GEO 410

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
LECTURE NOTES

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Zühtü BATI

Turkish Petroleum Corp. (TPAO)
 I. INTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

References

Ediger, V. Ş., 2005, Osmanlı’da neft ve petrol, ODTÜ Geliştirme Vakfı Yayıncılık ve
İletişim A.Ş. Yayınları, 472 p.
Hubbert, K. M., 1956, Nuclear energy and the fossil fuels: Shell Development
Company, Publications no. 95, 40 p.
Ivanhoe, F. F., 1995, Future world oil supplies: There is a finite limit: World Oil, v. 216,
no. 10, p. 77-90.
Nehring, R., 2006, Two basins show Hubbert’s method underestimates future oil
production: Oil and Gas Journal, Apr. 3, 2006, p. 37-44.
Nehring, R., 2006, How Hubbert method fails to predict oil production in the Permian
Basin: Oil and Gas Journal, Apr. 17, 2006, p. 37-44.
Nehring, R., 2006, Post-Hubbert challenge is to find new methods to predict production,
EUR: Oil and Gas Journal, Apr. 24, 2006, p. 37-44.
Selley, R. C., 1998, Elements of petroleum geology: Academic Press, Second Edition,
470 p.

Basic Definitions:
PETROLEUM (rock-oil, from the Latin Petra, rock or stone, and oleum, oil) occurs
widespread in the earth as gas, liquid, semi-solid, or solid, or in more than one of these states
at a single place. It is simply defined as “A naturally occurring liquid, gas, semi-solid or
solid mixture of hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon molecules” or “A form of bitumen
composed principally of hydrocarbons and existing in the gaseous or liquid state in its
natural reservoir”.
Petroleum exploration is largely concerned with the search for oil and gas, two of the
chemically and physically diverse group of compounds termed hydrocarbons. Chemically any
petroleum is an extremly complex mixture of hydrocarbon (hydrogen and carbon)
compounds, with minor amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, and sulphur as impurities.
Physically, hydrocarbons grade from gases, via liquids and plastic substances, to
solids. The hydrocarbon gases include dry gas (methane) and the wet gases (ethane, propane,
butane, etc.). Condensates are hydrocarbons that are gaseous in the subsurface, but condense

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to liquid when they are cooled at the surface. Liquid hydrocarbons are termed oil, crude oil, or
just crude, to distinguish them from refined petroleum products. The plastic hydrocarbons
include asphalt and related substances. Solid hydrocarbons include coal and kerogen. Gas
hydrates are ice crystalswith peculiarly structured atomic latices, which contain molecules of
methane and other gases.
Hydrocarbon is another general term often used interchangeably with “petroleum”
for any of its forms. The general term bitumen has long been used interchangeably with
“petroleum” for both the liquid and solid forms.
Petroleum geology is the application of geology (the study of rocks) to the
exploration for and production of oil and gas. The term petroleum geology has come into
use to describe the area of common interest between petroleum producers and geologists.
Rather it is more accurate to say “geology of petroleum “petroleum geology” is commonly
used in writing or speaking informally. The geological concepts applied to petroleum are all
established and recognized geological principles, which are merely put practical use in finding
and exploiting of petroleum deposits. A person who applies these principles of finding
petroleum, however, may properly be called a petroleum geologist.

Tasks of Petroleum Geologists

Within the context of the petroleum exploration and production business, petroleum
geologists, geophysicists, petroleum engineers and others have to work together. The tasks of
the petroleum geologists are different for different steps of exploration and production.
Exploration geologists have to work effectively and efficiently to discover petroleum.
Stratigraphy, structural geology and sedimentary petrology are the main fields for the
exploration geologists. Whereas, development and production geologists are in charge of
developing the fields, planning the production and correct use of reservoirs. Tasks of well-site
geologists, research geologists, macropaleontologists, organic geochemists and formation
evaluation geologists differ from each other.

History
Petroleum, in some form or other, is not a substance new in the world’s history. That
means petroleum exploration is a very old pursuit. The bible contains many references to use
the pitch or asphalt collected from the natural seepages with which the Middle East abounds.
More than four thousands years ago, according to Herodotus and confirmed by Diodorus
Siculus, asphalt was employed in the construction of the walls and towers of Babylon.

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Herodotus, writing in about 450 B.C., described oil seeps in Carhage (Tunusia) and the Greek
Island Zachynthus. He gave details of oil extraction from the wells near Ardericca in modern
Iran, although the wells could not have been very deep.
Throughout the first millenium A.D. oil and asphalt were gathered from natural
seepages in many parts of the world. The early uses of oil were for medication, waterproofing,
and warfare.
The first wells were drilled in China in the 4th century or earlier. They had depths up to
243 meters and were drilled using bits attached to bamboo poles. The oil was burned to
evaporate brine and produce salt. By the 10th century, extensive bamboo pipelines connected
oil wells with salt springs. The ancient records of China and Japan are said to contain many
allusions to the use of natural gas for lighting and heating. Petroleum was known as burning
water in Japan in the 7th century.
In the 8th century, the streets of the newly constructed Baghdad were paved with tar,
derived from easily accessible petroleum from natural fields in the region. In the 9th century,
oil fields were exploited in the area around modern Baku, Azerbaijan, to produce naphtha.
These fields were described by the geographer Masudi in the 10th century, and by Marco Polo
in the 13th century, who described the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads.
Petroleum was first distilled by Muslim chemists in the 9th century, producing chemicals such
as kerosene.
The earliest mention of American petroleum occurs in Sir Walter Raleigh's account of
the Trinidad Pitch Lake in 1595; whilst thirty-seven years later, the account of a visit of a
Franciscan, Joseph de la Roche d'Allion, to the oil springs of New York was published in
Sagard's Histoire du Canada. A Russian traveller, Peter Kalm, in his work on America
published in 1748 showed on a map the oil springs of Pennsylvania.
Up until the mid-nineteenth century, asphalt, oil, and their by-products were produced
only from seepegase, shallow pits, and hand-dug shafts.
The modern history of petroleum began in 1846 with the discovery of the process of
refining kerosene from coal by Atlantic Canada's Abraham Pineo Gesner.
The first modern oil well specifically sunk to search for oil (as opposed to water and
brine) appears to have been at at Pechelbronn, Alsace (France) in 1745 under the direction of
Louis de La Sablonniere, by special appointement of King Louis XV. The Pechelbronn oil
field was alive until 1970, and was the birth place of companies like Schlumberger. The first
modern refinery was built there in 1857.

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 The birth of oil shale industry is credited to James Young, who began retorting oil
from the Carboniferous shales at Torban, Scotland, in 1847. The produced wax and kerosene
was used for candles and lamps, respectively. Kerosene became cheaper than whale oil and
market for liquid hydrocarbons expanded rapidly in mid-nineteenth century.
The first commercial oil well drilled in North America was in Oil Springs, Ontario,
Canada in 1858, dug by James Miller Williams.
The first well to produce oil internationally in the Western World was drilled at Oil
Creek, Pennsylvania, by Colonel Drake in 1859.
Production in USA reached to 650,000 BBL. Prices dropped from 20 $ 2 $.
A major stimulus to oil production was the development of the internal combustion
engine in the 1870s and 1880s.
Demands for oil products increased greatly because of the First World War (1914-
1918).
By the 1920s the oil industry was dominated by seven major companies termed “seven
sisters”. These companies included:
British Petroleum and Shell (European)
Exxon, Gulf, Texaco, Mobil, Socal (or Chevron) (American)
British Petroleum and Shell found their oil reserves abroad from their parent countries,
principally in the Middle and Far East, respectively. They were thus involved early in long-
distance transport by sea, measuring their oil by the seagoing tone.
The American companies, by contrast, with shorter transportation distances, used the
barrel as their unit of measurement.
The American companies began overseas ventures, mainly in Central and South
America, in 1920s.
In the 1930s the Arabian-American Oil Company (Aramco) evolved.
Following the Second World War and the postwar economic boom, oil companies
risked the profits from one productive area to explore for oil in new areas. So companies
would invest in several joint ventures, or consortia.
In 1960 the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was founded in
Baghdad.

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Petroleum History of Turkey
1876 34-YEARS OLD SULTAN ABDULHAMID ASCENDED THE
THRONE ON 31 AUGUST. HE HE RULED THE EMPIRE FOR 33
YEARS BETWEEN 1876-1908.
1887 CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF THE İSKENDERUN OIL SAMPLE BY
CHEMIST MOREAU IN ISTANBUL ON 17 JULY.
1888 MOUSUL AND SURROUNDINGS WERE INCLUDED IN THE
SULTAN’S HAZİNE-İ HASSA (PRIVATE ASSET) ON 13
JANUARY.
1889 FIRST LICENCE TO AHMED NECATİ EFENDİ ON 23 JUNE FOR
THE ÇENGEN OIL & GAS IN İSKENDERUN.
1897 MÜREFTE LİCENCES GRANTED TO HALİL RİFAT PAŞA.
1898 OPENNING A SQUARE WELL (108 M) BY THE ROMANIAN
WORKERS IN GANOS. SOME OIL AND GAS SHOWS.
1890-1900 GREAT BRITAIN’S ARCHEOLOGICAL STUDIES. GERMANY’S
BAGHDAD RAILROAD PROJECT.
1901 FOLLOWING THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE OTTOMAN BANK,
EUROPEAN PETROLEUM CO. DRILLED THE HORADERE-1
WELL; TURKEY’S FIRST PRODUCTION: 47 TONS OF OIL.
1912 MÜŞİR FUAT PAŞA GRANTED A LICENCE IN KÜRZOT, VAN.
1912 KALTUZ GULBENKIAN ESTABLISHED THE TURKISH
PETROLEUM COMPANY WITH BRITISH, GERMAN, AND
DUTCH INVESTORS.
1914-1918 WORLD WAR I; CHANGE FORM BRITISH+GERMAN TO
BRITISH+FRENCH ALLIENCES.
1918 MONDROS CEASE FIRE AGREEMENT ON 30 OCTOBER.
1925 REVISISON OF LAW NO. 608: MAADİN NİZAMNAMESİ ON 12
APRIL.
1926 ACCEPTANCE OF LAW NO. 792: PETROLEUM LAW ON 12
MARCH.
1923 DISCUSSIONS ENDED ON 23 JANUARY. APPLICATION TO
COUNCIL OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS.
1925 TBMM ACCEPTED THE COUNCIL’S REPORT ON 16
DECEMBER. MUSUL AND KERKÜK IN IRAQ.

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1927 IRAQ PETROLEUM COMPANY DISCOVERED BABA GURGUR
OIL FIELD IN IRAQ ON 15 OCTOBER. 95,000 BBL/DAY.
1929-1932 WORD ECONOMIC DEPRESSION.
1929 LUCIUS’S FIELD TRIPS WITH KEMAL LOKMAN WHO
EDUCATED IN FRANCE, CEVAT EYUP WHO EDUCATED IN
USA, AND GERMAN KURT SCHMIDT.
1930 SHIRLEY L. MASON’S PAPER AT AAPG NEW ORLEANS
MEETING: “NOT ENOUGH OIL IN TURKEY”
1931 LOKMAN’S ANSWER. CEVAT EYUP’S PAPER AT AAPG SAN
ANTONIO MEETING: “PLENTY OF OIL IN TURKEY”
1933 ACCEPTANCE OF LAW NO. 2189 (PIGM: PETROLEUM
DIRECTORATE OF TURKEY; MINISTRY OF ECONOMY) ON 20
MAY. CEVAT EYUP GENERAL DIRECTOR.
1934 BASBIRIN-1 STARTED BEFORE THE MINISTER OF ECONOMY
CELAL BAYAR ON 13 OCTOBER.
1935 LAW NO. 2804: MTAE (MINERAL RESEARCH AND
EXPLORATION INSTITUTE OF TURKEY) ON 22 JUNE.
1937-38 HERMİS-1, KERBENT-1, HERMİS-2 WELLS.
1938-1945 WORLD WAR II.
1940 DISCOVERY OF OIL IN RAMANDAĞ-1 ON 24 APRIL. FIRST
FALSE OIL DISCOVERY IN TURKEY.
1940 PRIME MINISTER REFIK SAYDAM, MINISTER OF ECONOMY
HÜSNÜ ÇAKIR VISITED RAMANDAĞ-1 ON 24 APRIL.
1946 MULTI-PARTY ELECTIONS: DEMOCRATIC PARTY (DP) AND
REPUBLICAN PEOPLE’S PARTY (CHP).
1948 DECLARATION OF RAMANDAĞ AS ECONOMICAL FILED AND
PRESIDENT İNÖNÜ AND PRIME MINISTER GÜNALTAY
VISITED THE AREA IN MARCH.
1951 DISCOVERY OF GARZAN OIL FIELD.
1954 ACCEPTANCE OF LAW NO. 6326 (PETROLEUM LAW) AND
LAW NO. 6327 (TPAO’S ESTABLISHMENT LAW) ON 7 MARCH.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GENERAL DIRECTORATE OF
PETROLEUM AFFAIRS.

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 1983 ACCEPTANCE OF LAW NO. 2929 ON 20 MAY. TPAO CHANGED
INTO TPAŞ. REFINERY (TO TÜPRAŞ CHANGED FROM İPRAŞ),
PIPE-LINES (TO BOTAŞ), MARKETTING (ATAŞ CHANGED TO
POAŞ), SHARES IN İGDAŞ AND PETKİM TO TÜRKİYE KİMYA
SANAYİİ KURUMU, POAŞ, DİTAŞ, AND PETKUR.
1984 ON 18 JUNE, AGAIN TPAO (SUBSIDARIES: TÜPRAŞ, POAŞ,
BOTAŞ, DİTAŞ, ASSOCIATED COMPANIES: İPRAGAZ, TÜMAŞ,
LİBYA-TÜRK).
1986 İPRAGAZ’S (DİTAŞ IN 1993) SHARES TO TOPLU KONUT ON 28
MAY. KAMU İDARESİ BAŞKANLIĞI. PRIVATIZATION
PROGRAM.
1988 88/13180 GOVERMENTAL DECISION SIGNED BY THE
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS ON 21 AUGUST.TPAO’S
AUTHORIZATION FOR PETROLEUM ACTIVITIES ABROAD.
1988 TPIC ESTABLISHED IN JERSEY CHANNEL ISLANDS
(ENGLAND) ON 7 DECEMBER. OIL ACTIVITIES IN EGYPT.
1993 TPAO’S AUTHORIZATION FOR PETROLEUM ACTIVITIES IN
KAZAKHSTAN ON 20 JUNE. 4 FEBRUARY
KAZAKHTURKMUNAY LTD ESTABLISHED.
1993 AIOC (AZERBAIJAN INTERNATIONAL OPERATING
COMPANY) TURKISH SHARES INCREASED TO 6.75 %.
1995 COUNCIL OF MINISTER’S DECISION NO. 95/6526 ON 8
FEBRUARY. BOTAŞ REORGANIZED. BOTINT, TURKGAS IN
1997.
2006 777 PRODUCTION WELLS IN ABOUT 100 OIL FIELDS.
AROUND 2.161.985 TONS DOMESTIC (TPAO 1.535.009 TONS);
(NATURAL GAS: 412.615.946 SM3)=2.427.152 BARRELS) 342.000
TONS PRODUCTION FROM KAZAKHSTAN AND 1.300.000
TONS FROM AZERBAIJAN.

