accelerated motion emits
electromagnetic radiation also in addition to producing electric and magnetic fields.

2.4 Charging of a body

A body can be charged by means of (a) friction, (b) conduction, (c) induction, (d) thermoinic
ionisation, (e) photoelectric effect and (f) field emission.

(a) Charging by Friction :

When a neutral body is rubbed with other neutral body (at least one of them should be insulator) then
some electrons are transferred from one body to other. The body which gains electrons becomes nega-
tively charged and other becomes positively charged.

(b) Conduction (flow): There are three types of material in nature

(1) Conductor : Materials which have large number of free electrons.
(2) Insulator or Dielectric or Nonconductors : Materials which do not have free electrons.
When a charged conductor is connected with a neutral conductor then charge flows from one body to
other body. In case of two charged conductors charge flows from higher potential energy to lower
potential energy. The charge stops flowing when the potential of the two bodies become same.

Note: If two identical shaped conductors kept at large distance are connected to each other then they
will have equal charges finally.

(c) Induction : When a charged particle is taken near to neutral object then the electrons move to one
side and there is excess of electrons on that side making it negatively charged and deficiency on the
other side making that side positively charged. Hence charges appear on two sides of the body (al-
though total charge of the body is still zero). This phenomenon is called induction and the charge
produced by it is called induced charge.

A body can be charged by in duction in following two ways.

Method  :
The potential of conductor A becomes zero after earthing. To make potential zero some electrons flow
from the Earth to the conductor A and now connection is removed making it negatively charged.
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Method  :
The conductor which has induced charge on it, is connected to a neutral conductor which makes the
flow of charge such that their potentials become equal and now they are disconnected making the
neutral conductor charged.

(d) Thermionic emission : When the metal is heated at a high temperature then some electrons of
metals are ejected and the metal gets ionised. It becomes positively charged.

(e) Photoelectric effect : When light of sufficiently high frequency is incident on metal surface then
some electrons come out and metal gets ionized

(f) Field emission : When electric field of large magnitude is applied near the metal surface then some
electrons come out from the metal surface and hence the metal gets positively charged.

Ex.1 Charge conservation is always valid. Is it also true for mass ?

Ex.2 What are the differences between charging by induction and charging by conduction ?
Q.1 If a glass rod is rubbed with silk it acquires a positive charge because :
(A) protons are added to it (B) protons are removed from it
(C) electrons are added to it (D) electrons are removed from it.
Q.2 A positively charged body 'A' attracts a body 'B' then charge on body 'B' may be:
(A) positive (B) negative (C) zero (D) can't say

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3. COULOMB’S LAW (INVERSE SQUARE LAW)
On the basis of experiments Coulomb established the following law known as Coulamb's law.

The magnitude of electrostatic force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
i.e. F  q 1q 2
1
F
r2
q1q2 Kq1q2
 F 2  F=
r r2
Important points regarding Coulamb's law :
(i) It is applicable only for point charges.
1
(ii) The constant of proportionality K in SI units in vacuum is expressed as 4 and in any other
0

1
medium expressed as . If charges are dipped in a medium then electrostatic force on one
4

1 q1q2
charge is .  0 and  are called permittivity of vacuum and absolute permittivity of
4 0  r r2
the medium respectively. The ratio  /  0 =  r is called relative permittivity of the medium, which is
a dimensionless quantity.
(iii) The value of relative permittivity  r varies between 1 to . For vacuum, by definition it is equal to 1.
For air it is nearly equal to 1 and may be taken to be equal to 1 for calculations. For metals the
value of  r is .

1
(iv) The value of 4 = 9 × 109 Nm 2 C–2.
0

(v) The force acting on one point charge due to the other point charge is always along the line joining
these two charges. It is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on two charges, irrespective
of the medium, in which they lie.
(vi) The force is conservative in nature i.e., work done by electrostatic force in moving a point charge
along a close loop of any shape is zero.
(vii) Since the force is a central force, in the absence of any other external force, angular momentum of
one particle w.r.t. the other particle (in two particle system) is conserved,
(x) In vector form formula can be given as below.

 1 q1q2  1 q1q2
F = 4  | r |3 r = 4  | r |2 r̂
0 r 0 r


here r is position vector of the test charge with respect to the source charge.
Ex.3 If the distance between two equal point charges is doubled and their individual charges are also doubled,
what would happen to the force between them?
Ex.4 A particle of mass m carrying charge q1 is revolving around a fixed charge –q2 in a circular path of radius r.
Calculate the period of revolution and its speed also.

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4. PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
The electrostatic force is a two body interaction, i.e., electrical force between two point charges is
independent of presence or absence of other charges and so the principle of superposition is valid, i.e.,
force on charged particle due to number of point charges is the resultant of forces due to individual point
   
charges, therefore, force on a point test charge due to many charges is given by F  F1  F2  F3  .......... . .

5. ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM
The point where the resultant force becomes zero is called equilibrium position.
5 . 1 Stable Equilibrium : If charge is initially in equilibrium position and is displaced by a small
distance. If the charge tries to return back to the same equilibrium position then this equilibrium is called
position of stable equilibrium.

5.2 Unstable Equilibrium : If charge is displaced by a small distance from its equilibrium position and
the charge has no tendency to return to the same equilibrium position. Instead it goes away from the
equilibrium position.
Ex. 5 Two equal positive point charges 'Q' are placed at points A(a, 0) and B(–a, 0). Another test charge q0 is also
placed at O(0, 0). Show that the equilibrium at 'O' is
(i) stable for displacement along X-axis.
(ii) unstable for displacement along Y-axis.
Q.3 In example number 5 if q0 is negative point charge then prove that the equilibrium at 'O' is
(i) stable for displacement in Y-direction.
(ii) unstable for displacement in X-direction.

