ELECTROSTATICS - I

– Electrostatic Force

Electric Charges
Electric charge is an intrinsic property of matter which give rise to electric force
between various objects. It is a scalar quantity.
Charge on a body arises from an excess or deficit of free electrons with respect
to protons.
Charge is represented by letter q
Units of charge
SI unit of charge is coulomb C. CGS unit of charges stat. coulomb
(stat C). 1C = 3 × 109 stat C
Experiment showing two kinds of charges

From the above experiments we note that the

1) Charge produced on glass rod is different from the charge
produced on a plastic rod.Thus there are two kinds of electric
charges.
2) Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
3) Also figure (d) shows when a glass rod rubbed with silk is made to
touch each two pith balls then two pith balls repel each other,
Figure(e) shows two pith balls touched with plastic rod rubbed
with fur repel each other, And figure(f) shows two pith balls
touched with glass rod attracts another pith ball touched with
plastic rod.
This experiment also demonstrates that the charges are
transferred from rod to pith balls on contact. The property which
differentiates two kinds of charges is called polarity of charges.
 # Electric charges were named as positive and negative by
American scientist Benjamin Franklin.
# If an object possesses an electric charge, it is said to be
electrified or charged. When it has no charge it is said to be
neutral.

CONDUCTORS
Some substances readily allow passage of electricity through them,
others do not. Those which allow electricity to pass through them easily
are called conductors. They have electric charges (electrons) that are
comparatively free to move inside the material. Metals, human and
animal bodies and earth are conductors.

INSULATORS
Most of the non-metals like glass, porcelain, plastic, nylon, wood offer
high resistance to the passage of electricity through them. They are
called insulators.

Earthing
When we bring a charged body in contact with the earth, all the excess
charge on the body disappears by causing a momentary current to pass
to the ground through the connecting conductor (such as our body).
This process of sharing the charges with the earth is called
grounding or earthing. Earthing provides a safety measure for
electrical circuits and appliances,

+
e-
+

+
Methods of charging

1) Charging by friction
All matter is made up of atoms and/or molecules which consist of nucleus and
electrons revolve around the nucleus.
When we rub two substances against each other, energy is provided to them,
which is used to remove electrons from one substance(having lower work
function) and transfer them to the other(having comparatively higher work
function).

For ex. Electrons in glass are loosely bound in it than the electrons in silk. So,
when glass and silk are rubbed together, the comparatively loosely bound
electrons from glass get transferred to silk. As a result, glass becomes positively
charged and silk becomes negatively charged.
Electrons in fur are loosely bound in it than the electrons in ebonite. So, when
ebonite and fur are rubbed together, the comparatively loosely bound electrons
from fur get transferred to ebonite.
As a result, ebonite becomes negatively charged and fur becomes positively
charged.
Ques. What is a cause of charging?
Ans. The charges appear due to actual transfer of electrons from one material to
another during rubbing.

Ques. Is there any change in mass on charging?

Ans. As an electron has a finite mass Since positively charged body looses some
electrons,Thus its mass slightly decreases while negatively body gains some
electrons so its mass increases slightly.

2) Charging by conduction
It involves the direct contact of a charged body to a
neutral body. Conduction charging involves making the physical connection of
the charged body to the neutral body .It is often known as charging by the
contact.

NOTE:-
# Two bodies having charges Q1 and Q2, if touched and separated,
redistribution of charges takes places till equilibrium is attained. Charges
will flow from body at higher potential to body at low potential.

# If the bodies are identical ,then final charges on both will be mean of
initial charges on two bodies ,i:e (Q1+Q2)/2

3)Charging by induction
It is production of an electric charge on an uncharged metallic body as a result of
a charged body being brought near it without touching it. It is the redistribution
of charge in an object due to the presence of a charged body near it.
When electrified rods are brought near light objects, the rods induce
opposite charges on the near surfaces of the objects and similar charges
move to the farther side of the object.

Example 1.1 How can you charge metal sphere positively without touching
it?

Uncharged metallic sphere Bring negatively charged rod

close to metallic sphere. Near
end becomes positively charged.

Electrons will flow to the ground Disconnect from ground

While positive charge remain held
Due to attractive force of negative
Charge on the rod.

Entire charge spread in sphere

Properties of Electric Charge

1) Quantization of charge

The total charge on any body is integral multiple of the charge on an electron
(basic unit of charge) that is
Q = ne.
Basic charge is the charge on an electron(e = 1.6 x 10-19 C)

Ques. What is a cause of quantization of charge?