Evolution of Petroleum Exploration Concepts and Techniques

From the days of Noah to OPEC the role of the petroleum geologist has become more
and more skilled and demanding. In the early days oil was found by wandering about the
countryside with

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  a naked flame,
 optimism,
 a sense of adventure.
One of the earliest exploration tools was “creekology”. It gradually dawned on the early
drillers that oil was more often found by wells located on river bottoms than by those on the
hills (anticlinal theory).
Experience soon proved, however, that oil could also occur off structure (stratigraphic
traps).
Through the latter part of the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth, oil
exploration was based on the surface mapping of anticlines. Stratigraphic traps were found
accidentally (by serendipity or by subsurface mapping and extrapolation of well data)..
Unconformities and disharmonic folding limited the depth to which surface mapping
could be used to predict subsurface structure (solution to this problem: seismic, gravity and
magnetic methods; and later electric, sonic and radioactive logging techniques).
Aerial surveying began in 1920s; but photogeology which employs stereophotos only
became widely used after the Second World War.
Pure geological exploration methods advanced slowly but steadily during the first half
of the twentieth century. One of this was the application of micropaleontology.
The study of modern sedimentary environments in the late 1950s and early 1960s (
provided improved prediction of the geometry and internal porosity and permeability
variations of the reservoirs).
The 1970s saw major advances in geophysics and geochemistry.

Conditions For Commercial Oil Accumulation

 There must be an organic-rich source rock to generate the oil and /or gas.
 The source rock must have been heated sufficiently to yield its petroleum.
 There must be a reservoir to contain the expelled hydrocarbons. This reservoir must
have porosity, to contain the oil and/or gas, and permeability, to permit fluid flow.
 The reservoir must be sealed by an impermeable cap rock to prevent the upward
escape of petroleum to the earth’s surface.
 Source, reservoir, and seal must be arranged in such a way as to trap the petroleum.

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Relationship of Petroleum Geology to Science
Petroleum geology is the application of geology (the study of rocks) to the exploration
for and production of oil and gas. Geology itself is firmly based on chemistry, physics, an
biology.
Chemistry and Petroleum Geology
The application of chemistry to the study of rocks (geochemistry) has many uses in
petroleum geology. Detailed knowledge of the mineralogical composition of rocks is
important in reservoir studies. Similarly, organic geochemistry is involved both in the analysis
of oil and gas and in the study of the organic compounds, kerogen, which generates
petroleum.

Physics and Petroleum Geology

Geophysics makes a major contribution to understanding the earth’s crust and to the
genesis and petroleum potential of the sedimentary basins. It is necessary for understanding of
folds, faults, diapirs and other structural elements (entrapment of petroleum). Magnetic,
gravity, seismic methods and wireline well logs are unthinkable without the aid of physics.

Biology and Petroleum Geology

Biology is directly applied to geology through the study of fossils in establishing
biostratigraphy. Ecology, the study of the relationship between living organisms and their
environment, is also important for petroleum geology through the use of the information
about modern marine fauna and flora. Biology, and especially biochmistry, is important in
studying kerogen.

Relationship of Petroleum Geology to Petroleum Exploration and Production

Geologists, in contrast to some nongeologists, believe that knowledge of the concepts
of geology can help to find petroleum.
Some petroleum explorationists still do not admit to a need for geologists to aid them
in their research. It has been argued that oil may better be found by random drilling than by
the application of scientific principles.
Petroleum geology is only one aspect of petroleum exploration and production. There
is a wide range of professional skills which include political and social expertise in the
petroleum exploration work. Petroleum exploration lies within a continuum of disciplines,
beginning with geophysics and ending with petroleum engineering, but overlapping both in

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time and subject matter. Finally, since oil companies exist not only to finde oil and gas but,
like any business enterprise to make money, they need accountants and economists in
exploration and production works.

The Future of Petroleum Production

When will world oil production peak? This question, which is only a few years ago
was the concern of just several dozen specialists worldwide, is now a front page-issue. The
obvious reason for its current salience is the recent doubling of crude oil prices which show
no sign of dropping below 30$/bbl.
Can we predict when world oil production will peak?

Hubbert Peak Theory

M. King Hubbert was among the first scientists who noticed that petroleum industry
shows a unidirectional evolution, including a period of beginning, period of ascent, a period
of decline, and an end. His theory (also known as peak oil) is a proposition which predicts that
future world petroleum production profile must inevitably reach a peak and then decline at a
similar rate of increase before the peak as these reserves are exhausted. It also suggests a
method to calculate mathematically the timing of this peak, based on production rates, past
discovery rates, and proven oil reserves.
Hubbert based his analysis on deductions and extrapolations from two curves, one
showing annual discoveries of oil, the other showing annual production of oil. He correctly
forecasted-on the basis of statistical projections of past U.S. (onshore and offshoe lower-48
states without Alaska)- that oil production would peak in 1969. Since then, the US oil
production has declined within 5 % of Hubbert’s 1956 prediction. He also forecasted that the
world oil production would peak in and around 2000. Later, Ivanhoe (1995) concluded that
there is a strong evidence that the restricted Hubbert curve for the world’s total EUR
(estimated ultimate reserve) of oil peak about the year 2000. It may then fluctuate along a
horizontal production line (restricted by Saudi Arabia/OPEC) before inevitable decline
towards a low baseline after 2050 (Figure I.1).

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Figure I.1. Hubbert’s curve (Ivanhoe, 1984).

Exploration Milestones
Ivanhoe (1995) has noted that the petroleum exploration is an efficient technical
procedure. However, he also noted that the largest oil and gas fields in any basin or oil
province were also the biggest targets and the easiest to find with any given technology and
thus they were normally found in any exploration phase. They are today virtually no areas
where petroleum exploration can not be successfully carried out if preliminary geological
studies indicate a good chance of finding major oil fields.
The exploration and drilling techniques routinely used by large oil companies and the
dates of first applications are as follows:
1. Surface geology (1900)
2. Rotary drilling (1920)
3. Refraction seismic (1925)

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 4. Electric well logs (1930)
5. Analog reflection seismic (1935)
6. Mud logging (1940)
7. Offshore drilling barges (1950)
8. Deepwater drill ship (1956)
9. Semi-submersible rigs (1964)
10. Digital reflection seismic (1965)
11. 3-D digital reflection seismic (1978)
12. Horizontal drilling (1985)

The Global Oil System

The most widely accepted definitions of the oil and gas accumulations in the pools are
as follows:
Global expelled oil system (=Global oil resources) includes all the expelled oil that
existed before human invention. Resources are defined as the reserves and currently
uneconomic deposits. The term “reserve” includes the amount of proven petroleum, which
exists in identifiable fields. Therefore, reservoired oil system can be defined as the total
original oil-in-place in all fields, known and yet-to-be found oil which would be included in
global oil reserves using using current economic criteria. Oil-in-place is the total amount of
oil in situ and yet-to-be-found oil is the quantity of economically extractable oil, which
remains to be discovered.
Reserves can not be extracted totally and some will remain in place depending on the
available technology. The amount that can be extracted from the reservoirs is called
recoverable reserve. Ultimate global recoverable oil reserves, therefore, depend upon a global
recovery factor for the reservoired oil system.
R/P ratio is the recoverable reserves (bbl or tons of oil) divided by present-day yearly
production (bbl/year or tons/year). It gives an idea about how many years will your reserves
last if you continue producing them with the present-day rate.

Reserves and Resources

Ivanhoe (1995) considers that oil reserves are by definition economic, or profitable
while resources, conversely, are less tangible. Reserves are engineers’ (conservative)
opinions of how much oil is known to be producible, within a known time, with known
techniques, at known costs and in known fields. They are resources that can be economically

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extracted from the resource base. Under SPE standards, reserves are classified as “proved,”
“probable” and “possible,” based on both geological and commercial factors.
Proved reserves include reserves that are confirmed with a high degree of certainty
through an analysis of the development history and/or volume method analysis of the relevant
geological and engineering data. Proved reserves are those that, based on the available
evidence and taking into account technical and economic factors, have a better than 90 %
chance of being produced.
Probable reserves are those reserves in which hydrocarbons have been located within
the geological structure with a lesser degree of certainty because fewer wells have been
drilled and/or certain operational tests have not been conducted. Probable reserves are those
reserves that, on the available evidence and taking into account technical and economic
factors, have a better than 50 % chance of being produced.
Possible reserves are those unproven reserves that, on the available evidence and
taking into account technical and economic factors, have a 10 % chance of being produced.
An evaluation of proved, probable and possible natural gas reserves naturally involves
multiple uncertainties. The accuracy of any reserves evaluation depends on the quality of
available information and engineering and geological interpretation. Based on the results of
drilling, testing and production after the audit date, reserves may be significantly restated
upwards or downwards. Changes in the price of natural gas, gas condensate or crude oil may
also affect our proved and probable reserve estimates, as well as estimates of its future net
revenues and net present worth, because the reserves are evaluated, and the future net
revenues and net present worth are estimated, based on prices and costs as of the audit date.
Conservative bankers will loan money on reserves.
Resources are geologists’ (optimistic) opinions of all oil theoritically present in an
area. They may be defined by two criteria: economic feasibility of extraction and and
geological knowledge. They are industrially useful natural materials, not only petroleum, but
water, minerals, and aggregate. They are Conservative bankers will not loan money on
resources.
Explorationists must first find –and then petroleum engineers convert –theoritical
resources into producible reserves. An example of a resources that that will never become a
reserve is gold in seawater.
Ivanhoe (1995) has emphasized that oil companies are in business to make money-not
to find oil per se. He proposed the terms active and inactive reserves. Active reserves are
those producible within the foreseeable future (20 years or less), whereas inactive reserves are

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existence known but not considered producible within 20 years, i.e. inaccessible or producible
only with as-yet non-commercial methods like enhanced oil recovery, etc. Conservative
bankers will not loan money on inactive reserves and some inactive reserves are called
inferred reserves.
Some reserves are called political reserves. Government petroleum ministries have an
inherent interest in announcing the “good news” of large national hydrocarbon reserves in as
much as large political reserves are useful for national prestige and in negotiations for OPEC
production quotas, World Bank loans and grants, etc. They have no effect on near-term oil
production. Sudden unsubstantiated reserve increases announced by any government should,
therefore, be viewed with considerable scepticism.

Global Supply and Demand Of Petroleum

Supply: Since the latter half of the 19th century, a major industry has developed
around the exploration and production of crude oil, and the marketing and transport of oil-
derived fuels that have promoted and sustained the industrial growth of developing countries.
In the process, large volumes of gas have been discovered, particularly in the Asia Pacific
region.
Many estimates of global petroleum reserves have been attempted. This is sometimes done by
studying the size and frequency distribution of giant fields (Table I.1). Globally proved oil
reserves are estimated to total over 1,200 Billion Barrels (BBbl) . The vast majority of these
are located in the Middle East.

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Table I.1. Ten biggest Giant Oil and Gas Fields (Carmalt and St. John, 1986).

Field Name Country Recoverable Depth Trap Type Geologic Lithology

(Disc. Date) Equival. Oil (m) Age
Reserves
(Billion bbl)
1. Ghawer (1948) S. Arabia 87,500 2,200 Anticline Jurassic Carbonate
2. Burgan (1938) Kuwait 87,083 1,400 Anticline Cretaceous Sandstone
3. Urengoy Russian 47,602 1,200 Anticline Cretaceous Sandstone
(1966) Federation
4. Safaniya S. Arabia 38,066 1,600 Anticline Cretaceous Sandstone
(1951)
5. Bolivar Venezuela 30,100 900 Stratigraphic Miocene Sandstone
Coastal (1917)
6. Yamburg Russian 27,983 1,000 Broad Arch Cretaceous Sandstone
(1969) Federation
7. Bovanenkovo Russian 24,416 1,200 Anticline Cretaceous Sandstone
(1971) Federation
8. Cantarell Mexico 20,000 1,500 Anticline Cretaceous Carbonate
Complex (1976)
9. Zakum (1964) Abu Dhabi 18,400 2,700 Anticline Jurassic Carbonate
10. Manifa S. Arabia 17,800 2,300 Anticline Cretaceous Sandstone
(1957)

Global gas reserves total 6,000 Trillion Cubic Feet (TCF), concentrated primarily in
the Former Soviet Union (32 %) and Middle East (40 %). Although the international transport
of gas is more difficult, with an increasing demand of gas, particularly a clean fuel for power
generation, pipeline construction is on the increase and the supply of gas for short and long-
term LNG contracts is also increasing.
The proved volume of gas is a very large energy source. The global reserves to
production (R/P) ratio for gas is 62 years. This is in contrast to oil which has an R/P of 41
years. Additionally, the undiscovered gas volume is also large.
Demand: World energy consumption is increasing dramatically, largely as a
consequence of increasing energy demand from the developing countries. Total world
consumption has approximately doubled from 207 quadrillion British Thermal Unit (BTU) in
1970 to today, and is forecasted to reach 608 BTU in 2020.
Most of the demand is coming from developing Asia with 54 %. Energy supply is
dominated by fossil fuels and most of the forecast energy supply will continue to rely upon
these energy resources.

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 Oil: Total world oil production in 2006 was 73 Million Barrels per day and is
forecasted to increase to almost 120 MMBPD in 2020.
Gas: Total world gas production in 2006 was 6.5 Billion Cubic meters per day. World
natural gas consumption is forecasted to double in the next 20 years.

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 II. COMPOSITION OF HYDROCARBONS AND SEDIMENTARY
ORGANIC MATTER

References

Braiser, M. D., 1980, Microfossils: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, 193 p.
Duran, B. 1980, Sedimentary organic matter and kerogen. Definition and quantitative
importance of kerogen, in: B. Durand (Ed.), Kerogen: Organic matter from
sedimentary rocks: Editions Technip, Paris, p. 13-34.
Hunt, J. M., 1979, Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology: W.H. Freeman and Company.
Levorsen, A. I., 1958, Geology of Petroleum: W. H. Freeman & Company, 703 p.
Selley, R. C., 1998, Elements of petroleum geology: Academic Press, Second Edition.
Tissot, B.P. and Welte, D.H., 1984, Petroleum Formation and Occurrences: Springer and
Verlag, Berlin, Second Edition, 699 p.
Traverse, A. (Ed.), 1994, Sedimentation of Organic Particles: Cambridge University Press,
544 p.
Tschudy, R. H. and Scott, R. A., 1969, Aspects of palynology: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York, 510 p.
Tyson, R.V., 1995, Sedimentary Organic Matter: Chapman and Hall, London, 615 p.
Whelan, J. And Farrington, J.W. (Eds.), 1992, Organic Matter: Colombia University Press.