5.3 Neutral Equilibrium : If charge is displaced by a small distance and it is still in equilibrium condition
then it is called neutral equilibrium.
Ex. 6 Two point charges of charge q1 and q2 (both of same sign) and each of mass m are placed such that
gravitation attraction between them balances the electrostatic repulsion. Are they in stable equilibrium? If
not then what is the nature of equilibrium?
Ex. 7 Two equally charged identical metal sphere A and B repel each other with a force 2 × 10–5N . Another
identical uncharged sphere C is touched to B and then placed at the mid point between A and B. What
is the net electric force on C?
Ex. 8 Five point charges, each of value q are placed on five vertices of a regular hexagon of side L. What is the
magnitude of the force on a point charge of value – q coulomb placed at the centre of the hexagon?
Ex.9 Two identical charged spheres are suspended by strings of equal length. Each string makes an angle 
with the vertical. When suspended in a liquid of density  = 0.8 gm/cc, the angle remains the same. What
is the dielectric constant of the liquid? (Density of the material of sphere is 1.6 gm/cc.)
Ex.10 A particle of mass m and charge q is located midway between two fixed charged particles each having a
charge q and a distance 2 apart. Prove that the motion of the particle will be SHM if it is displaced slightly
along the line connecting them and released. Also find its time period.
Q.4 A particle of mass m and charge –q is located midway between two fixed charged particles each having a
charge q and a distance 2 apart. Prove that the motion of the particle will be SHM if it is displaced slightly

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along perpendicular bisector and released. Also find its time period.
Ex.11 A thin straight rod of length l carrying a uniformly distributed change q is located in vacuum. Find the
magnitude of the electric force on a point charge 'Q' kept as shown in the figure.

Q.5 Three identical spheres each having a charge q (uniformly distributed) and radius R, are kept in such a way that
each touches the other two. Find the magnitude of the electric force on any sphere due to other two.
Q.6 Two charges of Q each are placed at two opposite corners of a square. A charge q is placed at each of the other
two corners.
(a) f the resultant force on Q is zero, how are Q and q related ?
(b) Could q be chosen to make the resultant force on each charge zero ?

6. ELECTRIC FIELD
Electric field is the region around charged particle or charged body in which if another charge is placed, it
experiences electrostatic force.

6 .1 Electric field intensity E : Electric field intensity at a point is equal to the electrostatic
force experienced by a unit positive point charge both in magnitude and direction.

If a test charge q0 is placed at a point in an electric field and experiences a force F , the electric field

 F
intensity at that point is given by E ;
q0

If the E is to be determined practically then the test charge q0 should be small otherwise it will affect the
charge distribution which is producing the electric field and hence modify the quantity which is measured.

Ex.12 A positively charged ball hangs from a long silk thread. We wish to measure E at a point in the same
horizontal plane as that of the hanging charge. To do so, we put a positive test charge q0 at the point and
measure F/q0. Will F/q0 be less than, equal to, or greater than E at the point in question?


6 .2 Properties of electric field intensity E :
(i) It is a vector quantity. Its direction is the same as the force experienced by positive charge.
(ii) Electric field due to positive charge is always away from it while due to negative charge always
towards it.
(iii) Its S.. unit is Newton/Coulomb.
(iv) Its dimensional formula is [MLT –3A–1]
(v) Electric force on a charge q placed in a region of electric field at a point where the electric field
  
intensity is E is given by F  qE .
Electric force on point charge is in the same direction of electric field on positive charge and in
opposite direction on a negative charge.
(vi) It obeys the superposition principle, that is, the field intensity at a point due to a point charge
distribution is vector sum of the field intensities due to individual point charges.
   
E  E1  E 2  E3 + .....

Ex.13 Calculate the electric field intensity which would be just sufficient to balance the weight of a particle of
charge –10 c and mass 10 mg.

Ex.14 Electrostatic force experienced by –3C charge placed at point P due to a point charge system S as

shown in figure is F  21 î  9 ĵ N.

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(i) Find out electric field intensity at point P due to S.

(ii) If now 2C charge is placed and –3 C is removed at point P then force expereniced by it will be.
Ex.15 Find out electric field intensity at point A (0, 1m, 2m) due to a point charge –20C situated at point
B( 2 m, 0, 1m).
Ex.16 Two point charges 2c and – 2c are placed at point A and B as shown in figure. Find out electric field
intensity at points C and D. [All the distances are measured in metre].

Q.7 Three charges, each equal to q, are placed at the three corners of a square of side a. Find the electric field at the
fourth corner.
Ex.17 Positive charge Q is distributed uniformly over a circular ring of radius R. A point particle having a mass m and a
negative charge –q, is placed on its axis at a distance x from the centre. Find the force on the particle. Assuming
x << R, find the time period of oscillation of the particle if it is released from there. (Neglect gravity)
Ex.18 Find out electric field intensity at the centre of uniformly charged semicircular ring of radius R and linear
charge density .
Ex.19 Derive the expression of electric field intensity at a point 'P' which is situated at a distance x on the
axis of uniformly charged disc of radius R and surface charge density . Also derive results for
(i) x >> R (ii) x << R
Q.8 Find out electric field intensity at the centre of uniformly charged circular arc (quarter ring) of radius R
and linear charge density .