Ans. The cause of quantization of charge is that only integral number of
electrons can transfer from one body to another.

Ques. Why Quantization of charge is meaningful only at microscopic level

i.e. one can ignore quantization of charge at macroscopic level. This can be
explained as follows:-
Ans. At the macroscopic level, since basic charge e is very small, n is very large
so q behaves as if it were continuous. For e.g. a charge of magnitude, say 1μC,
contains something like 1013 electrons. At this scale, the fact that charge can
increase or decrease only in units of e becomes insignificant. Thus, at the
macroscopic level, the quantization of charge has no practical consequence and
can be ignored.

2) Conservation of charge
For an isolated system, the net charge always remain constant i.e. charge can
neither be created nor be destroyed but can be transferred from any body to
another.
Ques. When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, charges appear on both.
A Similar phenomenon is observed with many other pairs of bodies.
Explain how this observation is consistent with the law of conservation of
charge.
Ans. When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk, glass rod develops positive charge,
silk cloth develops negative charge. Thus net charge is zero as it was before
rubbing.

3)Additive property
Total charge of a system is equal to the algebraic sum of all the charges present
inside the system i.e Q=Q1+Q2+Q3+…….+Qn.
Proper signs have to be used while adding the charges in a system. For example,
the total charge of a system containing five charges +1C, +2C, –3C, +4C and
–5C, Total charge is
(+1) + (+2) + (–3) + (+4) + (–5) = –1C
Electric charge Mass

1) Charges may be +ve,-ve 1) Mass of a body is always positive

Or zero.
2) Charge is always quantized 2)Quantisation of mass is not there
3) Charge of a body does not 3) Mass of a body changes with
change with speed speed,
4) Electrostatic force between 4) Gravitational force is always
two charges attractive
may be attractive
or repulsive.

Point charges
If the sizes of charged bodies are very small as compared to thedistances
between them, we treat them as point charges.

Coulomb's law
It states that the force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges
separated by some distance apart is directly proportional to the product of
magnitude of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. This force acts along the line joining the two charges.

Value of k depends upon system of unit and medium between two charges.
In SI system and air as a medium between two charges
k = 9 ×109 Nm2C-2 .
The value of εo in SI units is 8.85 × 10–12 C2 N–1m–2
Define 1C of charge
If q1 = q2 = q (say), r = 1 cm and F = 9 x 109 Newton.
One coulomb of charge is that charge which when placed in vacuum at a
distance of one metre from another charge of the same magnitude
experiences an electrical force of 9 x 109 N

Coulomb’s Law in Vector Form:

Since ȓ 21= -ȓ12

Hence F12 = -F21
Permittivity
It is the property of the medium which determines the electric force between
two charges situated in that medium.

Relative permittivity of a medium or dielectric constant is defined as the

ratio of force experienced by two point charges kept in vacuum to the force
experienced by the same charges play some distance apart in that medium.
𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑟
K or εr =
𝐹𝑚𝑒𝑑

It is also defined as the ratio of permittivity of medium to permittivity of free

space. In air/vaccum K=1
 Water K=80

Force between multiple charges

Superposition Principle
It states that the electrostatic force experienced by any charge
due to other charges is the vector sum of electrostatic forces due
to all other charges .The individual forces are unaffected due to
the presence of other charges.

Properties of electrostatic force

They are medium dependent forces.
They are Central forces.
They obey Newton's third law of motion.
They obey inverse square law.
They hold good for point charges.

Similarities between electrostatic and gravitational forces

1. Both are conservative forces
2. Both are Central forces
3. Both obey inverse square law.
4. Both obey Newton's third law of motion.
Differences between electrostatic and gravitational force
1. Electrostatic force is much stronger force than gravitational force
For ex. Comb rubbed through hair can lift a piece of paper i.e electrostatic force
between comb and piece of paper overcomes the force of gravity
2. Electrostatic forces are medium dependent forces but gravitational forces are
not.
3. Electrostatic forces can be attractive or repulsive but gravitational force is
attractive only
Continuous charge distribution
When charge is spread continuously over a body. The distribution can be in one,
two or three dimensional.
1. Linear charge distribution
When charge is distributed uniformly over a line (straight or curved ) the
distribution of charge is linear.

Linear charge density is the charge per unit length. Unit of λ is C/m
Linear charge density , is given by

2. Surface charge distribution

When charge is distributed uniformly over a surface the distribution is
known as surface distribution.
Surface charge density is the charge per unit area.
Surface charge density, is given by,

unit of σ is C/m2 .
3. Volume charge distribution
When charge is distributed uniformly over a volume it is called volume
charge distribution.