Origin of Petroleum
There are two theories to explain the origin of petroleum. These are inorganic and
organic theories. Both theories have been suggested to explain the origin of oil and natural
gas. A theory of petroleum generation must explain both geological and chemical facts:

Geological Facts:
 Major accumulations of hydrocarbons characteristically occur in sedimentary
rocks.
 Numerous examples of hydrocarbon accumulations in sandstone and limestone
reservoirs are totally enclosed above, below, and laterally by impermeable rocks.

Chemical Facts:
 Crude oils differ from Recent shallow hydrocarbons:

18
 o They show a preference of even-numbered carbon chains (modern
hydrocarbons tend to occur in odd-numbered chains).
o They contain more than 50 % light hydrocarbons, which are rare or absent
in modern sediments.
o Crude oils show the following affinities with modern organic
hydrocarbons:
o Young oils show optical activity which is characteristic of hydrocarbons.
o They contain certain complex molecules that occur in modern organic
matter or as a product of their degradation.
o Correlation between source rock and reservoir oil can be carried out using
gas chromatography (fingerprinting).
Inorganic Theory
Early theories of petroleum generation postulated an inorganic origin (Berthelot, 1860;
Mendele’ev, 1877, 1902 in Selley, 1998).

Cosmic Origins:
Consolidation of H and C during the consolidation of the Earth? Carbonaceous
chondrites and space dust contain hydrocarbons-evidence of primary organic source?
Petroleum should be more widespread in space and time if there was a cosmic source.

Reactions of metal carbides within the Earth:

This theory suggests that mantle contained iron carbide. This iron carbide could react with the
percolating water to form methane and other oil hydrocarbons which is analogous to the
reaction in which acetylene is produced by carbide and water: CaC2 + 2H2OC2H2
[acetylene] + Ca (OH) 2
However there is no or little evidence that metal carbides exist in the mantle.

Hydrocarbons in igneous rocks as evidence

Hydrocarbons, including bitumens, can be found in igneous rocks:
1. In vesicles and microscopic inclusions and as irregular disseminated masses
within igneous and metamorphic rocks.
2. Hydrocarbons trapped where igneous rocks intrude (Can be explained by
distillation of kerogen in surrounding sediments due to heat of the intrusion-
petroleum may be incorporated in the igneous rocks as they cool).

19
 3. In weathered igneous basement trapped beneath unconformities.
Mantle degassing?
Polymerization of inorganic gases such as CH4 that are produced in the mantle. It is
difficult to produce the range of complex hydrocarbons by polymerization; also problems of
permeability and porosity in lower crust.

Genesis of Petroleum by Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis

Theory for the origin of petroleum is well known industrial process that is used to
produce synthetic hydrocarbons.
CO2 + H2CH4+ H2O
In this reaction, carbon dioxide and hydrogen are passed over a catalyst of hematite
and magnetite at temperatures in excess of 500 C.

Main Problems with inorganic theories of petroleum genesis:

o Poor correlation between petroleum and volcanism.
o Paucity of Precambrian oil
o Isotopic origin favors organic origin
o Petroleum is optically active-linked to organic origin
o Presence of homologous series.
o Geological association with sedimentary basins.

Organic Theory
Three compelling reasons favor the belief that the chief primary source material of
petroleum was organic:
1. The vast amounts of organic matter now found in the sediments of the earth. Carbon
and hydrogen predominate in the remains of organic material, both plant and animal.
Furthermore, lesser but still important amounts of carbon and hydrogen are
continually produced by the life processes of plants and animals.
2. Many crude oils have been found to contain porphyrin pigments and nearly all
petroleum contain nitrogen, are more or less direct indication of animal or vegetable
origin or both. Organic matter in petroleum contains both porphyrins and nitrogen.
3. Optical activity-the power to rotate the plane of polarization of polarized light-is a
property of most petroleum, and is not known to occur in inorganic substances with
the exception of cinnabar (HgS) and quartz (SiO2).

20
Main Compounds in Crude Oils
Crude oil is defined as “a mixture of hydrocarbons that existed in the liquid phase in
natural underground reservoirs and remains liquid at atmospheric pressure after passing
through surface separating facilities. In terms of elemental chemistry, oil consists largely of
carbon and hydrogen with traces of vanadium, nickel, and other elements. As far as molecular
size variation is considered, the smallest molecule in petroleum is methane with a molecular
weight of 16, the largest molecules are the asphaltenes with molecular weights in the
thousands. Between these two extremes, there are hundreds of compounds from simple to
very complex structures. The compounds found in crude oil maybe divided into two major
groups: hydrocarbons and the heterocompounds (heteroatoms). Hydrocarbons are
compounds containing only the elements carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). Carbon (C) forms
four bonds, hydrogen (H) form one bond. Oxygen (O) and sulphur (S) form two bonds.
Nitrogen (N) forms three bonds. Carbon atoms may be in straight chains, branched chains,
rings, or in combination of these. Some of the hydrocarbons are saturated (paraffins,
alkanes) and others are unsaturated. Saturated hydrocarbons (or saturates) are saturated with
respect to H which means that no more H can be added without breaking of molecules. That
means four bonds formed by each carbon gone to four different atoms. Saturated
hydrocarbons are in the form of straight chains (normal alkanes), branched (iso alkanes),
or cyclic (napthenes: cyclo-alkanes or cyclo paraffins). Unsaturates able to combine with
additional hydrogen. Many unsaturates have carbon–carbon double, or even triple, bonds.
These compounds are called alkanes (olefins) and alkylens (acetyline). Another important
class of unsaturated hydrocarbons are the arenes (aromatics) which are cyclic compounds
with alternating single and double bonds occurred in a six-membered ring.
The gross composition of a crude oil can be defined by the contents of saturated
hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, and resins and asphaltenes (Table II.1). These
parameters are not independent, as all crude oils consist of these groups of components. If one
of these groups amount to % 100, as saturates plus aromatics plus resins and asphaltenes are
unity.
This fact automatically introduces a certain degree of correlation between these groups
and their further subdivisions. Furthermore, the concentration of several hydrocarbon types or
N, S, O compounds show a high degree of covariance, as a result of common origin, or
common chemical affinities.

21
 Atoms either than H and C that occur in petroleum, bitumen, and kerogen are called
as “heteroatoms”. The heteroatoms of interest in petroleum geochemistry are most
commonly nitrogen, sulphur, and oxygen, which has led to the designation of these
compounds as “NSO” compounds or “heterocompounds”. Resins and asphaltenes are made of
the higher molecular weight polycyclic fraction of crude oils comprising N, S, and O atoms.
Asphaltenes are insoluble in light alkanes and thus precipitate with n-hexane. Resins are more
soluble, but are likewise very polar and retained on alumina when performing liquid
chromatography.

Table II.1. Gross composition of crude oils (Wt. % of the fraction boiling above
210ºC) (Tissot and Welte, 1978).

NORMAL ALL CRUDE OILS DISSEMINATED

PRODUCIBLE OIL INCLUDING TARS BITUMEN
(AVERAGE. OF 517) (AVERAGE OF 636) (AVERAGE OF
1057)
SATURATED HC 57.2 53.3 29.2
AROMATIC HC 28.6 28.2 19.7
RESINS+ASPHALTS 14.2 18.5 51.1
AROMATIC 2.07 (230 samples) - 1.85 (88 samples)
SULPHUR

Physical Properties of Crude Oils

The physical properties most commonly determined for petroleum are
1. density (gravity)
2. volume
3. viscosity
4. refractive index
5. fluorescence
6. optical activity
7. color
8. odor
9. cloud or pour points

22
 10. flash and burning points
11. coefficient of expansion.
12. calorific value.
The most obvious characteristic of an oil is its color. Although some black crudes are
opaque, most transmit light and show colors ranging from black through the greens, browns,
reds, oranges, and yellows to water white. Viscosity also shows a wide range. Some oils are
too viscous to flow out of an inverted container, while at the other extreme crudes flow more
readily than water. In general, oils become less viscous as the temperature increases or the
amount of dissolved gas increases. The density of petroleum varies from just over 1 g/ml to
the very low characteristic of gas. The API scale is widespread to use for reporting densities;
values range from about 6 API to 55 API, with most crude oils having values close to 40
API. High API values correspond to low densities and vice versa. Refractive index,
fluorescence and optical activity are all used in characterizing oils. Optical activity is the
ability to rotate the plane of polarized light and is a characteristic of molecules produced
biologically. Like the other physical properties, pour point and flash point very widely. A
knowledge of these parameters is important in handling of crude oils.

Composition of Gas
In the oil industry, natural gas is defined as “a mixture of hydrocarbons and varying
quantities of non-hydrocarbons that exist either in gaseous phase or in solution with crude oil
in natural underground reservoirs”. It is subdivided as dissolved, associated, and non-
associated gas by API, SPE, and AAPG. Natural gas liquids include, but are not limited to,
ethane, propane, butane, pentane, natural gasoline, and condensate. Basically, natural gases
encountered in the subsurface can be classified into two groups: those of organic origin and
those of inorganic origin (Table 2.1). Gases are described as dry or wet according to the
amount of liquid vapor they contain. Gases are also described as sweet or sour, based on the
absence or presence, respectively, of hydrogen sulfide.
The major constituents of natural gas are the hydrocarbons of paraffin series (Table
2.2). The heavier members of the series decline in abundance with increasing molecular
weight. Methane (CH4), which is the most stable of all petroleum hydrocarbons, makes up the
greater part of the hydrocarbon content of natural gas. Variable but small amounts of other
paraffin hydrocarbons, such as ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10), pentane
(C5H12), and Radon (C6H14), are often present, and in some cases even heptane (C7H16),
octane (C8H18), and nonane (C9H20). Free hydrogen is only rarely found in natural gas, as in

23
some volcanic regions. Carbon monoxide and unsaturated gases are present only in minor
amounts in some gases.
Non-hydrocarbon gases (inert gases) include helium is a common minor accessory.
Traces of Argon and Radon have also been found in the subsurface. Nitrogen occurs
frequently in the earth’s crust. It is commonly associated both with the inert gases and with
hydrocarbons. Hydrogen rarely occurs in the subsurface. It is dissolved in petroleum in traces.
Carbon dioxide is often found as a minor accessory in hydrocarbon natural gases. It is also
associated with nitrogen and helium. Hydrogen sulfide occurs in the subsurface both as free
gas and, because of its high solubility, in solution with oil and brine.

Production and Accumulation of Organic Matter; The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is one of the most important elements because of its central role in all life
processes. It is widespread in the earth’s crust and is the seventeenth abundant element.
Carbon occurs in three forms:
 elemental carbon (graphite), mainly in igneous rocks
 oxidized carbon, represented by carbondioxide and carbonates
 reduced carbon including petroleum, coal, and organic matter in sediments and living
organisms
The total amount of carbon in the earth’s crust has been estimated to weigh 2.65 X 10 20 g
(Hunt, 1977). Some 82 % of this carbon is locked up as CO3 in limestones and dolomites.
About 18 % occurs as organic carbon in coal, oil, and gas. The distribution of carbon in the
earth’s crust is shown by the scale diagram. Carbonates (oxidized form) constitute a large
proportion of the carbon. The next largest proportion is the reduced carbon in the organic
matter of sedimentary rocks which includes the carbon in coal, petroleum, and reservoired
natural gas as well as in disseminated organic matter. The amount of carbon present in the
oceans is very small by comparison, and the carbon present in the living matter of the
biosphere is still much smaller.
Carbon, mainly in the form of carbon dioxide, is introduced to the earth’s surface by
volcanism. Some remains in the atmosphere, but most of the carbon dioxide at the earth’s
surface is dissolved in sea water. Living systems use both gaseous and dissolved carbon
dioxide in process of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the basic process that accomplishes
the mass production of organic matter on earth. The key reaction is the conversion of
inorganic carbon into hydrocarbons by photosynthesis where CO2 from the atmosphere and
water is converted to glucose, water and oxygen:

24
 6CO2 + 12 H2O→Sunlight C5H12O6+6H2O+6O2.
About 2 billion years ago in the Precambrian, photosynthesis emerged as a worldwide
phenomenon. Primitive autotrophic organisms, such as photosynthetic bacteria and blue green
algae, were the first organisms responsible for this mass production. A basic prerequisite for
photosynthesis is the light–absorbing green pigment chlorophyll. In primitive autotrophs it
occurs in relatively free state in the cell of organism. In more highly evolved plants it is
concentrated in chloroplasts in green leaves.
Glucose is the starting material for building complex polysaccharides and other
organic compounds. This polysaccharide production may happen within plants or within
animals that eat plants. In addition, the carbon in living systems may be reconverted to carbon
dioxide by respiration, or oxidation after death (i.e. decay). The reaction is the reverse of
photosynthesis:
(CH2O)n + O2→CO2 + H2O.
Carbon cycle is completed when the carbon in sedimentary rocks is returned to the
atmosphere. This happens during the metamorphism of sedimentary rocks and through the
burning of fossil fuels. This cycle is not completely efficient. 1 % escapes recycling and gets
buried. The upper limit of the preservation rate of organic carbon to be found in certain
oxygen-deficient environments favorable for deposition of source rock-type sediments is
about 4 %. Most organic material that gets buried is widely dispersed within the sedimentary
column.

25
Figure II.1. General model for origin and maturation of petroleum.

Main Contributors of Organic Matter in Sediments

Most oils originate in the organic matter buried in fine-grained sediments. Source of
the organic matter is living organisms and plants. Starting in the Precambrian till the
Devonian, the sole primary producers of organic matter was marine phytoplankton. Since the
Devonian an increasing amount of primary production has been contributed by higher
terrestrial plants. At present marine phytoplankton and terrestrial higher plants are estimated
to produce about equal amounts of organic carbon. Quantitatively, the four important
contributors to organic matter in sediments are phytoplankton, zooplankton, higher plants and
bacteria (Tissot and Welte, 1984). Higher organized animals, such as fishes, contribute on the
average so little to organic matter in sediments that they can practically be neglected.