Ex.20 A point charge q is placed at a distance r from a very long charge thread of uniform linear charge density
. Find out total electric force experienced by the line charge due to the point charge. (Neglect gravity).
Ex.21 A block having mass m and charge –q is resting on a frictionless plane at a distance L from fixed large
non-conducting infinite sheet of uniform charge density  as shown in Figure. Discuss the motion of the
block assuming that collision of the block with the sheet is perfectly elastic. Is it SHM?
Ex.22 Determine and draw the graph of electric field due to infinitely large nonconducting sheet of thickness t
and uniform volume charge density  as a function of distance x from its symmetry plane.
t t
(a) x  (b) x 
2 2

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Q.9 In the previous question if left half of the sheet contains charge density  and right half contains charge
density 2 then find the electric field at the symmetry plane.
Ex.23 Figure shows a uniformly charged sphere of radius R and total charge Q. A point charge q is situated
outside the sphere at a distance r from centre of sphere. Find out the following :
(i) Force acting on the point charge q due to the sphere.
(ii) Force acting on the sphere due to the point charge.

Ex.24 Figure shows a uniformly charged sphere of total charge Q and radius R. A point charge q is also situated
at the centre of the sphere. Find out the following :

(i) Force on charge q

(ii) Electric field intensity at A.
(iii) Electric field intensity at B.
Q.10 In the given example if point charge q is situated at point ‘A’ which is at a distance r < R from the centre of the
sphere then find out following

(i) Force acting on charge q.

(ii) Electric field at centre of sphere.
(iii) Electric field at point B.
Ex.25 Two concentric uniformly charged spherical shells of radius R1 and R2 (R2 > R1) have total charges Q1 and Q2
respectively. Derive an expression of electric field as a function of r for following positions.

(i) r < R1 (ii) R1  r < R2 (iii) r  R2

Q.11 Figure shows two concentric sphere of radius R1 and R2 (R2 > R1) which contains uniformly distributed charges
Q and –Q respectively. Find out electric field intensities at the following positions :

(i) r < R1 (ii) R1  r < R2 (iii) r  R2

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Ex.26 A solid non conducting sphere of radius R and uniform volume charge density  has its centre at origin.
Find out electric field intensity in vector form at following positions :

 R R 
(i) (R/2, 0, 0) (ii)  , ,0  (iii) (R, R, 0)
 2 2 

Q.12 A solid non conducting sphere of radius R and uniform volume charge density  has centre at origin. Find
out electric field intensity in vector form at following positions.

R
(i) (R, 0, 0) (ii) (0, 0, ) (iii) (R, R, R)
2

Ex.27 A Uniformly charged solid nonconducting sphere of uniform volume charge density  and radius R is having a
concentric spherical cavity of radius r. Find out electric field intensity at following points, as shown in the figure
:

(i) Point A
(ii) Point B
(iii) Point C
(iv) Centre of the sphere

Ex.28 In above question if cavity is not concentric and centred at point P then repeat all the steps.
Ex.29 A nonconducting solid sphere has volume charge density that varies as  = 0 r, where 0 is a constant and r is
distance from centre. Find out electric field intensities at following positions.
(i) r<R
(ii) rR
7. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
In electrostatic field the electric potential (due to some source charges) at a point is defined as the work
done by external agent in taking a point unit positive charge from a reference point (generally taken at
infinity) to that point without acceleration.

7. 1 Mathematical representation :
If (W  P)ext is the work required in moving a point charge q from infinity to a point P, the electric potential of
the point P is

Wp )ext 
Vp  
q  acc 0

Note (i) W can also be called as the work done by external agent against the electric field produced
by the source charge.
(ii) Write both W and q with proper sign.

7. 2 Properties :
(i) Potential is a scalar quantity, its value may be positive, negative or zero.

joule
(ii) S.. Unit of potential is volt = and its dimensional formula is [M1L2T –3–1].
coulmb

(iii) Electric potential at a point is also equal to the negative of the work done by the electric field in
taking the point charge from reference point (i.e. infinity) to that point.
(iv) Electric potential due to a positive charge is always positive and due to negative charge it is
always negative except at infinite. (taking V = 0).
(v) Potential decreases in the direction of electric field.

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7. 3 Use of potential :
If we know the potential at some point ( interms of numerical value or interms of formula) then we can find
out the work done by electric force when charge moves from point 'P' to  by the formula
W el )p  = qVp

Ex.30 A charge 2C is taken from infinity to a point in an electric field, without changing its velocity. If work done
against electrostatic forces is –40J then find the potential at that point.
Ex.31 When charge 10 C is shifted from infinity to a point in an electric field, it is found that work done by
electrostatic forces is 10 J. If the charge is doubled and taken again from infinity to the same point
without accelerating it, then find the amount of work done by electric field and against electric field.
Ex.32 A charge 3C is released at rest from a point P where electric potential is 20 V then its kinetic energy
when it reaches to infinite is :
Q.13 A charge 10 C is taken from infinity to a point in an electric field without acceleration. If work done by
electrostatic forces is 30 J then find out potential at that point.
Ex.33 Two point charges 2C and – 4C are situated at points (–2m, 0m) and (2 m, 0 m) respectively. Find out potential
at point C. (4 m, 0 m) and. D (0 m, 5 m).