Unit of ρ is C/m3
Electric Field
It is the space or a region around the charge in which electrostatic force can
be experienced by any other charge.

To test the existence of electric field at any point P, we simply place a small
Positive charge q0 called test charge at P.If a force F is exerted on the test charge
,then we say that electric field exist at point P.
The charge q which is producing electric field is called source charge and
the charge q0 which test the effect of a source charge is called test charge.
Electric field intensity(It is used to measure the strength of electric field)
Electric field strength at a point in an electric field is the electrostatic force
per unit positive charge acting on a vanishingly small positive test charge placed
at that point.

It is vector quantity whose direction is same as that of force exerted on a positive

test charge.SI unit is N/C

Electrostatic force on a a positively charged particle will be along the

direction of electric field and on a negatively charged particle will be
opposite to the direction of electric field.

Ques Why test charge needs to be infinitely small?

Ans. If test charge will not be small enough it will produces its own electric field
which will modify the electric Field of the source charge which we want to
measure and we will not get the actual value of electric field of the source charge.

Physical Significance of electric field

By knowing the electric field at any point,we can determine the force on
a charge placed at that point. The coulomb force on a charge q0 due to
source charge q may be treated as two stage process
a) The source charge q produces a definite field E at every point r
b) The value of E at any point r determines the force on charge q 0 at
that point .This force is F=qoE
Electric field due to point charge
Suppose we have to find electric field at point P. Imagine a test charge q
is placed at P.
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According to coulombs law force exerted by charge Q on q is

Since

1
i.e E α
𝑟2
The electric field due to a point charge has spherical symmetry.
i.e magnitude of electric field due to point charge is same as on a sphere
with the point charge as its centre
If q > 0, then the field is radially outwards. If q < 0, then the field is
radially inwards.
Electric field due to a system of charges

Electric field lines

Electric field lines are thus a way of pictorially mapping the electric field around a
configuration of charges. An electric field line is, in general, a curve drawn in such
a way that the tangent to it at each point gives the direction of the electric field at
that point.
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Properties of electric field lines

1) Electric field lines start from a positive charge and end at negative charge. If
there is a single charge, they may start or end at infinity
2) They cannot form closed loops.
3) They cannot cross each other if they do so that would indicate two
directions of electric field at the point of intersection which is not possible.
4) Electric field lines are close together in a region of strong field and far apart
in a weak field.
5) Electric field lines are continuous or cannot have sudden break
because electric field lines exist throughout the region, it has a starting point
and terminating point it can’t vanish in between.
6) Lines of force have a tendency to contract lengthwise. This explains
attraction between two unlike charges.
7) Lines of force have tendency to expand laterally which explains repulsion
between two like charges.

FIELD LINES DUE TO

(a) a single positive charge

(b) a single negative charge

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c) two equal positive charges

(d) an electric dipole

Relation between
Relation betweenelectric field
electric strength
field and density
strength of linesofoflines
and density forceof

force

Electric field strength at any point is

proportional to the number of lines of
force cutting a unit area element
placed normal to the field at that point.
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1
having dependence is
𝑟2
field lines

Same number of lines cut an element of area r12 at P1 and an element of

Area r22 at P2
𝑛
Number of linesof force cutting unit area element at P1 =
∆𝛺𝑟12

𝑛
At P2 number of lines =
∆𝛺𝑟22

As Electric field strength at any point is proportional to the number of

lines of force cutting a unit area element placed normal to the field at that point.
𝐸1 𝑛 𝑛
Thus = 2/ 2
𝐸2 ∆𝛺𝑟1 ∆𝛺𝑟2

𝑟22
= 2
𝑟1
1
Hence E α𝑟2

Electric dipole
It is a system consisting of two charges which are equal in magnitude and
opposite in sign separated by some distance. The total charge of the electric
dipole is obviously zero.
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Electric dipole moment

It measures the strength of electric dipole mathematically. It is defined as the
product of the magnitude of either of the charge and the distance between the
two charges .It is denoted by 𝑝⃗. It is a vector quantity whose direction of is from –
ve to +ve charge.
𝑝⃗ =2a X q
SI unit is C-m