26
Chemical Composition of the Biomass
All organisms are basically composed of the same chemical constituents: lipids,
proteins, carbonhydrates and lignins in the higher plants. However there are very
characteristic differences with respect to relative abundance of compound and detailed
chemical structure. With respect to formation of petroleum, the lipids are most important.
among which lipids and lipid-like fractions play a dominant role in the formation of
petroleum.
Lipids (Derived from the Greek word meaning “fat”) encompass fat substances such
as animal fat, vegetable oil, and waxes. Fats are used as energy storage in plants and animals
since they have a high energy content. Waxes are designed for protective function (bee’s wax,
leaf coating etc). Seeds, spores, fruits especially of higher plants are rich in lipids. Algae
growing under nitrogen-deficient conditions and in cold water have high lipid. For instance,
diatoms have up to 70 % on a dry weight basis lipid. Oil soluble pigments, terpenoids,
steroids, and complex waxes (suberin and cutin) are called lipid-like compounds.
Proteins are highly-molecular-weight polymers of amino acids. They constitute more
than 50 % of the dry weight of animals and account most nitrogen compounds in living
organisms. They catalyse biochemical reactions in the form of enzymes. They form the
structural components of marine organisms such as sponges and coral. Most organic matter in
shells is proteinaceous. They are rapidly decomposed.
Carbohydrate is collective name used for individual sugars and their polymers. They
include mono-, di-, tri-, and polysaccharides. They are among the most abundant constitutes
of plants and animals. They provide the sweet taste in most food products. They are sources
of energy and form the supporting tissues of plants and certain animals. Cellulose and chitin
are among the most prominent polysaccharides occurring in the nature. Chitin, a
polysaccharide that contains nitrogen in its structure. Wood tissue in higher plants consists of
cellulose and lignin. Most algae are usually devoid of cellulose. They are unstable and rapidly
break down.
Lignin and Tannin contain aromatic rings which are not synthesized by animals but
very common in plant tissues. Lignin occurs as a three-dimensional network located between
the cellulose miscelles of supporting tissues of plants. They are very resistant to decay.
Tannins, although widespread, are quantitatively less important than lignins. They are
intermediate between cellulose and lignin in composition and behaviour. Lignin and tannin
are typically found in higher plants but also in fungi and algae.

27
 The resins that bleed from the cut and damaged surfaces of tree trunks have one of the
highest resistances to chemical and biological attack of all plant products. They are very
resistant to decay over geologic time.

Table II.2. Composition of livin matter in weight.

Essential oils are compounds that are volatile with steam and can be separated as an
oily layer in the distillate. These include oils of wintergreen, clove, cinnamon, rose, orange,
camphor, cedar, pine, and eucalyptus. They include a wide variety of chemical structures.
A fundamental difference exists between the chemical composition of marine
planktonic algae and terrestrial higher plants. The organic matter of marine plankton is mainly
composed of proteins (up to 50 % or more), a variable amount of lipids (5 to 25 %), and
generally not more than 40 % carbohydrates. Higher terrestrial plants are largely composed of
cellulose (30 to 50 %) and lignin (15 to 25 %). Both constituents fulfill mainly supporting
functions, and are not needed in aquatic, planktonic organisms. Lignin is the major primary
contributor of aromatic structures in the organic matter of Recent sediments.
Predominantly land-derived organic matter (organic matter may be allochthonous
(derived, detrital, washed in or autochthonous produced in the depositional environment)
with the high contents of lignin and carbohydrates has H/C ratios around 1.0 to 1.5 and is
more of an aromatic nature. Organic material mainly derived from autochthonous marine
plankton reaches H/C ratios around 1.7 to 1.9 % and is more of an aliphatic or alicyclic
nature.

28
The Kingdoms of Life
Living individuals all belong to naturally occurring isolated units called species.
Ideally, these species are freely interbreeding populations that share a common ecological
niche. The highest category in the classification is kingdom. In the nineteenth century, it was
usual to recognize only two kingdoms: Plantae and Animalia. Plants were considered to be
mainly non-motile, feeding by photosynthesis. Animals were considered to be motile, feeding
by ingestion of pre-formed organic matter. Although these distinctions are evident amongst
macroscopic organisms living on land, the largely aqueous world of microscopic life abounds
with organisms that appear to straddle the plant/animal boundary. The classification of
Whittaker (1969) overcomes these anomalies by recognizing five kingdoms: the Monera,
Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia (Figure II.1).
The Monera are single celled but they lack a nucleus, cell vaculoles and organelles.
This primitive procaryotic condition, in which sexual reproduction is unknown, is
characteristic of the Division Cyanophyta (blue-green algae) and the Division
Schizomycophyta (bacteria). The other four kingdoms are nucleate with vacuoles and
organelles, and are capable of properly coordinated cell division and sexual reproduction.
The Protista are motile unicellular organisms with rather body plans. Some, like the
dinoflagellates (Division Pyrrhophyta), have whip like flagella for locomotion, and
photosynthetic pigments. Hence they resemble the true Plantae and are probably close to the
ancestral line of that group. The foraminifera and radiolarians (Phylum Sarcodina) engulf
their food with the aid of mobile pseudopodia whilst the Tintiinnids (Phylum Ciliophora)
have a coat of bristle-like clia and ingest their food through a mouth surrounded by tentacles.
They are more akin to animals than to plants.
The multicellular and largely non-motile algae and the higher land plants both belong
in the Kingdom Plantae.
The Fungi are heterophytic, feeding by absorption of pre-formed organic matter.
The Kingdom Animalia comprises multicellular invertebrate animals and vertebrate
animals that feed by ingestion of pre-formed organic matter, either alive or dead.

Production and Accumulation of Organic Matter

The amount of organic matter buried in sediments is related to the ratio of organic
productivity and destruction. Generally organic matter is destroyed on the earth’s surface, and
minor amounts are preserved. The deposition of an organic-rich sediment is favored by a high
rate of production of organic matter and a high preservation potential. Determining production

29
and preservation of the present day is relatively easy, extrapolating back in time is harder.
This problem is especially true for continental environments, whose production–destruction
ratio of organic matter is largely related to the growth of land plants.
Factors affecting the formation of organic-rich sediments:
 Primary productivity
 Physico-chemical conditions
 Grain size
 Sedimentation rate
 Rock Type

Primary Productivity
Both the amount and type of the organic material reaching the sediments is controlled,
at least in part, by the depositional environment and can be related to the productivity of the
water column. In the sea, as on the land, all organic matter is originally formed by
photosynthesis. The photosynthesizers in the sea are pelagic phytoplankton and benthic algae.
The biological productivity of these plants is related to both physical and chemical
parameters. Of the former, temperature and light are of foremost significance.
Chemical conditions favoring organic productivity include the abundance of mineral
nutrients such as phosphates and nitrates. These nutrients have very heterogenous distribution
in marine waters. Sustained production occurs only if nutrients are continuously supplied to
the near-surface layers of the ocean where solar radiation is adequate for photosynthesis. The
highest concentration are commonly found in coastal regions, where they are land derived and
in zones of upwelling. Upwellings are present mainly on the western margins of continents.
Oxygenation is not important for the phytoplankton themselves.
Marine organic matter is formed in the photic zone by phytoplankton that fix the
carbon through photosynthesis. The quantity and quality of light affects the rate of
photosynthesis and, therefore primary production. The highest productivity occurs in the
uppermost 50-80 m of the ocean, declining with depth as sunlight penetration decreases.
Three major areas of organic productivity can be recognized in the present day oceans.
The larger part of the biological production is concentrated in the upper 50-80 m of the water
column. Large zones, where less than 50 g/m27year are produced, are found in the polar seas
and centers of the large oceans. Two belts of the higher productivity (200-400 g/m2/year) are
along the boundaries between the polar and equatorial oceans.

30
 Figure II.2. Production, preservation and accumulation of organic matter.

The supply of organic matter is high along the continental margins, because of high
primary productivity of coastal waters and/or a high input of allochthonous land-derived plant
material. It is also important to stress that the areas of high oceanic productivity are not
necessarily the areas where organic matter is best preserved. The preservation of organic
matter and deposition of sediments rich in organic matter, i.e., such as contain more than
about 0, 5 % by weight of organic matter, is restricted to certain boundary conditions. Such
sediments are deposited in aquatic environments receiving a certain minimum amount of
organic matter. In subaerial sediments, organic matter is easily destroyed by chemical or
microbial oxidation. and is favored by anaerobic bottom conditions and a rapid sedimentation
rate.
The operation of light and nutrients is affected by stratification of the water column.

Stratification
Stratification in water masses may result from several processes, but mainly occur as a
result of density differences related to temperature. Surface waters are generally warmer
and less dense than colder bottom waters. At the boundary between the two there is a layer
of water in which temperature changes rapidly, termed as thermocline, which effectively
isolates the warm layer from the cold beneath. Tropical waters are often permanently
stratified.

31
 Stratification can also occur because of large differences in salinity, and the resulting
boundary layer of high salinity gradient is termed holocline.

Oxygen Minimum Layer

A zone of biologically-induced oxygen depletion and anoxicity is common in ocean
water at depths of a few hundred to 1000 m. This zone is called as zone of oxygen minimum
layer. The reason is probably the vast biological activity, which causes large amounts of dead
OM being cycled in water column. This creates a proportionally large demand for oxygen to

Figure II.3. A schematic view of silled basins.

grade the OM (Hunt, 1996). Where this zone intersects the continents, the sediments on the
seafloor may underlie anoxic waters, giving high potential for preservation of OM.
Primary production of organic matter in the continental realm is rather different from
that in the oceans, seas, lakes. Oxygen content is constant. The important variables are water
and number of growing days per year. Thus organic productivity in the polar regions is low. It
increases toward the equator. Significant destruction of OM does not occur in the upland areas
below a mean temperature of 10º C and, in swamps, of approximately 15º C. Swamp deposits
are important for production and preservation. As in the case of oceans, the rate of decay of
organic matter is more significant than its rate of formation in the continental realms.

32
Figure II. 4. An example for the development of oxygen depleted zones in marine
environments.

Physico-Chemical Conditions
Organic matter is not stable under oxidizing conditions but can be preserved when the
environment is reducing. On the ocean floor, OM will be degraded mainly by bacteria and
consumed by burrowing organisms. In these oxic settings, bottom dwelling metazoa
bioturbate the sediments and oxidize most OM. In these environments, the OM is consumed
and broken to H2O and CO2. This type oxidizing environments are often indicated by the
nature of inorganic constituents, for example, by the presence of iron oxides. Since these give
the color to red beds rocks of this type generally have low organic matter contents and
therefore are usually excluded from consideration as source rocks.
Conditions below the surface of sediments rapidly become reducing and bottom
dwelling metazoa are absent and sediments are not bioturbated. Anaerobic bacteria can no
longer oxidize organic matter. Anaerobic bacteria continue to function using the oxygen from
sulfate but their effect diminishes as depth increases.

Grain Size
There is a well-documented relationship between OM content and grain size in recent
sediments and this trend is preserved in ancient rocks. Three main processes operated to
produce this distribution:

33
 1. Wave and current action winnows the clay-sized materials and small particles of low
density organic material out of the sands and deposits them together in quiter waters.
2. The high energy environments (such as beaches, bars, etc.) which characterize sand
deposition are often oxygenated, and organic matter is not stable in an oxidizing
environment.
3. Settling clay particles, because of their large surface areas, may absorb some types of
organic materials from solution and transfer them into sediments.

Sedimentation Rate
Organic matter preservation increases with the sedimentation rate. Rapid burial can aid
the development of anoxicity in sediments. High sedimentation rates can reduce the contact
time between OM and dissolved O2 in the water column, and therefore can contribute to
higher concentrations of carbon and nutrients in sediment. In some areas maximum organic
content corresponds more or less to areas of maximum rate of sedimentation.

Rock Type
Sands usually have low organic matter contents because of their high energy,
oxidizing environments of deposition, while shales deposited under reducing conditions have
high percentages of organic matter. Carbonates usually are intermediate.

Sedimentary Organic Matter

Sedimentary rocks commonly contain minerals and organic matter with pore spaces
filled with primarily by water, bitumen, oil and/or gas. Average shales contain approximately
1 percent organic matter. About 90 % of this is the high molecular weight, insoluble,
polymeric material called kerogen and the rest is solvent soluble and is the bitumen fraction.
The most common term used to describe the fossil organic matter in sedimentary rocks
is kerogen and in the absence of migrant hydrocarbons, kerogen is usually 90 % or more of
the total organic matter in sedimentary rocks (Tyson, 1995). Kerogen is the fraction of the
organic matter in sedimentary rocks which is insoluble in organic solvents. In recent years it
has been defined as a mixture of macerals and other degraded plant and/or animal remains.
Bitumen is that fraction of organic matter that is soluble in organic solvents. Bitumen in rocks
is that fraction of organic matter that is soluble in organic solvents. Small amounts of bitumen
originate from lipid components in once-living organisms, but most is generated by cracking
of the kerogen. Thus, kerogen does not include soluble bitumen.

34
 Kerogen is the precursor of most oil and gas and has three sources: marine, terrestrial,
and recycled.
The most comprehensive discussion on sedimentary organic matter and kerogen can
be found in Tyson (1995). He noted that there is no absolute and precise correspondence
between the organic matter recognized by geochemists, palynologists, and organic
petrologists. Because each uses different preparation and observation techniques.
Durand (1980) uses the definition sedimentary organic matter insoluble in the usual
organic solvents. Tissot and Welte (1984) prefer to define kerogen as the organic constituents
of sedimentary rocks that are insoluble in both aqueous alkaline and common organic
solvents. Burgess (1974) defines kerogen in a specifically optical way as finely disseminated
organic material freed from a sedimentary rock after acid treatment. It is also defined as all
the disseminated organic matter of sedimentary rocks insoluble in non-oxidizing acids, bases,
and organic solvents (Hunt, 1979).
Kerogen is not a single variable substance but nearly always a complex and
heterogenous mixture whose composition reflects widely varying proportions of a large
number of differing precursor materials (Tyson, 1995). These materials may also have varied
widely in their preservation state (and thus composition) at the time they became fossilized in
the host sediment. It forms in the upper few hundred meters of the sediment column from
organic precursors that have been modified during diagenesis. The final product of the
diagenesis of organic matter is kerogen. It may include organic particles with a recognizable
morphology, including algal and fungal spores, cuticles, and remains of woody tissue
(structured fragments which can be grouped into distinct biological units called macerals).
Macerals in kerogen are equivalent to minerals in rock. The original organic matter is
transformed into kerogen by a variety of geochemical reactions that takes place during
diagenesis and burial. However, some workers have refused to accept any redefinition of the
term kerogen (Tyson, 1995).
Sedimentary organic matter, dispersed organic debris, organic debris, palynodebris,
organoclast, palynoclast, clast, palynological organic matter, particulate organic matter-
POM, dispersed organic matter–DOM are some of the synonyms proposed by various
authors. No universally accepted classification for kerogen classification for kerogen types
exists in the literature. The kerogen classification, which is commonly used in oil industry, is
given in Table III.3.