Ex.34 A point charge q0 is placed at the centre of uniformly charged ring of total charge Q and radius R. If the
point charge is slightly displaced with negligible force along axis of the ring then find out its speed when it
reaches to a large distance.
Ex.35 Two concentric spherical shells of radius R1 and R2 (R2 > R1) are having uniformly distributed charges Q1 and Q2
respectively. Find out potential
(i) at point A
(ii) at surface of smaller shell (i.e. at point B)
(iii) at surface of larger shell (i.e. at point C)
(iv) at r  R1
(v) at R1  r  R2
(vi) at r  R2
Ex.36 Two hollow concentric nonconducting spheres of radius a and b (a > b) contains charges Q a and Qb
respectively. Prove that potential difference between two spheres is independent of charge on outer sphere.
If outer sphere is given an extra charge, is there any change in potential difference?

7. 5 Potential difference
The potential difference between two points A and B is work done by external agent against electric
field in taking a unit positive charge from A to B without acceleration (or keeping Kinetic Energy
constant or Ki = Kf))
(a) Mathematical representation :
If (W BA)ext = work done by external agent against electric field in taking the unit charge from
A
to B
( WBA )ext 
VA – VB =  .
q  acc 0, or keeping KE constant or K i  K f
Note : Take W and q both with sign
(b) Properties :
(i) The difference of potential between two points is called potential difference. It is also
called voltage.
(ii) Potential difference is a scaler quantity. Its S.I. unit is also volt.
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(iv) If VA and VB be the potential of two points A and B, then work done by an external agent in
taking the charge q from A to B is
(W ext)AB= q (VB – VA) or (W el) AB = q (VA – VB) .
(v) Potential difference between two points is independent of reference point.
(c) Potential difference in a uniform electric field :

VB – VA = – E  AB
 VB – VA = |E| |AB| cos 
= – |E| d
= – Ed
d = effective distance between A and B along electric field.

V
or we can also say that E =
d

Special Cases :
Case 1. Line AB is parallel to electric field.

 VA – VB = Ed

Case 2. Line AB is perpendicular to electric field.

 VA – VB = 0  VA = VD

Note : In the direction of electric field potential always decreases.

Ex.37 1C charge is shifted from A to B and it is found that work done by an external force is 40J in doing so
against electrostatic forces then, find potential difference VA – VB
Ex.38 A uniform electric field is present in the positive x-direction. f the intensity of the field is 5N/C then find the
potential difference (VB –VA) between two points A (0m, 2 m) and B (5 m ,3 m)
Ex.39 Find out following

(i) VA – VB (ii) VB – VC (iii) VC – VA (iv) VD – VC (v) VA – VD

(vi) Arrange the order of potential for points A, B, C and D.
Q.15 A uniform electric field of 10 N/C exists in the vertically downward direction. Find the increases in the electric
potential as one goes up through a height of 50cm.
Q.16 An electric field of 20 N/C exists along the x-axis in space. Calculate the potential difference VB – VA where the
point A and B are given by –
(a) A = (0,0) ; B = (4m , 2m) (b) A = (4m,2m) ; B = (6m , 5m)
(c) A = (0,0) ; B = (6m , 5m)
7. 6 Equipotential Surface :
If potential of a surface is same throughout then such surface is known as a equipotential surface.
(i) Properties of equipotential surfaces :
(a) When a charge is shifted from one point to another point on an equipotential surface then work done

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against electrostatic forces is zero.
(b) Electric field is always perpendicular to equipotential surfaces.
(c) Two equipotential surfaces do not cross each other.
(ii) Examples of equipotential surfaces :
(a) Point charge :
Equipotential surfaces are concentric and spherical as shown in figure. In figure we can see that sphere
of radius R1 has potential V1 throughout its surface and similarly for other concentric sphere potential is
same.

(b) Line charge :

Equipotential surfaces have curved surfaces as that of coaxial cylinders of different radii.

(c) Uniformly charged large conducting / non conducting sheets

Equipotential surfaces are parallel planes.

Note : In uniform electric field equipotential surfaces are always parallel planes.

Ex.40 Some equipotential surfaces are shown in figure. What can you say about the magnitude and the direction of the
electric field ?

Ex.41 Figure shows the lines of constant potential in region in which an electric field is present. The values of potentials
are written in brackets. The electric field is greatest

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6.3 Electric field intensities due to various charge distributions are given in table.
Nam e/Type Formula Note Graph
Point charge * q is source charge.
Kq Kq  
 2  r̂ = 3 r * r is vector drawn from source
|r| r charge to the test point.
* Electric field is nonuniform.


Infinitely long line charge r̂ = 2Kr̂ *  is linear charge density
20r r
(assumed uniform)
* r is perpendicular distance
of point from line charge.
* r̂ is radial unit vector drawn
from the charge to test point.

Infinite non-  is surface charge density.


conducting n̂ (assumed uniform)
2 0
thin sheet * n̂ is unit normal vector..
* Electric field intensity is
independent of distance.
KQx
Q is total charge of the ring.
R 
Uniformly charged ring E= 3/2
2
 x2
Ecentre = 0 * x = distance of point on the
axis from centre of the ring.
* electric field is always
along the axis.

Infinitely large charged  *  is the surface charge .

n̂
conducting sheet 0 density (assumed uniform)
* n̂ is the unit vector perpendi-
cular is the surface.

* Electric field intensity is inde-

pendent of distance

Uniformly charged
 
(i) for r R * R is radius of the sphere.

hollow conducting/ kQ
E   2 r̂ * r is vector drawn from centre
nonconducting /solid |r| of sphere to the point.
conducting sphere (ii) for r < R * Sphere acts like a point charge.
placed at centre for points outside
the sphere.
 