Electric field due to a dipole at axial point

Electric field at P due to charge at A

𝑘𝑞
𝐸𝐴 =
(𝑟+𝑎)2

Electric field at P due to charge at B

𝑘𝑞
𝐸𝐵 =
(𝑟−𝑎)2
Since EB and EA are in opposite direction
1 1
E = kq [ 2 - ]
(𝑟−𝑎) (𝑟+𝑎)2
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4𝑎𝑟
=kq[ ]
(𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )
𝑘𝑞𝑋2𝑎𝑋2𝑟
=
(𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2
2𝑘𝑝𝑟
=
(𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2
For a short dipole r>>a
2𝑘𝑝𝑟
E=
(𝑟 2 )2

2𝑘𝑝
E=
(𝑟 )3
Direction of 𝑝⃗ and 𝐸⃗⃗ are in same direction

Electric field due to a dipole at equatorial point

Electric field at Q due to charge at A

𝑘𝑞
𝐸𝐴 =
(𝑟 2 +𝑎2)

Electric field at Q due to charge at B

𝑘𝑞
𝐸𝐵 =
(𝑟 2 +𝑎2)

EBSinθ and EASinθ being equal and opposite cancel out .But EBCosθ and
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EACosθ acting in same direction add up so

Net E=2EACosθ
𝑘𝑞 𝑎
=2
(𝑟 2 +𝑎 2) X
√(𝑟 2 +𝑎2)
𝑘𝑝
E = 3/2
(𝑟 2 +𝑎2)
For a short dipole r>>a
𝑘𝑝
E=
(𝑟 )3

2𝑘𝑝
Eaxial=
(𝑟 )3
𝑘𝑝
Eeq= Eaxial= 2Eeq
)3
Electric Dipole placed in a(𝑟uniform electric field
Eeq

Consider an electric dipole placed at an angle θ with uniform electric field

Force on + q due to electric field is = qE (along E)
Force on –q due to electric field is = -qE (opposite to E.)
Thus forces experienced by dipole due to electric field are equal in
magnitude and exactly opposite in direction so net translatory force on
the dipole is given by +qE-qE=0
Hence net force acting on a dipole is zero but these two equal and opposite forces
act at different points, resulting in a torque
Magnitude of torque = q E × 2 a sinθ
= 2 q a E sinθ
τ=p×E
Direction of torque is perpendicular to both 𝑝⃗ and 𝐸⃗⃗
 When dipole is released the torque will tend to align the
dipole with the field ⃗ i.e from θ to 0.

If θ= 0 i.e when p is parallel to ⃗ E, dipole will not

experience any torque and will be in a stable
equilibrium

If θ= 900 i.e when p is perpendicular to ⃗ E, dipole

will experience maximum torque

If θ= 180 i.e when p is antiparallel to ⃗ E, dipole

will not experience any torque and will be in a
unstable equilibrium

Dipole in a non uniform electric field

When dipole is placed in non uniform electric field it experiences net force as well
as net torque.
1) when p is parallel to E

field
Weaker Stronger
field field
f
f
when p is parallel to E, the dipole has a net force in the direction of
increasing field.

2) When p is antiparallel to E

Weaker Stronger
field field

field

The net force on the dipole is in the direction of decreasing field i.e opposite
to the direction of increasing field.

AREA VECTOR
Area is a scalar quantity but not only the magnitude of area but orientation
Is also important.
For example, in a stream, the amount of water flowing through a ring will
naturally depend on how you hold the ring. If you hold it normal to the flow,
maximum water will flow through it than if you hold it with some other
orientation. This shows that an area element should be treated as a vector.
It has a magnitude and also a direction.
Direction of area vector should be along normal to the plane of the area

Electric Flux
Flux means kind of flow.
Electric flux over an area in an electric field represents the total number of
electric field lines crossing the area normally

Φ=EΔS

If normal drawn to area makes an angle θ with E then

Φ = (Ecosθ) ΔSǹ
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
=𝐸. ∆𝑆
It is a scalar quantity .SI unit is NC-1m2
If there are so many area elements then we calculate the flux at each element and
add them up. Then total flux through surface S is
𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Φ=∑ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∆𝑆
When number of area elements becomes infitely large then
𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Φ=∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑆

Gauss’s Theorem
‘The surface integral of the electric field intensity or net flux over any closed
hypothetical surface (called Gaussian surface) in free space is equal to 1 / ε 0
times the net charge enclosed within the surface.”

Proof Consider a sphere of radius r, which

encloses a point charge at its centre.

Electric field at point on S is

Since both E and dS are in same direction

𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Φ=∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑆
= E∫ 𝑑𝑆
1 𝑞
= X4πr2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑞
= 𝜀
0
 Important points
 If the net charge enclosed by a closed
surface is zero then flux through it is
also zero
 The charge q in Gauss’s theorem only
includes some of all the charges inside
 Gauss’s law is true for any closed surface no
the closed surface.
matter what its shape or size.
 Gauss’s law is based on inverse square
dependence on distance contained in

Coulomb’s law.It will not hold in case of any
departure from inverse square law.