35
Table II.3. The commonly used kerogen classification.

MACERAL (FOR COAL) KEROGEN (FOR OIL) ORIGIN

LIPTINITE Alginite Algal Type I PROTISTA
GROUP Highly (Algae,
Oil Prone including
dinoflagellates,
Botryococcus
etc.).
Sporonite Herbaceous Type II PLANTA
Cutinite (?Amorphous) Oil Prone (Spores, Pollen,
Resinite Resin, Leaf,
(?Type I) Bark, etc.).
VITRINITE Vitrinite Woody Type III PLANTA
GROUP Gas Prone (Wood tissue,
cortex tissue)
INERTINITE Fusinite Coaly Type IV PLANTA
GROUP Scleroctinite Inert FUNGI
(microforaminifer PROTISTA
linings)

Organic Matter Accumulation in Different Depositional Environments

Deserts (< 0.05% OM)

 Waxy organic matter.
 Almost all converted to CO2 and H2O.
 Almost no source-rock potential (but sandstones in deserts may have high
reservoir potential).
Lakes (< 1 - > 10%)
Favorable if:
 Stratified waters, most are not stratified.
 Clay sedimentation

36
  Low clastic input.

Deltas (0.5 – > 10% OM)

 Organic matter is mainly terrestrial (produces Type III kerogen).
 Yields much coal and gas, but little oil.
Coasts (0.5–5% OM)
 High productivity.
 Can produce good source material if rate of biogenic decay of OM is not too high.
Silled Basins, Enclosed Seas (< 2 – > 10% OM)
 High productivity
 Often anoxic
 Can produce highly favorable source rocks.
Abyssal Ocean Plains (< 0.1% OM)
 Low productivity
 No source rock potential

37
 III. SOURCE ROCKS AND PETROLEUM GENERATION

References

Hunt, J. M., 1979, Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology: W.H. Freeman and Company.

Lemma, H.D. and Ulmishek, G.F., 1991. Effective source rocks of the World: stratigraphic
distribution and controlling depositional factors: AAPG Bulletin, v. 75, No. 12, p.
1809-1851.
Levorsen, A.I., 1958, Geology of Petroleum: W.H. Freeman and Company.

Peters, K.E. and Cassa, M.R., 1994, Applied source rock geochemistry, in: L.B. Magoon
and W.G. Dows (Eds.), The petroleum system-from source to trap: AAPG Memoir
No. P. 93-120.
Tissot, B.P. and Welte, D.H., 1984, Petroleum Formation and Occurrences: Springer and
Verlag, Second Edition.
Tissot, B.P., Durand, B., Espitalie, J., and Combaz, A., 1974, Influence of the nature and
diagenesis of organic matter in formation of petroleum: AAPG Bulletin, v. 58, p. 93-
120.
Ulmishek, G.F. and Klemme, H.D., 1992, Areal and spatial distribution and effectiveness of
the world’s petroleum source rocks: Proceedings of the Thirteenth World Petroleum
Congress, v. 2, John Wiley and Sons, U.K., p. 121-136.
Waples, D., 1980, Organic geochemistry for exploration geologists: Burgess Publishing Co.,
USA.
Welte, D.H., 1965, Relation between petroleum and source rock: AAPG Bulletin, v. 49:
2249-2267.

Source Rock
One of the key elements of a petroleum system is the source rock. Source rocks are fine-
grained organic-rich rocks that could generate or have already generated significant amounts
of petroleum. Whereas, non-source rocks are known to be unable to generate and expel
hydrocarbons. Different source rock definitions are as follows:

38
  Effective Source Rock: any sedimentary rock that has already generated and expelled
hydrocarbons.
 Possible Source Rock: any sedimentary rock whose source rock potential has not yet
been evaluated, but which may have generated and expelled hydrocarbons.
 Potential Source Rock: any immature sedimentary rock known to be capable of
generating and expelling hydrocarbon if its level of maturity were higher.
An effective source rock must satisfy certain requirements. Thus, following three factors
are determined in source appraisal:
 Amount of organic matter (quantity)
 Type of organic matter (quality)
 Maturity level of organic matter.

Source Rocks of the World

Sharply uneven areal and stratigraphic distribution of oil and gas reserves in the world
has drawn the attention of petroleum geologists. In the earlier times, this phenomenon was
thought to be primarily a function of uneven exploraion maturity (Leverson, 1958). However,
Ulmishek and Klemme (1992) and Klemme and Ulmishek (1991) have noted that one of the
most important factors is the uneven areal and stratigraphic distribution of hydrocarbon
source rocks and other important factors are the availibility and quality of reservoir rocks and
seals, their juxtaposition with source rocks, and maturation and migration history. They also
noted that several primary factors controlled the areal distribution of source rocks, their
geochemical type, and their effectiveness (i.e. the amounts of discovered original
conventionally recoverable reserves of oil and gas generated by these rocks). These factors
are geologic age, paleolatitude of the depositional areas, structural forms in which the
deposition of source rocks occurred, and the evolution of biota.

Geologic Age: More than 90 % of original recoverable oil and gas reserves in the
world has been generated from source rocks of six stratigraphic intervals. Together, these
intervals represent only one-third of Phanerozoic time. This uneven distribution of source
rocks in time displays no obvious cyclicity and the factors that controlled the formation of
source rocks vary from interval to interval. The maturation time of these source rocks
demonstrates that the majority of discovered oil and gas is very young.

39
 The maturation time of these source rocks demonstrates that the majority of discovered oil
and gas is very young. Almost 70 % of the world’s original reserves of oil and gas has been
generated since the Coniacian, and nearly 50 % of the world’s petroleum has been generated
and trapped since the Oligocene (Figure III.1). They are:

1. Silurian (generated 9 % of world’s reserves),

2. Upper Devonian-Tournasian (8 % of reserves),
3. Pennsylvanian-Lower Permian (8 % of reserves)
4. Upper Jurassic (25 % of reserves),
5. Aptian-Turonian (29 % of reserves),
6. Oligocene-Miocene (12.5 % of reserves).
Paleolatitude: A warm, moist climate, characteristic of low to middle paleolatitudes,
supports abundant life, such as very highly productive tropical rain forests on the land and
reef communities on the continental shelf. This climate is believed to be favorable for source
rock deposition . Two thirds of the source rocks of the six principal stratigraphic intervals
were deposited between the paleoequator and 45o latitudes.

Structural Forms: Structural forms reflecting tectonic stages in basin development

significantly affected source rock deposition. The structural development resulted in
formation of characteristic types of relief, appearance of sources of clastic material, and rates
of subsidence and sedimentation. Source rocks deposited in platforms, circular sags, and
linear sags provided more than three-quarters of original reserves generated from the six
principal intervals.

Biologic Evolution: The significance of biologic evolution for oil and gas genesis is
poorly understood. However, it is mostly suggested that it played an important role in the
history of source rock deposition. The effect of biologic evolution of source rock deposition
during the Phanerozoic was principally expressed as two opposing developmental trends:
1. Diversification and expansion of different group of producers which evolved and
colonized new ecologic niches increased the areas of bioproduction and widened the
range of organic matter types.
2. The contemporaneous evolution of consumers and decomposers was directed to more
complete use of organic matter.

40
 These developments resulted in a change of environments suitable for deposition and
preservation of organic matter in sediments.

Figure III.1. Petroleum source rocks of the World (Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).

Maturation: The maturation rate of source rocks, similar to their rate of sedimentation,
was also quite uneven in geologic time. The major stage of maturation of Paleozoic source
rocks was associated with the Hercynian orogeny and widespread deposition of thick
molasses. The next principal maturation stage occurred during the latest Cretaceous and
Tertiary in connection with the Alpine orogeny and deposition of thick clastic wedges of this

41
age. The cumulative maturation line demonstrates the generally young age of most of the
world’s discovered oil and gas.

World Petroleum Realms

The distribution of oil and gas reserves in the world, relation of the reserves to specific
source rocks, and maturation history of the source rocks as related to the plate tectonic
evolution, suggest that the world may be divided into four main petroleum regions (petroleum
realms) which are characterized by different richness in hydrocarbon reserves and variation in
the formation and occurrences of petroleum basins (Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991; Ulmishek
and Klemme, 1992; Figure IV.2).
In the Tethyan realm (17 % of the total area; 68 % of the petroleum reserves),
favorable tectonic and paleogeographic development resulted in rich hydrocarbon reserves.
The realm occupies only one-sixth of the continental (including shelves) area of the globe;
yet, it contains two-thirds of original discovered hydrocarbon reserves of the world. In
addition to the clastic rocks related to the Hercynian orogeny, the realm contains widespread
carbonate reservoirs.
Boreal Realm (28 % of the total area; 23 % of the petroleum reserves) is the second
petroleum richness. It occupies Precambrian cratonic blocks of the Laurasian continents and
accreted terranes formed in the course of their collisions. During the Paleozoic, the continents
were located in low paleolatitudes and moved to the north in the Mesozoic.

Source Rock Analysis

Petroleum geochemistry is the application of chemical principles to the study of the
origin, migration, accumulation and alteration of petroleum (oil and gas) and use of this
knowledge in exploring for and recovering petroleum (Hunt, 1979). The application of
organic geochemical techniques to petroleum exploration has only recently achieved
widespread acceptance among exploration geologists. Source rock evaluations, oil-oil
correlations, and oil-source rock correlations are the organic geochemists’ common
applications of organic geochemistry in petroleum industry.
Source rock analyses are carried out on a large of samples. The questions we want to
answer are:
 The amount of organic matter in the rock (quantity)
 Hydrocarbon generative capacity
 The maturity of keregon

42
  Expulsion efficiency of the bitumen from the rock (did hydrocarbons migrate)
If any one of these conditions is not met, no migratable oil can be generated and if one
condition is met only partially, oil generation will be severely reduced.
Peters and Cassa (1994) listed all of the geochemical parameters related to the quantity,
quality, and maturation for any sedimentary rock to be a good source rock (Table IV.1).

SOURCE ROCK ANALYSIS

Source rock analyses are carried out on large numbers of rock samples from wells and
outcrops. To carry out all types of analyses on each sample would be waste of time and
money. Therefore, “screening analyses” should be performed to choose the samples for
further analyses. The screening analyses are TOC analysis and Rock-Eval analysis (Figure
IV.3, 4). Other analyses such as gas chromatography (GC), gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry (GC-MS) are detailed analyses and carried out on samples which are selected
after screening analyses.
The total organic carbon (TOC) is the most basic measure of a rock’s ability to generate
and expel hydrocarbons and TOC of a rock comprises the extractable organic matter (oil and
gas), kerogen and the dead carbon. So, the TOC content of a source rock is a direct measure
of its organic richness. The TOC content of a rock must be sufficient enough for generation of
economic amount of hydrocarbons. Thus, the TOC content is the first parameter to be
determined in source rock analyses. The higher the TOC content, the higher the possibility of
generating higher amounts of hydrocarbons. The world-wide accepted lower limit for rock
source rocks of shale lithology is 0.5 % TOC. Where as it is accepted as 0.3 % for carbonate
rocks. So, the rocks having TOC values less than these values are accepted having no rocks.

43
 Figure III.2. Petroleum realms of the world (Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).

hydrocarbon generation potential. Thus, no further analysis is carried out on such rocks.
However, these minimum TOC values can not be applied to over mature source rocks. At this
maturity stage, the TOC is a residual amount of organic matter which initially may have been
twice as high. TOC can be measured by different methods. Direct combustion method is the
most common method which is carried out in Leco carbon analyser. In this method total
organic carbon content, TOC, in a sample is measured by burning the sample in an oxygen
enriched atmosphere and quantifying the amount of produced carbon dioxide produced using
detectors.
The second method is Rock-Eval pyrolysis, which is a tool that measures the
concentration of volatile hydrocarbons (S1), the convertibility of non-volatile organic material
to oil and gas (S2; hydrocarbons derived from kerogen pyrolysis) and provides an estimate of

44
the maturity of the rock sample (Tmax) and content of CO2 and TOC. Analysis is done on
ground rock samples heated in pyrolysis oven at a predetermined rate and quantity of evolved
hydrocarbons and CO2 are monitored as a function of increasing temperature. ~100 mg of
sample is used. The pyrolysis oven temperature program is as follows: for 3 minutes the oven
is kept isothermally at 300º C and the free hydrocarbons are volatilized and measured as

Table III.1. Geochemical parameters describing quantity, quality, and maturation of

sedimentary organic matter (Peters and Cassa, 1994).

45
Figure III.3. Flow chart showing the source rock analysis in rock and oil samples.

46
 Figure III. 4. Details of the source rock analysis carried out in rock samples and
extracts.

S1 peak. Then the temperature is increased from 300º C to 550º C (at 25ºC/min). The
hydrocarbons are released from this thermal cracking are measured as the peak S2. The
temperature at which S2 reaches its maximum depends on the nature and maturity of the
kerogen and is called as Tmax. The CO2 issued from the kerogen cracking is heated at 600 º C
and CO2 is released and detected (S3 peak).
Five basic parameters are obtained by pyrolysis: S1 (amount of free hydrocarbons in
the samples), S2 (the amount of hydrocarbons generated through thermal cracking), S3 (the
amount of CO2-an indication of the amount of oxygen in the kerogen), S4 (the amount of
residual carbon), Tmax (is an indication of stage of maturation of organic matter). And some
parameters including HI (Hydrogen Index), OI (Oxygen Index), PI (Production Index), and
Potential Yield (a semiquantitative potential of the source rocks). These parameters are used
to determine the amount, type, and maturity level of the organic matter in rocks.
Column chromatography and thin-layer chromatography are used to separate
asphaltene-free bitumen or crude oil into fractions. It separates NSO compounds, aromatics

47
and saturates. After the bitumen is extracted, the next step in the column chromatography is to
separate the different classes of compounds in the bitumen. The asphaltenes are first
precipitated and then the remaining bitumen is separated by column chromatography.
Iotroscan (Thin Layer Chromatography) is a fast and cost-effective technique to obtain
quantitative data on the composition of crude oils and source rock extracts. Different solvents
are used to elute compounds. First saturates, then aromatics and resins are eluted.

Gas Chromatography
A gas chromatograph is a chemical analysis instrument for separating chemicals in a
complex sample. It is similar to column chromatography, except that the mobile phase is an
inert gas rather than a solvent. As the individual compounds emerge from the GC, they pass a
detector, and their presence is recorded on the chart. The recorded graph is known as gas
chromatogram. In the gas chromatogram, the area under each peak is proportional to the
number of molecules of that particular compound present in the sample. Several gas
chromatographic analyses are carried out on source rock extracts (C 15+ GC), whole oil GC,
saturate GC, aromatic GC. Gas chromatography data can be used to determine organic matter
type, organic matter maturity, biodegradation, oil-oil and oil-source rock correlations.

Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS)

It is the principal method to evaluate the biomarkers. It is an instrumental technique,
comprising a gas chromatograph (GC) coupled to a mass spectrometer (MS), by which
complex mixtures of chemicals may be separated, identified and quantified. This makes it
ideal for the analysis of the hundreds of relatively low molecular weight compounds found in
hydrocarbons. The GC-MS can detect chemicals in amounts as small as a picogram (10-12
gram). A typical GC-MS system performs six functions:
1) Compound separation by gas chromatography
2) Transfer of separated compounds to the ionizing chamber of the mass spectrometer.
3) Ionization
4) Mass analysis
5) Detection of the ions by the electron multiplier
6) Acquisition, processing and display of data by computer.

The obtained biomarker ratios give information about:

 Type of source material (terrestrial, marine, lacustrine)

48
  Depositional environment of source rock (oxic, anoxic, fresh water, saline, etc)
 Lithology of the source rock
 Approximate geologic age of the source rock
 Maturity of the source rock
 Degree of biodegradation of the oil
Microscopic source rock analyses of kerogen particles provides an independent
assessment of the quantity, quality, and maturity level of organic matter. The three most
common techniques are transmitted light microscopy of strew-mount slides of isolated
kerogen, reflected light and/or fluorescence microscopy of polished kerogen slides, and
reflected light and/or fluorescence microscopy of whole rocks. The type of organic matter is
determined by investigating the proportion of different organic matter types under transmitted
or reflected light microscopy (four major groups of OM including amorphous, herbaceous,
woody, and coaly). Thermal Alteration Index (TAI) is a numerical scale based on thermally
induced color changes in spores and pollen. TAI ranges from a value of 1 for immature
sediments to 5 for those at the metagenesis stage kerogen slides are examined in transmitted
light. The analyst matches the color of the specimen with that of a standard. Several TAI
scales have been published. An advantage of TAI is that the greatest color changes occur in
the oil window. TAI measurements are imprecise because description of color is subjective,
palynomorph thickness and type affect results, and many samples include few palynomorphs.
Despite limitations, TAI commonly provides useful data, even when other maturity
parameters fail.
Another widely used chart is a Spore Coloration Index (SCI) where the values range
from 2-3 (yellow=immature) to >7.5 (brown-black=over mature).
Initially recognized by coal petrologists. For vitrinite reflectance kerogen is isolated
from sedimentary rocks is embedded in epoxy on a slide or in a epoxy plug and polished to a
flat, shiny surface. Measurements are made of the percentage of incident light reflected from
vitrinite particles under oil immersion. Vitrinite Reflectance (Ro) of vitrinite macerals
increases with thermal maturity during thermal maturation due to complex, irreversible
aromatization reactions. Approximate Ro, TAI, and Tmax values have been assigned for the
beginning and end of oil generation. Ro versus depth plots generally show linear trends on
semi-log paper. These plots can be used to support the existence of faults, intrusions, and
changes in geothermal gradient and how to estimate the thickness of the section lost at an

49
unconformity. This information provides valuable calibration for reconstructing burial
histories.
Reliability of Ro measurements from single samples increases when supported by
independent maturity parameters (e.g. TAI and Tmax) and Ro versus depth trends established
by multiple samples in a well.
Ro can not be measured in rocks that lack vitrinite. Vitrinite is derived from land plants
and is not common in rocks older than Devonian because abundant land plants had not
evolved yet. And, lower Ro values can result from poor polishing, whereas high values are
typical of oxidized vitrinite.
Thermal maturity obtained through these analysis is the conversion of sedimentary
organic matter to oil, wet gas, and finally to dry gas and pyrobitumen as a result of
temperature-time driven reactions. The three main stages of the evolution of organic matter in
sediments are diagenesis, catagenesis, and metagenesis. These three stages of transformation
of organic matter into hydrocarbons are diagenesis (immature), catagenesis (early peak, late
mature), and metagenesis (post mature or overmature).

Diagenesis
Sediments deposited in subaquatic environment contain large amounts of water
(porosity amount to about 80 % in clay mud at 5 cm depth, i.e., water is 60 % by weight of
total sediment), minerals, dead organic material (autochthonous, allochthonous, and
reworked), and numerous living microorganisms. Such a mixture results from various
sedimentary processes and primary components of very different origins; it is out of
equilibrium and therefore unstable, even if microorganisms are not present. Diagenesis is the
process through which the system tends to approach equilibrium under conditions of shallow
burial, and through which the sediment normally becomes consolidated. The depth interval
concerned is in the order of a few hundred meters, occasionally to a few thousand meters.
Diagenesis refers to biologically induced changes in organic matter composition that
occur in recently deposited sediments. Actually, these changes begin before organic matter
reaches the sediment. The organic matter sinking through the water column is degraded due
to the activities of bacteria, fungi, and protozoa, and other microbes. Less than 10 % of OM
settles to the bottom. Indeed, a significant proportion of organic matter reaching the sediments
is in the fecal pellets of everything from zooplankton to whales. In the oxic zone directly
below the sediment/water interface, the main reaction is oxidation of organic matter
(microbial induced):

50
CH2O + O2 = CO2 + H2O

The bulk of OM in sediments is in solid form and these macro molecules are broken
down by bacteria. Bottom dwelling organisms continue their activities within the sediments,
down to 50/60 cm. When excess oxygen is available all carbonhydrates, proteins and to a
certain extent lipids are consumed.
The environment in the sediments becomes reducing as oxygen depleted. The pH may
rise. The products of oxidation of organic matter are H2O, CO2, SO4, and NH3. The depth of
the oxic zone can be < 1 cm to several m.
In the anoxic zone, in the diagenesis stage biopolymers are converted to geopolymers
(kerogen). Anaerobic microbes use enzymes to decompose the proteins, carbonhydrates and
lipids into smaller molecules, often by fermentation and reduction. By microbial degradation
proteins, carbonhydrates, and lipids are broken down into amino acids, simple sugars and
long-chain fatty acids.
In the anoxic zone, first nitrate and then sulphate reduction occurs. Since oxygen is
depleted NO3- is used as energy source:
6CH2 + NO3- = 6CO2 + 6H2O + 2N2
Or 5CH20 + 4NO3- = 2N2 + 4 HCO3- + CO22 + 3H2O
When nitrate is exhausted, sulphate is used as energy source:
2CH2 + SO42- = H2S + 2 HCO3-
SO42- = S + 2SO2 (mainly by Desulfofovibrio bacteria)
If iron is available in the sediment, H2S may combine with Fe to form pyrite. This is
why pyrite is so common in black, organic-rich shales. If there is no Fe (in carbonate source
rocks), the H2S may combine with organic molecules which lead to S rich crude oil. After this
stage, the last stage of fermentation starts where methanogens produce CH4 by using oxygen
in methanols and acetate present in the structure of the organic matter:

CH3COOH (cellulose) = CH4 + CO2 (acetate fermentation)

CO2 + 8H+ = CH4 + 2H2O
The methane generated at the diagenesis stage is immature and termed as biogenic
gas. It is the only new hydrocarbon generated at this stage and this biogenic gas may form
commercial accumulations.

51
 At shallow depths, small amounts of hydrocarbons are present. They are inherited
from living organisms, directly of with minor changes during the early diagenesis of the
young sediment. They have characteristic structures resulting from their biogenic origin, and
maybe considered as geochemical fossils. The first petroleum products liberated by
CH2O + O2 = CO2 + H2O
transformation and early microbial reactions include mostly heteroatomic (NSO)-compounds
of high molecular weight particularly asphaltenes and resins. Microbial activity is most
intense in the continental shelf settings, decreasing with increasing water depth. It is lowest in
deep ocean floors and below stratified (anoxic) waters.
By polymerization and condensation reactions humic acids, fulvic acids, and finally
humins are generated. Humin is partially soluble product of this process. Further
polymerization, condensation and insolubilization eliminates much of the remaining nitrogen
and converts the humin into insoluble kerogen. These processes occur at depths of 10s to 100s
meters over periods of ~ 1 my. Many organic reactions also take place during this phase, such
as decarboxylation, which converts fatty acids to parraffins, and H-disproportionation which
depletes or enriches molecules in hydrogen.

Figure III. 5. Distribution of hydrogen in kerogen.

Catagenesis
The term kerogen is defined as sedimentary organic matter that is insoluble in water,
alkali, non-oxidizing acids, and organic solvents (such as benzene/methanol, toluene,
methylene chloride). As the burial continues, the kerogen experiences progressively higher
temperatures and pressures. With increase in temperatures, kerogen molecules undergo

52
rearrangement to take on a more ordered and compact structure. With increasing temperature,
the carbon-carbon bonds in the organic molecules of kerogen breaks. This is termed cracking.
With rising temperature, more and more C-C bonds are broken, both in kerogen and in the
hydrocarbon molecules that formed previously. Cracking leads to formation of lighter
hydrocarbons from long hydrocarbon chains in the kerogen. The whole process of changes in
the chemical structure of kerogen due to increase in temperature is known as maturation.
The size (molecular weight) of hydrocarbons evolved decrease with increasing maturity.
Catagenesis can be divided into the oil zone, which corresponds to the oil window, where
liquid oil generation is accompanied by gas formation, and the more mature wet gas zone,
where the temperature increases over 130º C, light hydrocarbons are generated through
cracking and their proportion increases rapidly. Wet gas (<98 % methane) contains methane
and significant amounts of ethane, propane, and heavier hydrocarbons. The gas window
corresponds to the interval from the top of the wet gas zone to the base of the dry gas zone.
Conversion of kerogen to petroleum needs temperatures of at least 50º C to 70º C
(equivalent to 1-2 km of burial) and a long period of geological time. The optimum
temperature range for maturation is 80º C to 130º C, equivalent to burial depth of about 3-4
km for a typical geothermal gradient (i.e. 25º C to 30º C/km).

Metagenesis
The last stage of the evolution of organic matter with temperature increase is termed
metagenesis. Metagenesis is reached at greater depths. At this stage pressure and temperatures
approach metamorphic values and longer hydrocarbon chains will have already cracked,
leaving only methane (dry gas). The remaining material is graphite.

Kerogen
Kerogen is the most abundant form of organic carbon on earth, 3 orders more from
coal and petroleum, 4 orders more abundant than the living biomass. Carbon and hydrogen
are the main constituents of kerogen. The others are as follows (5-18 % H2; 0.25-3.0 % O2, 1-
3 % N, and 0.25-1.5 % S). A few authors seem to use the term kerogen for the total organic
matter of the sedimentary rocks. However, the soluble fraction of the organic matter is called
as bitumen and that the term “kerogen” does not include soluble bitumen. The early form
(precursor) of kerogen in young sediments is the insoluble material that is called “humin” by
soil scientists, although its composition is different from compounds present in the continental
soils. The main difference between humin of young sediments and kerogen of ancient

53
sediments is the existence of an important hydrolyzable fraction of humin; this fraction
progressively disappears at depth.

Kerogen Classification
Although various physicochemical and optical techniques are developed to classify
the kerogens, physically kerogen is usually classified based on H/C and O/C ratios (Tissot and
Welte, 1984).
Higher relative hydrogen content in kerogen (atomic H/C) generally corresponds to
higher oil-generative potential. Gas (methane, or CH4) and oil are enriched in hydrogen
compared to kerogen. During thermal maturation, generation of these products causes the
kerogen to become depleted in hydrogen and relatively enriched in carbon. During
catagenesis and metagenesis, all kerogens approach graphite in composition (nearly pure
carbon) near the lower portion of the diagram.

Type-I Kerogen:
 Contains many aliphatic rings
 High initial H/C ratio (1.3-1.7)
 Low initial O/C ratio (<0.1)
 Derived from microbial breakdown of spores, planktic algae, and animal organic
matter
 Enriched in lipids (e.g. fatty acids, oils, alcohols, waxes)
 Produces mainly oil with thermal maturation
 Typical kerogen in oil shales (freshwater and marine).

Type-II Kerogen
 Most common one, contains more aromatic and napthenic rings
 Intermediate initial H/C ratio (1.0-1.5)
 Fairly low initial O/C ratio (0.1-0.2)
 Can be S-rich

54
Figure III. 6. Relationship between total rock, total organic matter and bitumen fraction.

Figure III.7. Kerogen classification (Tissot and Welte, 1984).

55
  Commonly derived from phytoplankton, zooplankton and other marine organisms
deposited under reducing conditions; also minor plant material
 Most common and richest source rocks for oil.

Type-III
 Contains mostly condensed polyaromatics with minor aliphatic chains.
 Low initial H/C ratio (< 1), oil potential is moderate.
 High O/C ratio (>0.2).
 Derived from organic matter from land plants such as lignin, tannins and cellulose
 Generates abundant CO2 and methane (CH4)
 Coal has a similar composition and structure

Type-IV
Contains polycyclic aromatic systems, have the lowest hydrogen contents.

The kerogen classification on the basis of chemical and hydrocarbon generative

characteristics has been supported by microscopic studies. Basically four kerogen types are
defined by the morphologies of kerogen particles (macerals): amorphous, herbaceous, woody
and coaly.

Bitumen
The fraction of the sedimentary organic matter that is soluble in carbon disulfide is
called bitumen and includes solids, liquids, and gases. At the end of diagenesis, bitumens
generally constitute less than 3-5 % of TOC. During subsequent thermal evolution, the
fraction of bitumen increase at the expense of kerogen.
Bitumens consists of 3 fractions which are namely asphaltenes, resins, and petroleum.
These fractions are defined by their solubility.

56
 IV. RESERVOIR ROCKS AND MIGRATION&ENTRAPMENT

References

Biddle, K.T. and Wielchowsky, C.C., 1994, Hydrocarbon traps, in: L.B. Magoon and W.G.
Dows (Eds.), The petroleum system-from source to trap: AAPG Memoir no. 60,
p.219-235.
Demaison, G. and Huizinga, B.J., 1991. genetic classification of petroleum systems: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 75, no. 10, p. 1626-1643.
Levorsen, A. I., 1958, Geology of Petroleum: W. H. Freeman & Company, 703 p.
Magoon, L.B. and Dow, W.G., 1994, The petroleum system, in: L.B. Magoon and W.G.
Dows (Eds.), The petroleum system-from source to trap: AAPG Memoir no. 60, p.
3-24.
Waples, D., 1980, Organic geochemistry for exploration geologists: Burgess Publishing Co.,
USA, 151 p.
Selley, R. C., 1998, Elements of petroleum geology: Academic Press, Second Edition, 470 p.
Tissot, B.P. and Welte, D.H., 1984, Petroleum Formation and Occurrences: Springer and
Verlag, Berlin, Second Edition, 699 p.