E0 * E is always along radial direction.
* Q is total charge (4R2).
( = surface charge density)

Uniformly charged (i) for r  R * r is vector drawn from centre
solid nonconducting of sphere to the point
sphere (insulating  kQ * Sphere acts like a point charge
material) E   2 r̂ placed at the centre for points
|r| outside the sphere

* E is always along radial dirn

(ii) for r  R * Q is total charge (  34  R 3 ) .

 KQ r r
 ( = volume charge density)
E 3  * Inside the sphere E  r.
R 3 0 * Outside the sphere E  1/r2.

Note : (i) Net charge on a conductor remains only on the outer surface of a conductor. This property will be discussed in
the article of the conductor. (article no.15)
(ii) On the surface of spherical conductors charge is uniformly distributed.

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 Zen Education and Learning

Q.17 Some equipotential surfaces are shown in figure. What can you say about the magnitude and the direction of the
electric field ?

8. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

8 .1 Electrostatic potential energy of a point charge due to many charges :
The electrostatic potential energy of a point charge at a point in electric field is the work done in taking the
charge from reference point (generally at infinity) to that point without acceleration (or keeping KE const.or
Ki = Kf)). Its Mathematical formula is

U = qV
Here q is the charge whose potential energy is being calculated and V is the potential at its position due
to the source charges.
Note : Always put q and V with sign.

8 .2 Properties :
(i) Electric potential energy is a scalar quantity but may be positive, negative or zero.
(ii) Its unit is same as unit of work or energy that is joule (in S.. system).
Some times energy is also given in electron-volts.
1eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J
(iii) Electric potential energy depends on reference point. (Generally Potential Energy at r=  is taken
zero)
Ex.42 The four identical charges q each are placed at the corners of a square of side a. Find the potential energy
of one of the charges due to the remaining charges.

The electric potential of point A due to the charges placed at B, C and D is

1 q 1 q 1 q 1  1  q
V = 4 + 4 + 4 = 4  2  
0 a 0 2a 0 a 0  2 a

1  1  q2
 Potential energy of the charge at A is = qV = 4  2   .
0  2 a

Ex.43 A particle of mass 40 mg and carrying a charge 5 × 10–9 C is moving directly towards a fixed positive point
charge of magnitude 10–8 C. When it is at a distance of 10 cm from the fixed point charge it has spped of
50 cm/s. At what distance from the fixed point charge will the particle come momentarily to rest? Is the
acceleration constant during the motion? 14
 Zen Education and Learning
Ex.44 A proton moves from a large distance with a speed u m/s directly towards a free proton originally at rest.
Find the distance of closet approach for the two protons in terms of mass of proton m and its charge e.
Q.18 A point charge of charge –q and mass m is released with negligible speed from a distance 3 R on the
axis of fixed uniformly charged ring of charge Q and radius R. Find out its velocity when it reaches at the
centre of the ring.

9. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF CHARGES

(This will be used when more than one charges move.)
It is the work done by an external agent against the internal electric field required to make a system of
charges in a particular configuration from infinite separation.

9 .1 Types of system of charge

(i) Point charge system
(ii) Continuous charge system.

9 .2 Derivation for a system of point charges:

(i) Keep all the charges at infinity. Now bring the charges one by one to its corresponding
position and find work required. PE of the system is algebric sum of all the works.
Let W 1 = work done in bringing first charge
W2 = work done in bringing second charge against force due to 1st charge.
W 3 = work done in bringing third charge against force due to 1st and 2nd charge.
n(n  1) n
PE = W 1 + W 2 + W 3 + ...... . (This will contain = C2 terms)
2
(ii) Method of calculation (to be used in problems)
U = sum of the interaction energies of the charges.
= (U12 + U13 + ........ + U1n) + (U23 + U24 + ........ + U2n) + (U34 + U35 + ........ + U3n) .... .
(iii) Method of calculation useful for symmetrical point charge systems.
Find PE of each charge due to rest of the charges.
If U1 = PE of first charge due to all other charges.
= (U12 + U13 + ........ + U1n)
U2 = PE of second charges due to all other charges.
= (U21 + U23 + ........ + U2n)
U1  U2  ...
U = PE of the system =
2
Ex.45 Find out potential energy of the two point charge system having q1 and q2 charges separated by distance
r.
Ex.46 Figure shows an arrangement of three point charges. The total potential energy of this arrangement is
q
zero. Calculate the ratio .
Q

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 Zen Education and Learning

Ex.47 Two charged particles each having equal charges 2 × 10–5 C are brought from infinity to within a separation
of 10 cm. Calculate the increase in potential energy during the process and the work required for this
purpose.
Ex. 48 Three equal charges q are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle of side a.
(i) Find out potential energy of charge system.
(ii) Calculate work required to decrease the side of triangle to a/2.
(iii) If the charges are released from the shown position and each of them has same mass m then find the speed
of each particle when they lie on triangle of side 2a.

Ex.49 Four identical point charges q are placed at four corners of a square of side a. Find out potential energy of the
charge system

Q.19 Six equal point charges q are placed at six corners of a hexagon of side a. Find out potential energy of charge
system

9.3 Energy density :

Def: Energy density is defined as energy stored in unit volume in any electric field, its mathematical
formula is given as following
1 2
Energy density = E
2
where E = electric field intensity at that point
.  = electric permittivity of medium

Ex.50 Find out energy stored in an imaginary cubical volume of side a infront of a infinitely large nonconducting sheet
of uniform charge density .
Ex.51 Find out energy stored inside a solid nonconducting sphere of total charge Q and radius R. [Assume charge is
uniformly distributed in its volume.]