 Gauss’s law is often useful towards a

much easier calculation of the
electrostatic field when the system
has some symmetry. This is facilitated
by the choice of a suitable Gaussian
surface.
 Gaussian surface is so chosen that
 The electric field at every point
on the surface is either
perpendicular or tangential
 Magnitude of electric field at
every point where it is
perpendicular to the surface has
a constant value E
Deduction of Coulomb’s Law from Gauss’s Theorem:
Consider positive point charge at O.Take sphere of radius r centred at q as
Gaussian surface.

Flux is
𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Φ=∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑆
= E∫ 𝑑𝑆
= E X 4πr2 ----------------------(1)
𝑞
Also Φ = --------------(2)
𝜀0

𝑞
E X 4πr2 =
𝜀0
1 𝑞
E=4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2
0
Force on charge q0 placed on surface S will be
1 𝑞q0
F= q0E=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
Applications of Gauss’s Theorem

1) Electric Field due to an Infinitely Long Charged

Wire

The direction of electric field

at every point must be radial
outwards and its magnitude
Is same at all points.
Imagine a cylindrical
Gaussian surface
Since the field is everywhere
radial, flux through the two
ends of the cylindrical
Gaussian surface is zero as 𝐸⃗⃗
and⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆 are perpendicular to
each other but only curved
Surface has 𝐸⃗⃗ and⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆 parallel
to each other will contribute
to flux.

Flux through the Gaussian surface

= flux through the curved cylindrical part of the surface
= E × 2πrl
𝑞 𝜆𝑙
By Gauss’s law Φ = =
𝜀0 𝜀0
𝜆𝑙
E × 2πrl =
𝜀0

𝜆
E=
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
 2) Electric Field Intensity due to a Uniformly Charged Thin Spherical
Shell

Consider a spherical shell of radius R.Since E is radially outward

and has same magnitude at points equidistant from centre of the
shell.

a)For point P outside the shell

Choose sphere of radius r as Gaussian surface.
Flux through Gaussian surface is

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Φ=∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆
= E∫ 𝑑𝑆
= E X 4πr2 ----------------------(1)
𝑞
Also Φ = --------------(2)
𝜀0

𝑞
EX 4πr2 =
𝜀0
Thus Electric field due to a uniformly
1 𝑞𝑞 charged thin spherical shell at a
E=4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2
E=
1
point outside the shell is such as if
4𝜋𝜀00𝑟 2 the whole charge were concentrated
at the centre of the shell.
b) For point P lies on the shell
 𝑞
E X 4πR2 =
𝜀0

1 𝑞
E=4𝜋𝜀 𝑅2
0

c) For point P lies inside the shell

Since charge enclosed by Gaussian surface is zero
𝑞
Thus Φ = =0
𝜀0
Hence E=0

3) Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet

By symmetry, the electric field points outwards. Choose cylinder as

Gaussian surface (a rectangular parallelepiped will also do.)For the
curved surface flux is zero as 𝐸⃗⃗ and⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆 are perpendicular to each other
but for two end faces 𝐸⃗⃗ and⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆 are parallel to each other and will contribute to
flux.
Φ= EA +EA=2EA-------------------(1)
𝑞
Also Φ =
𝜀0
𝑞
σ =
𝐴

𝜎𝐴
Φ = ------------------(2)
𝜀0
𝜎𝐴
2EA=
𝜀0
𝜎
Hence E= Thus E is independent of r
2𝜀0

E is directed away from

the plate if σis positive
and toward the plate
if σis negative.

Electric field due to pair of charged parallel plates

Region 1
𝜎 𝜎2
E1= − 1 E2= −
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
𝜎1 𝜎2
Net E= −( + )
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
Region 2
 𝜎1 𝜎2
E1= E2= −
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
𝜎1 𝜎2
Net E= ( - )
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
Region 3
𝜎 𝜎2
E1= 1 E2=
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
𝜎1 𝜎2
Net E= ( + )
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
Ques. Find electric field due to two oppositely charged plates

Region 1
𝜎 𝜎
E1= − E2= +
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
Net E= 0
Region 2
𝜎 𝜎
E1= E2=
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
Net E= ( + )=
2𝜀0 2𝜀0 𝜀0
Region 3
𝜎 𝜎
E1= E2= −
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
Net E= 0
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