Migration and Entrapment

Petroleum systems consist of two subsystems: 1) Generative subsystem and 2)
Migration and Entrapment Subsystem (Demaison and Huizinga, 1991). The generative
subsystem includes the biochemical transformation from organic matter to kerogen and
thermo-chemical kinetics from kerogen to petroleum, while the migration and entrapment
subsystem includes only physical processes leading to the entrapment of petroleum into the
traps.
Petroleum accumulations are generally found in relatively coarse-grained porous and
permeable rocks that contain little or no insoluble organic matter. It is highly improbable that
the huge quantities of petroleum found in these rocks could have originated in them from
solid organic matter of which now no trace remains. A number of lines of observational
evidence show that oil and gas do not generally originate and expell in the rock in which they
are found, but must have migrated (movement of oil and gas in the sub-surface into it from
elsewhere). This theory is proved by the following observations:

57
 1. Organic matter is easily destroyed by oxidation in porous, permeable sediments at the
earth’s surface. It must therefore have invaded the reservoir rock after considerable
burial and raised temperature.
2. Oil and gas often occur in solution pores and fractures that must have formed after the
burial and lithification of the host rock.
3. Oil and gas are trapped in the highest point (structural culmination, or stratigraphic
pinchout) of a permeable rock unit, which implies upward and lateral migration.
4. Oil, gas, and water occur in porous, permeable reservoir rock stratified according to
their relative densities. This stratification implies that they were, and are, free to
migrate vertically and laterally within the reservoir.
Migration is the movement of the oil and gas within the subsurface from source to
reservoir. Conventionally, the process of petroleum migration is directly related with the
increase of temperature (geothermal gradient) and pressure (compaction) and is divided into
two seperate stages governed by completely different processes:
 Primary Migration: is the first phase off the migration process; it involves the
expulsion of hydrocarbons from their fine-grained, low permeability source
rocks into a carrier bed having much greater permeability.
 Secondary Migration: refers to subsequent movement of oil and gas within
permeable carrier beds from source rocks to accumulation sites.
PRIMARY MIGRATION
The precise mechanisms by which primary migration occurs are not yet fully
understood. Different mechanisms are proposed:
- Diffusion
- Aqueous solution
- Micellar solution
- Separate phase
Migration by Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of hydrocarbon molecules as a result of concentration
gradient. This process leads to dispersal rather than accumulation. In rare geological
conditions, gas accumulation can result by diffusion.
Migration by Aqueous or Molecular Solution
According to this proposed mechanism, hydrocarbon molecules are dissolved in water
and migrated with the movement of the water. However, the solubilities of HC molecules are

58
very low in water and the composition of petroleum does not correlate with the solubilities of
HC molecules in water.

Migration by Micellar Solution

Micelles are molecular aggregates formed in solutions of surface-active agents
(surfactants). They behave like soap, attaching themselves to a hydrocarbon molecule on one
end to an OH- at the other end. In 1959, Baker first advanced the concept of solubilization of
hydrocarbons in micelles as a possible primary migration mechanism. However, problems
such as size of micelles, availability of sufficient surfactants problems or availability of water
during peak oil generation indicates that the role of micellar solution of hydrocarbons in
primary migration can be considered as limited.

Migration as Separate Phase

The most effective mechanism of primary migration during the main phases of oil and
gas formation seems to be a pressure-driven, discrete hydrocarbon phase migration. Primary
migration involves generation of combinations of kerogen networks, pressure build-up,
microfracturing, subsequent pressure release, expansion of fluid and finally transport of
hydrocarbon molecules out of the source rock.

Expulsion Efficiency
The petroleum expulsion efficiency is the ratio of the expelled petroleum and the sum
of the generated and initial petroleum and can vary from 0 to 1.0. The expulsion efficiencies
depend on the type of the source rock, its richness, thermal maturity and the primary
migration system. For the same source rock, the expulsion efficiencies increase with
increasing hydrocarbon generation rates. The expulsion efficiencies may vary in a single
source rock due to capillary effects. Thin source rock layers may exhibit higher expulsion
efficiencies than thick source rock layers because of the capillary effects near the edges of the
source rocks.

Distance and Direction

The distances traversed by hydrocarbons during primary migration are short. Primary
migration is difficult and slow, because petroleum is being forced through rocks having low
matrix permeabilities. As soon as easier paths become available, the migrating fluids will take
them. Thus primary migration ends whenever a permeable conduit for secondary migration is

59
reched. In most cases the distances of primary migration are probably between 10 centimeters
and 100 m. Massive, unfractured source rock units are relatively rare, where they do exist,
primary migration may be of poor efficiency. In most cases hydrocarbons are generated
within short distances of viable secondary migration conduits. Because of the source rock is
overpressured, expulsion can be lateral, upward and downward, depending upon the carrier-
bed characteristics of the surrounding rocks. Thus a source rock lying between two sands will
expel hydrocarbons into both carrier beds.

60
SECONDARY MIGRATION
Secondary migration is the movement of oil and gas within permeable carrier beds
from source rocks to accumulation sites. Once hydrocarbons are expelled from the source
rock in a separate hydrocarbon phase into a secondary-migration conduit, subsequent
movement of the hydrocarbons will be driven by:
o Buoyancy
o Capillary pressure
o Water flow
As the HC’s leave the dense, fine-grained, low-porosity source rocks as a discrete
hydrocarbon phase and enter the larger pores of a carrier bed, larger globules of oil are
formed. Hydrocarbons are almost less dense than formation waters, and therefore are more
buoyant. Hydrocarbons are thus capable of displacing water downward and moving upward
themselselves by buoyancy. The magnitude of the buoyant force is proportional to the density
difference between the petroleum phase and the formation water and to the height of the oil
stringer. This driving force causes the petroleum phase to move upwards. Oil and gas have
specific gravities of 0.7-1.0 and <0.0001, respectively, compared with 1.0-1.2 for the aqueous
pore fluids. Petroleum compounds therefore undergo buoyant rise in water-saturated porous
rocks. Coalescence of globules of the hydrocarbons after expulsion from the source rock
therefore increases their ability to move upward through the water-wet rocks.
Opposing the buoyancy is capillary-entry pressure, which is resistance to entry of the
hydrocarbon globule or stringer into pore throats. Whenever a pore throat narrower than the
globule is encountered, the globule must deform to sequeeze into pore. The smaller the pore
throat, the more deformation is required. If the upward force of buoyancy is large enough, the
globule will sequeze into the pore throat and continue moving upward. If, however, the pore
throat is very tiny or if the buoyant force is small, the globule can not enter, and becomes
stuck until either the buoyant force or the capillary entry pressure change. When
hydrocarbons cease moving, we say that accumulation has occurred. This model is very
simple, requiring only the existence of two forces. Buoyancy promotes migration, whereas
capillary-entry pressure retards or stops it.
A third force-namely, water (hydrodynamic) flow, can modify hydrocarbon
movement, but it is not essential and does not change this basic model. If water is flowing in
the subsurface in the same direction as hydrocarbons moving by buoyancy, then the rate of
hydrocarbon movement should be enhanced somewhat. In contrast, if the bulk water

61
movement opposes the direction of buoyant movement, then the rate of hydrocarbon transport
will be retarded. These modifications to the overall scheme are probably minor.
The end of secondary migration, and the final stage in the formation of oil and gas
pools is the concentration in the highest available part of the trap. Under hydrostatic
conditions, oil and gas simply rise, according to the principles of buoyancy, to the highest
available part of the trap without gross movement of the aqueous phase.

Distance and Direction

Secondary migration occurs preferentially in the direction that offers greatest buoyant
advantage.Thus movement within a confined migration conduit will be updip perpendicular to
structural contours whenever possible. Where faulting or facies changes create impassable
barriers (capillary entry pressure exceeds buoyant force), migration may have to proceed at an
oblique angle to the structural contours.
Within massive sandstones, secondary migration will occur both laterally and
vertically. That is, hydrocarbons entering the land from an underlying source rock will move
toward the top of the sand even as they migrate laterally updip. This fact has important
implications for tracing migration pathways through a thick conduit. Vertical migration can
also occur across formations. Stacked sands in a paleodelta, for example, can offer possible
pathways for vertical movement. Unconformities also can juxtapose conduits. Faults may play
an important role in vertical migration.
It is possible to have lateral migrations of as much as a few hundred kilomters in
exceptional circumstances. Much more common, however, are basins in which lateral
migration distances do not exceed a few tens of kilometers. Vertical migration distances can
also be considerable, although it should be remembered that there are two fundementally
different types of vertical migration. Migration updip within a single stratum can accomplish
a large amount of “vertical” migration rather painlessly. Vertical migration accross
stratigraphic boundaries is more difficult. Nevertheless, distances of several thousand feet are
not unheard of.

Accumulation
In the old days, when migration was thought to occur mainly in water solution, the
process of hydrocarbon accumulation was somewhat mystical. Hydrocarbons had to remain in
solution until they reached the trap, at which time they suddenly become immiscible with the

62
water and formed a separate hydrocarbon phase. Various mechanisms for exsolution were
proposed to explain how all this was supposed to happen.
Today we belive that hydrocarbons migrate as a separate phase. This model simplifies
problem of accumulation, because now accumulation can occur where the buoyancy-driven
meovement of the hydrocarbon phase is stopped or even strongly impeded. Cap rocks having
low permeabilites to hydrocarbons provide barriers to migration: that is, rocks whose
capillary-entry pressures are high enough to overcome hydrocarbon buoyancy.
Once petroleum has reached the reservoir rock, it must be concentrated into pools if it
is to be commercially available. Petroleum was also deposited in nonreservoir shales or
carbonates as disseminated hydrocarbon particles (bitumen) associated with nonsoluble
organic matter (kerogen).

Reservoir Transformations
By definition, the material in a reservoir is petroleum. So, reservoir transformations
are not applicable to bitumen. There are two main types of transformations that can affect
crude oils. Thermal processes occurring in the reservoirs include cracking and deasphalting.
Nonthermal processes are water washing and biodegradation. Of these, cracking and
biodegradation are by far the most important.
Cracking is afunction of both time and temperature, as well as the composition of the
oil and the catalytic potential of the reservoir. Crucking, which breaks large molecules down
into smaller ones, can convert a heavy, heteroatom-rich off into a lighter, sweeter one. Waxy
oils become less waxy. API gravities increase, and pour points and viscosities decrease. When
cracking is extreme, the products become condensate, wet gas, or dry gas. Cracking also
brings about deasphalthing, because asphaltene molecules become more less soluble as the oil
becomes lighter: precipitation of asphaltenes in the reservoir will lower sulfur content and
increase API gravity appreciably.
Water washing involves selective dissolution of the most soluble components of crude
oils in waters that come in contact with the oils. The smallest hydrocarbon molecules and the
light aromatics, such as benzene, are the most soluble. The effects of water washing are rather
difficult to determine because they do not affect the oil fractions that are frequently studied.
Biodegradation is a tarnsformation process of major importance. Under certain conditions
some species of bacteri are able to destroy some of the compounds present in crude oil, using
them as a source of energy. Biodegradation may actually start during migartion and most of it
probably occurs within reservoirs. It changes physical properties of oil. Biodegradation can

63
vary in intensity from very light to extremly heavy. Heavily biodegraded oils are not
producable. Sulfur content of the biodegraded oils increase as a result of biodegradation.

Trap Formation
Trap identification is the first step in prospect evaluation and an important part of any
exploration or assessment program (Biddle and Wielchowsky, 1994). Future success in
exploration will depend increasingly on an improved understanding of how traps are formed
and an appreciation of the numerous varieties of trap types that exist.
Investigations of plays describe a series of present-day traps, and of prospects, an
individual trap, and determine whether they have economic value and are exploitable with
available technology and tools (Magoon and Dow, 1994). A series of related prospects is a
play. A play is defined as a continuous portion of sedimentary volume which contains pools
(or many traps). Plays should have 1) same productive sequence; 2) similar chemical
composition of petroleum, and 3) coeval traps.
Hydrocarbon trap is a subsurface loci where petroleum can no longer continue its
migration towards the surfaces because its buoyant movement has been arrested (magoon and
Dow, 1994). To be a viable trap, subsurface feature must be capable of receiving
hydrocarbons and storing them for some significant length of time (Biddle and Wielchowsky,
1994). This requires two fundemental components: a porous and permeable reservoir rock in
which to store petroleum and a seal (cap rock) that is capable of preventing the
hydrocarbons from further upward migration. The cap rock (seal) need not be 100 %
impermeable to water, oil or gas. If the upward loss of hydrocarbons is less than the supply of
hydrocarbons from the source rocks to the trap, hydrocarbons may still accumulate.
A trap holds commercial quantities of oil. The closure of a trap is the vertical distance
from the crest or highest point to the spill point, where the oil spills below the trap into
adjacent permeable beds. A seal is the low permeability interval above the trap. The gross pay
zone in a trap is the distance from the top of the accumulation to the lowest point on the
OWC. The net pay zone is the part of the gross pay interval that is commercially productive.
The three most important properties of a trap are:
1. proximity to HC migration pathways
2. permeability of the seal
3. height of the closure (trap-size).
If a trap is not situated on a migration pathway, it will not accumulate oil. Knowledge
of regional paleoflows is critical to the exploration process. All seals leak. If the seal is too

64
permeable, the trap the leakage rate may exceed the rate of migration and no accumulation
will occur. If the closure is small, the accumulation may not be commercially viable. Small
pools are difficult to find and expensive to develop.
Traps are usually classified according to the mechanism that produces the hydrocarbon
accumulation. The two main groups of traps are those that are formed by structural
deformation of rocks (structural traps), and those that are related to depositional or diagenetic
features in the sedimentary sequence (stratigraphic traps). Structural traps are primarily the
result of folding and (or) faulting, or both. Stratigraphic traps created by any variation in the
stratigraphy is independent of structural deformatin; although many stratigraphic traps involve
a tectonic component such as tilting of strata.
Many traps result from both of these factors and they are called as strati-structural or
combination traps. Other types of traps include fractured reservoirs ( fractured basement rock
that projects upward locally into overlying shales; fractured, well-cemented rocks (limestones
and cherts) along faults) and hydrodynamic traps (hydrodynamic movement of water is
essential to prevent the upward movement of oil and gas).