9.4 For continues charge system :

This energy is also known as self energy.
(i) For hollow /solid uniformly charged conducting sphere or hollow uniformly charged non-
conducting sphere :
2
KQ 2 Q
Uself  = .
2R 8  0R

Q : charge on sphere,
R : Radius of sphere.
(ii) For uniformly charged solid nonconducting sphere:

3KQ 2 3Q 2
Uself = =
5R 20 0R
Ex.52 Two non-conducting hollow uniformly charged spheres of radii R1 and R2 with charge Q1 and Q2 respectively
are placed at a distance r. Find out total energy of the system.
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 Zen Education and Learning

Ex.53 q0 charge is placed at the centre of hollow conducting sphere of charge Q and radius R. Find out energy of
system.

10. ELECTRIC DIPOLE

If two point charges equal in magnitude q and opposite in sign separated by a distance a such that the
distance of field point r>>a, the system is called a dipole. The electric dipole moment is defined as a
vector quantity having magnitude p = (q × a) and direction from negative charge to positive charge.

Note: [In chemistry, the direction of dipole moment is assumed to be from positive to negative charge.]
The C.G.S unit of electric dipole moment is debye which is defined as the dipole moment of two equal and
opposite point charges each having charge 10–10 frankline and separation of 1 Å, i.e.,
1 debye (D) = 10–10 × 10–8 = 10–18 Fr × cm
C
1 D = 10–18 × × 10–2 m = 3.3 × 10–30 C × m.
3  109
S.I. Unit is coulomb × metre = C . m

10.1 Electric Field Intensity Due to Dipole :

O the centre of the dipole is mid point of line AB.

(i) On the axis (except points between A and B)

  
 pr p 2KP
E  ( if r > > a) = 3
2 0 [r 2  (a 2 / 4)]2 2 0 r 3 r
 
p  q a = Dipole moment,
r = distance of the point from the centre of dipole
(ii) On the equatorial position :
  
 p p KP
E  (if r > > a) = – 3
4  0 [r 2  (a 2 / 4)]3/ 2 4  0 r 3 r

KP
(iii) Total electric field at general point O (r,) is Eres = 1  3 cos 2  ,
r3
2KP cos 
Er 
r3

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 Zen Education and Learning
KP sin  1
E  3 ; K = 4
r 0

At an angle with the direction of dipole moment.

tan 
where tan  =
2
10.2 Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole in External Electric Field :
 
U = - p.E
10.3 Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field :
   
torque   p x E ; F = 0
10.4 Electric Dipole in Nonuniform Electric Field :
    
torque   p x E ; U =  p  E , force and torque can be found by finding forces on individual charges.
10.5 Electric Potential Due to Dipole at General Point (r, ) :
 
P cos  p.r 
V=  3 ;
p = electric dipole moment.
4  0 r 2
4  0 r

Ex.54 A system has two charges qA = 2.5 × 10–7 C and qB = – 2.5 × 10–7 C located at points A : (0, 0, – 0.15 m)
and B ; (0, 0, + 0.15 m) respectively. What is the net charge and electric dipole moment of the system ?
Ex.55 The electric field due to a short dipole at a distance r, on the axial line, from its mid point is the same as
r
that of electric field at a distance r', on the equatorial line, from its mid-point. Determine the ratio .
r´
Ex.56 Two charges, each of 5 C but opposite in sign, are placed 4 cm apart. Calculate the electric field intensity
of a point that is at a distance 4 cm from the mid point on the axial line of the dipole.
Ex.57 Two charges ± 10 C are placed 5 × 10–3 m apart. Determine the electric field at a point Q which is 0.15 m
away from O, on the equitorial line.
Q.20 An electric dipole with dipole moment 4 × 10–9 C m makes an angle 30º with the direction of a uniform
electric field of magnitude 5 × 104 NC–1. Calculate the magnitude of the torque acting on the dipole. Also
find out work required to rotate the dipole to make angle 90º with the direction of the electric field.
Q.21 An electric dipole consists of two opposite charges, each of 1C, separated by 0.02 m. The dipole is
placed in an external uniform electric field of 105 N C–1. Calculate the maximum torque exerted by the
electric field on the dipole.
Ans. 0.002 Nm.

11. ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE (ELOF)

The line of force in an electric field is an imaginary line, the tangent to which at any point on it represents
the direction of electric field at the given point.
1 1 . 1 Properties :
(i) Line of force originates out from a positive charge and terminates on a negative charge. If there is
only one positive charge then lines start from positive charge and terminate at . If there is only
one negative charge then lines start from  and terminates at negative charge.

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 Zen Education and Learning

(ii) The electric intensity at a point is the number of lines of force streaming through per unit area
normal to the direction of the intensity at that point. The intensity will be more where the density of
lines is more.

(iii) Number of lines originating (terminating) from (on) is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
charge.
Note:– A charge particle need not follow an ELOF.

Ex.58 If number of electric lines of force from charge q are 10 then find out number of electric lines of force from
2q charge.

Ex.59 A charge + Q is fixed at a distance of d in front of an infinite metal plate. Draw the lines of force indicating the
directions clearly.
12. ELECTRIC FLUX

Consider some surface in an electric field E . Let us select a small area element dS on this surface. The

electric flux of the field over the area element is given by dE = E.dS

Direction of dS is normal to the surface. It is along n̂

or dE = EdS cos 
or dE = (E cos ) dS
or dE = En dS
where En is the component of electric field in the direction of dS .


The electric flux over the whole area is given by E = E.dS = En dS
S 
S
 
If the electric field is uniform over that area then E = E  S
12.1 Physical Meaning :
The electric flux through a surface inside an electric field represents the total number of electric lines of
force crossing the surface in a direction normal the surface. It is a property of electric field
12. 2 Unit
(i) The SI unit of electric flux is Nm 2 C–1 (gauss) or J m C–1.
(ii) Electric flux is a scalar quantity. (It can be positive, negative or zero)
  
Ex.60 The electric field in a region is given by E  3 E 0 i  4 E 0 j with E0 = 2.0 × 103 N/C. Find the flux of this field
5 5
through a rectangular surface of area 0.2m2 parallel to the Y–Z plane.
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 Zen Education and Learning
Ex.61 A point charge Q is placed at the corner of a square of side a, then find the flux through the square.

Ex.62 Find out flux through the curved surface of the hemisphere of radius R if it is placed in uniform electric field
E as shown in figure.

13. GAUSS'S LAW IN ELECTROSTATICS OR GAUSS'S THEOREM

This law was stated by a mathematician Karl F Gauss. This law gives the relation between the electric field
at a point on a closed surface and the net charge enclosed by that surface. This surface is called Gaussian
surface. It is a closed hypothetical surface. Its validity is shown by experiments. It is used to determine
the electric field due to some symmetric charge distributions.
1 3 . 1 Statement and Details :
Gauss's law is stated as given below.
The surface integral of the electric field intensity over any closed hypothetical surface (called Gaussian
1
surface) in free space is equal to  times the total charge enclosed within the surface. Here,  0 is the
0

permittivity of free space.

n

If S is the Gaussian surface and q

i 1
i is the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, then according

to Gauss's law,
n
 1
E =  E  dS =
0 q
i1
i .

The circle on the sign of integration indicates that the integration is to be carried out over the closed
surface.
Note : (i) Flux through gaussian surface is independent of its shape.
(ii) Flux through gaussian surface depends only on total charge present inside gaussian surface.
(iii) Flux through gaussian surface is independent of position of charges inside gaussian surface.
(iv) Electric field intensity at the gaussian surface is due to all the charges present inside as well as out
side the gaussian surface.
(v) In a close surface incoming flux is taken negative while outgoing flux is taken positive, because n̂ is
taken positive in outward direction.
(vi) In a gaussian surface  = 0 does not imply E = 0 at every point of the surface but E = 0 at every point
implies  = 0.

Ex.63 Find out flux through the given gaussian surface.

Ex.64 If a point charge q is placed at the centre of a cube then find out flux through any one surface of cube.

Ex.65. A charge Q is placed at a distance a/2 above the centre of a horizontal, square surface of edge a as shown in
figure. Find the flux of the electric field through the square surface.

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 Zen Education and Learning

Q.22 A charge Q is uniformy distributed over a rod of length . Consider a hypothetical cube of edge  with the centre
of the cube at one end of the rod. Find the minimum possible flux of the electric field through the entire surface
of the cube.

Q.23 A charge Q is placed at a corner of a cube. Find the flux of the electric field through the six surfaces of the cube.

14. CONDUCTOR AND IT'S PROPERTIES [FOR ELECTROSTATIC

CONDITION]
(i) Conductors are materials which contains large number of free electrons which can move freely
inside the conductor.
(ii) n electrostatics conductors are always equipotential surfaces.
(iii) Charge always resides on outer surface of conductor.
(iv) f there is a cavity inside the conductor having no charge then charge will always reside only on
outer surface of conductor.
(v) Electric field is always perpendicular to conducting surface.
(vi) Electric lines of force never enter into conductors.
(vii) Electric field intensity near the conducting surface is given by formula

E = n̂
0

A  
EA  n̂ ; EB  B n̂ and E C  C n̂
0 0 0

(viii) When a conductor is grounded its potential becomes zero.

(ix) When an isolated conductor is grounded then its charge becomes zero.
(x) When two conductors are connected there will be charge flow till their potential becomes
equal.
(xi) Electric pressure : Electric pressure at the surface of a conductor is givey by formula

2
P= where  is the local surface charge density..
2 0
Ex.66 Prove that if an isolated (isolated means no charges are near the sheet) large conducting sheet is given a charge
then the charge distributes equally on its two surfaces.

Ex.67 If an isolated infinite sheet contains charge Q1 on its one surface and charge Q2 on its other surface then prove
Q
that electric field intensity at a point in front of sheet will be 2 A  , where Q = Q1 + Q2
O

Ex.68 Three large conducting sheets placed parallel to each other at finite distance contains charges Q, –2Q and 3Q
respectively. Find electric field at points A, B , C, and D

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 Zen Education and Learning
Ex.69 Two conducting plates A and B are placed parallel to each other. A is given a charge Q1 and B a charge Q2. Prove
tht the charges on the inner facing surfaces are of equal magnitude and opposite sign.
Ex.70 Two large parallel conducting sheets (placed at finite distance ) are given charges Q and 2Q respectively. Find
out charges appearing on all the surfaces.

Ex.71 Figure shows three large metallic plates with charges – Q, 3Q and Q respectively. Determine the final charges
on all the surfaces.

Ex.72 An isolated conducting sheet of area A and carrying a charge Q is placed in a uniform electric field E, such that
electric field is perpendicular to sheet and covers all the sheet. Find out charges appearing on its two surfaces.

Q.24 In the above problem find the restant electric field on the left and right side of the plate.

Ex.73 Two uncharged and parallel conducting sheets each of area A are placed in a uniform electric field E at a finite
distance from each other. Such that electric field is perpendicular to sheets and covers all the sheets. Find out
charges appearing on its two surfaces.

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 Zen Education and Learning
14.1 Some other important results for a closed conductor.

(i) f a charge q is kept in the cavity then –q will be induced on the inner surface and +q will be induced on the outer
surface of the conductor (it can be proved using gauss theorem)

(ii) If a charge q is kept inside the cavity of a conductor and conductor is given a charge Q then –q charge will be
induced on inner surface and total charge on the outer surface will be q + Q. (it can be proved using gauss
theorem)

(iii) Resultant field, due to q (which is inside the cavity) and induced charge on S1, at any point outside S1 (like B,C)
is zero. Resultant field due to q + Q on S2 and any other charge outside S2 , at any point inside of surface S2
(like A, B) is zero

(iv) Resultant field in a charge free cavity in a closed conductor is zero. There can be charges outside the conductor
and on the surface also. Then also this result is true. No charge will be induced on the inner most surface of the
conductor.

(v). Charge distribution for different types of cavities in conductors

(A) (B)

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 Zen Education and Learning

(C) (D)

(E) (F)

(G) (H)


Using the result that E res in the conducting material should be zero and using result (iii) We can show that

Case A B C D E F G H
S1 Uniform Nonuniform Nonuniform Nonuniform Uniform Nonuniform Nonuniform Nonuniform
S2 Uniform Uniform Uniform Uniform Nonuniform Nonuniform Nonuniform NonUniform
Note : In all cases charge on inner surface S1 = –q and on outer surface S2 = q. The distribution of charge on ‘S1’ will not
change even if some charges are kept outside the conductor (i.e. outside the surface S2). But the charge
distribution on ‘S2’ may change if some charges(s) is/are kept outside the conductor.

Ex.74 An uncharged conductor of inner radius R1 and outer radius R2 contains a point charge q at the centre as shown
in figure

(i) Find E and V at points A,B and C
(ii) If a point charge Q is kept out side the sphere at a distance ‘r’ (>>R2) from centre then find out resultant
force on charge Q and charge q.

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 Zen Education and Learning

Ex.75 An uncharged conductor of inner radius R1 and outer radius R2 contains a point charge q placed at point P (not
at the centre) as shown in figure? Find out the following :
(i) VC (ii) VA (iii) VB (iv) EA (v) EB
(vi) force on charge Q if it is placed at B

Ex.76 The two conducting spherical shells are joined by a conducting wire and cut after some time when charge
stops flowing.Find out the charge on each sphere after that.

Ex.77 Find charge on each spherical shell after joining the inner most shell and outer most shell by a contucting
wire. Also find charges on each surface.

Ex.78 Two conducting hollow spherical shells of radii R and 2R carry charges – Q and 3Q respectively. How much
charge will flow into the earth if inner shell is grounded ?

Q.25 An isolated conducting sphere of charge Q and radius R is grounded by using a high resistance wire. What
is the amount of heat loss ?
Ex.79 An isolated conducting sphere of charge Q and radius R is connected to a similar uncharged sphere (kept
at a large distance) by using a high resistance wire. After a long time what is the amount of heat loss ?
Q.26 A positive charge q is placed in front of a conducting solid cube at a distance d from its centre. Find the electric
field at the centre of the cube due to the charges appearing on its surface.

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 Zen Education and Learning
15. RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY AND
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
15.1 For uniform electric field :

(i) Potential difference between two points A and B

 
VB – VA = E . AB

15.2 Non uniform electric field

V V V
(i) Ex = – , Ey = – , Ez = –
x y z

 E = Ex î + Ey ĵ + Ez k̂
    
= –  î V  ĵ V  k̂ V
 x x z 
    
= –  î  ĵ  k̂  V
 x  x  z
= – V = –grad V
V
Where = derivative of V with respect to x (keeping y and z constant)
x
V
y = derivative of V with respect to y (keeping z and x constant)
V
= derivative of V with respect to z (keeping x and y constant)
z

15.3 If electric potential and electric field depends only on one coordinate, say r :
 V
(i) E =– r̂
r
where r̂ is a unit vector along increasing r..

(ii)  
dV = – E  dr
rB
 
 VB – VA = –
rA
 E. dr
dr is along the increasing direction of r..
(iii) The potential of a point
r
 
V=– 

E. dr

Ex.80 A uniform electric field is along x – axis . The potential difference VA– VB = 10 V between two points A (2m , 3m)
and B (4m, 8m). Find the electric field intensity.

Ex.81 V = x2 + y , Find E .

Q.27 If V = x2y + y2z then find E at (x, y, z)

Ex.82 For given E = 2 x î  3 y ĵ find the potential at (x, y) if V at origin is 5 volts.
 20
Q.28 Magnitude of electric field depends only on the x – coordinate given E = 2 î V / m . Find
x
(i) the potential difference between two point A (5m, 0) and B (10m, 0).
(ii) potential at x = 5 if V at  is 10 volt.
(iii) inpart (i) does the potential difference between A and B depend on whether the potential at  is 10 volt
or something else.

Q.29 If E = 2r2 then find V(r)

26