Reservoir Rocks
Reservoir rocks are any rock that contains connected pores (Leverson, 1969). The
essential requirements for good reservoirs rocks high porosity and permeability, and a
sufficient thickness and volume to enable it to hold large quantities of petroleum. Three basic
conditions must be met:
1. The reservoir rock must have retained much of its primary porosity (more than
10-20 %) or acquired secondary porosity before oil migration.
2. The reservoir rock must be overlain by a cap rock with low permeability that
forms a structure with upward closure.
3. The reservoir must be within the range of hydrocarbon migration from mature
source rocks.
The most important properties of reservoir rock are porosity and permeability.
Porosity is the first of the two essential attributes of a reservoir. It is the basic future of
sediment, whereas permeability depends on effective porosity and fluid properties. .
Sedimentary rocks consist of grains of solid matter with varying shapes which are
more or less cemented, and between which there are empty spaces called porosity. It is these
pores which are able to contain fluids such as water or liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons and to

65
allow them to circulate (porous and permeable). Porosity is the ratio of pore volume to total
volume. It is more frequently expressed as
Porosity (%)= volume of voids X 100 / total volume of rock.
The effective porosity is the ratio of the volume of interconnected pores to the total
volume of the sample. The ratio of the total to effective porostiy is extremly important, being
directly related to the permeability of a rock. Two types of effective porosity are catenary
porosity and Cul-de-sac porosity. Inaffective porosity is created by closed pores which are
unable to yield hydrocarbons. Porosity is classified as negligible (0-5 %), poor (5-10 %), fair
(10-15 %), good (15-20 %), and very good (20-25 %).
Permeability is a measure of rock to transmit fluids. So, it characterizes the ability of
rocks to allow the circulation of fluids contained in their pores. It is the coefficient k in
Darcy’s formula and is measured in md (milidarcy). Permeability depends upon pore
dimensions and configuration. It is classified as fair (1-10 md), good (10-100 md) and very
good (100-1000 md). Reservoirs can have primary (matrix) porosity and secondary (fractures,
solution vugs) permeability.

SILICICLASTIC RESERVOIRS
The two main types of porosity in siliciclastic rocks are primary (intra-and
interparticle porosity) and secondary porosity. Primary porosity is an inherent original
characteristic of the rock and mainly determined by:
1. arrangement and form of pores (packing, uniformity of grain size, and shape of
grains).
2. degree to which they are interconnected.
3. the distribution in the sedimentary rocks
Interparticle pores are initially present in all sediments. They are often quickly lost in clays
and carbonate sands beacuse of the combined effects of compaction and cementation.
Intraparticle pores are generally found within the skelatal grains of carbonate sands, and are
thus called as cul-de-sac pores.
Secondary porosity in sandstones forms during the diagenesis mainly by dissolution of
grains and cements that are unstable in the prevailing pore fluids. Some secondary porosity
forms by fracturing; although this may enhance permeability, the increase in pore volume
may be small. The processes that decrease porosity in sandstones are compaction (including
pressure solution) and cementation (quartz, calcite, feldspar and clay minerals) porosity is
mainly determined by:

66
 Most reservoir sandstones have porosities of about 10-30 %, and permeabilities of
about 100-500 milidarcies. The highest primary porosities and best quality reservoirs are
preserved in coarse, texturally and compositionally mature sandstones, composed mainly of
quartz. Graywackes and quartz wackes lose porosity rapidly with burial by compaction and
alteration of the matrix, wheras arkoses and lithic sandstones (litharenites) may be good or
poor reservoir rocks depending on whether feldsaprs survive or alter to clay minerals.
During exploration, it is very important to know the distribution of potential reservoir
rocks and their properties. Mapping the sedimentary facies is therefore necessary for
delimiting potential prospecting targets. Those facies, in turn, allow prediction and
determination of the geometry of the reservoir rocks, and the planning of production.
The depositional environment is also a major factor in controlling the initial vertical
and horizantal variations in porosity and permeability of the rservoir rock, and whether
suitable source rocks and cap rocks are present in the same depositional system.
Some depositional environments which generate better sandstone reservoirs are fluvial
systems, delta systems, eolian systems, shore zone sands, shelf sands and marine slope and
basins.
Fluvial reservoirs are generally located in channel fill and bar sands, and crevasse
splays, if present. Reservoir continuity is typically good to excellent. Internally, however, the
sand bodies are typically heterogeneous. Variations are present according to the type of the
fluvial system:
Braided streams: commonly have excellent lateral and vertical continuity and high
primary porosity, but because of paucity of mud, y-they have poor seal facies. Stacked sand
bodies can produce thick reservoirs.
Meandering streams produce complex, compartmentalized rservoirs. Sand bodies
commonly fine upward leading to decreasing quality. Lateral continuity may be broken by
muds of overbank deposits, oxbow plugs, vertical continuity by thin muddy lenses and sheets
within the sand bodies.
Delta systems are called as ultimate hydrocarbon generators. They have large potential
reservoirs, and good sealing and source facies. The main reservoirs are distributary channels,
delta-front sands, and mouth bars, crevasse-splay sands.
Eolian sandstones are coarse-grained and extremly well sorted, so form good reservoir
rocks. They need an external source of hydrocarbons and caprocks to become reservoirs.
Shore zone sands include beach sands, barrier island sands, washover fans deposited
landward of any barrier. They have good to excellent sorting due to winnowing of fine

67
material through wave activity which produzec very high porosity and permeability, which in
turn can result in excellent reservoirs.Most sand bodies are parallel to the depositional strike.
Many of the sand bodies become progressively thin and pinch out landward giving good
potential for stratigraphic traps. With increasing tidal influences, the sand bodies become
highly compartmentalized and resrvoir quality and continuity decline. With proximity to the
coast, marine shoreline sediments have a potential source rocks nearby.
Shelf sands are deposited on continental shelves and make minor reservoirs. But, when
conditions are favourable they can be rich in oil and gas. The sand bodies are typically lensoid
and they thicken parallel to the shore line. They both coarsen and fine upward so permeability
stratification is common. The environment commonly has abundant organic productivity.
Marine slope and basin deposits are fine-grained. However, strong currents along the
continental slopes may transport coarse sediments to form sand bodies in submarine canyons.
Sandy turbite fans, submarine slope and basin floor sands and canyon fill sands form main
sand bodies. These sand bodies are commonly associated with good quality source rocks.

CARBONATE RESERVOIRS
Carbonate rocks have high initial porosity-may be as high as 60 % to 80 % (lime muds
and reefs) and produce about 40 % of all oil and gas. They differ from sandstone reservoirs in
several respects:
1. Carbonate minerals are more soluble than silicate minerals; formation of secondary
porosity is generally more important than in sandstones;
2. Build-ups (bioherms, including reefs) produce upward projecting structures that may
become (stratigraphic) hydrocarbon traps;
3. Original mineralogy and diagenetic evolution are largely a function of biological
conditions during deposition and prevailing marine hydrochemistry (i.e. aragonite
vs.calcite seas);
4. Carbonate rocks that otherwise would have low porosity and permeability commonly
form fracture reservoirs;
5. Carbonate minerals have different surface properties from silicate minerals and are
often more oil wetting than sandstones.
The initial or secondary porosity is usually reduced by early diagenetic cementation,
compaction, pressure solution and late stage cementation. In some reservoirs initial porosity
preserved and enhanced by dissolution of both original particles and cement. Pore sizes in the
carbonate rocks are independent of the size and packing of the original particles. Permeability

68
does not depend on porosity, but is a function of the degree of pore interconnection; pore
throat diameter and vertical-horizantal pore connections. Due to the complexity of carbonate
rock pore(porosity numerous classification schems has been suggested over the years on the
basis of pore geometry, pore interconnection and relationship between rocks and porosity.
To assess potential reservoirs during exploration, it is important to reconstruct the
paleogeography as closely as possible, particularly the orientation of shoreline deposits (e.g.,
oolite sands) and distribution of reefs.

Porosity in Carbonate Reservoirs

Porosity is normally classified using the Choquette and Pray (1970) classification
Primary porosity in carbonate rocks consists mainly of:
1. Interparticle porosity in grainstones (e.g., between ooids, pellets, lithoclasts and
fossils).
2. Intraparticle porosity in fossils (e.g., gastropods; bivalves).
3. Protected cavities under fossils or intraclasts (shelter porosity).
4. Cavities formed in carbonate mud due to gas bubbles or decayed microbial mats
(fenestral porosity).
5. Primary cavities in reefs or coralline algae beds (growth framework porosity)

Secondary porosity can be formed through:

1. Chemical breakdown of minerals that are unstable in diagenetic pore fluids at any
depth.
2. Biological breakdown - cavities formed by boring organisms, (e.g., bivalves,
sponges).
3. Fracturing.
A major cause of secondary porosity is dissolution of aragonite through percolation of
freshwater. If calcite is precipitated when aragonite is dissolved, a neomorphic transformation
may occur, producing little secondary porosity. If pore fluids are undersaturated with respect
to both aragonite and calcite, cavities will form. Aragonite shells may dissolve to give
(secondary) moldic porosity. Timing is critical - an important factor is whether oil migrates
into the pore before it fills with cement. Development of this type of porosity is controlled by
the flow of meteoric water along the margins of and below sedimentary basins. Periods of
uplift of land or lowering of sea level also cause extensive early dissolution (karstification) by
meteoric water.

69
 Another main type of secondary porosity is due to dolomitisation. During
dolomitisation, the amount of dolomite precipitated may be less than that of the dissolved
calcite or aragonite. The result may be a net increase in porosity. Some dolomitisation is often
associated with mixing zones of fresh and marine porewater, so these types of reservoirs
commonly lie near the margin of the continental shelf, where meteoric porewater flows down
into the basin (especially during periods of lowered sea-level).
Some porosity production takes place at depth due to maturation of organic matter.
Expulsion of CO2 and H2S from shales, and decarboxylation, can lead to production of
secondary porosity.
Fracturing at depth, including that associated with overpressuring, may create new
porosity and significantly enhance permeability for hydrocarbon migration.

Reduction of Porosity
Porosity in carbonate rocks is lost mainly by pressure solution and cementation. Well-
sorted carbonate sand may undergo pressure solution at point contacts, and may precipitate
cement between the grains. Precipitation of limited amounts of early carbonate cement, as in
some beachrocks, causes the pressure to be more evenly distributed, and reduces pressure
solution with burial. Consequently, carbonate sandstones that have been subjected to early
diagenesis (minor cementation) may retain their remaining porosity best with depth. With
burial and increasing temperatures, the solubility of CaCO3 declines, so late cementation
(often large poikilotopic crystals) may take place, occluding both primary and secondary
porosity. Consequently, predicting likely porosity conditions in carbonate rocks can be
difficult.
Although there are many specific types of carbonate reservoir, most fall with the
following major groups:
1. Grainstones with preserved (or enhanced) primary porosity
This includes oolites, some pellet rocks, and those produced from accumulations of coarse
shell debris. In geometry, they typically form prograding sheets or linear bars. Oolites can
have primary porosities of ~40%, reaching 70% where mixed with shell debris.
Survival of primary porosity is favoured in two general settings:
1. Arid environments — where there is little meteoric water near the land surface to
produce cementation or neomorphic transformation of aragonite to calcite.
2. Where early marine phreatic cements prop open and bind grains, but do not occlude
the porosity.

70
 Prospective sites are areas that lacked fluid flow, had early stagnant pore waters, or
experienced an early influx of hydrocarbons. There are many examples —in arid settings,
prograding oolite sheets are commonly overlain by shelf (subtidal and intertidal) muds, and
then evaporites (anhydrite and gypsum) that can form a caprock.
2. Carbonate slope deposits
This group includes deposits on submarine slopes, commonly in the deeper waters
seaward of carbonate platforms. The carbonates are mainly mass-flow deposits (carbonate
turbidites, grainflow deposits, debris flows, etc.), including lithified reef rocks from platform
margins and many other lithologies. These deposits may be coarse and may retain some
primary porosity. Lenses and beds of pelagic carbonates may be interbedded with the coarser
carbonate facies. The Tamabra facies of Poza Rica, Mexico, is a well-known example.
3. Chalks
True chalks, such as the Upper Cretaceous chalks of northwest Europe and the more
impure chalks in midwestern North America, are composed mainly of coccoliths that
accumulated as pelagic oozes in warm, clear waters. They form sheetlike deposits of great
lateral extent. Although fine grained (< 7 μm), the coccoliths are composed of calcite, so they
are relatively stable during diagenesis. Forming in deeper water, there are less prone to early
exposure to meteoric waters during periods of low sea-level. Initial porosities can be high
(30–40%), but their permeability is typically low (pores < 10μm) and they have a very high
surface area. Despite their low permeability, chalks have produced oil in the North Sea
(Ekofisk) particularly where they are fractured. Elsewhere, however, they act as caprocks.
4. Reefs
Reefs form major petroleum reservoirs worldwide, but are commonly complex in
terms of their porosity and reservoir facies. They are favoured because the reef core
commonly develops primary framework porosity, which commonly reach 60–80%.
Furthermore, that framework inhibits compaction. If sea level falls, reefs are commonly
exposed to early meteoric diagenesis, including karstification.
Retention of the high primary porosity depends large on the amount of fluid flow
experienced early after the reefs have formed. If low, the porosity may endure. In contrast,
some reefs lose primary porosity due to marine phreatic cementation, or exposure of meteoric
waters saturated in CaCO3. The history of the reef is critical. If the reef undergoes subsidence
or is buried by transgressive marine shales (which may become a caprock), much of the
primary porosity may survive. The framework of the reef core is not always the best reservoir
facies. In some examples, the reef rubble zone that surrounded the reef core may have higher

71
porosity. Many examples of reef reservoirs are found in Western Canada, particularly in
Devonian strata.

5. Paleokarstic reservoirs-carbonates below unconformities

In humid environments, CO2–charged rainwater and runoff may produce extensive
weathering of exposed carbonate rocks, especially where organic soils have developed. This
can generate much secondary porosity, including moldic, vuggy, and even cavernous pores
over very large areas.
This is most likely to occur following a drop in sea-level or uplift of formerly
submerged platforms. If the platform is later submerged during marine transgression, shales
or evaporites may be deposited upon the unconformity surface to form a regional caprock.

7. Dolomite and dolostone reservoirs

Many reservoirs produce from dolostones of diverse origins. Dolomitization of carbonates
(especially mudstones) commonly results in intercrystalline porosity with euhedral rhombs. If
the porosity is not occluded by later precipitation or overgrowths, those pores may become a
viable reservoir. Some dolostone reservoirs have porosities > 30%.
As with other carbonate reservoirs, the relative timing of porosity production and oil
migration is critical. Dolostones have many origins, so generalizations are difficult. Some
reservoirs are produced early, following local or regional reflux or mixing-zone
dolomitization (e.g. below unconformities). Others are associated with burial dolomitization
and late fracturing.

Reservoir Description
Reservoir description involves three elements:
 Primary properties of the reservoir rock
 The reservoir rock properties that control the amount, distribution and
movement of fluids in the rock pores.
 The fluid properties at sub-surface conditions.

Geological Description
 Composition (core, cuttings)

72
  Texture= geometric properties of a rock such as grain size, grain shape, and the
manner of packing (core, cuttings)
 Sedimentary structures (core, dipmeter, formation image logs)
 External and internal reservoir geometry and morphology (seismic, well logs).

Seals
For a trap to have integrity it must be overlain by an effective seal. A seal is the low
permeability interval above the trap. It is not the matrix permeability but the fracture
permeability of a seal that is critical. So, any rock may act as a seal as long as it is
impermeable. Seals will commonly be porous, and may in fact be petroleum saturated, but
they must not permit the vertical migration of petroleum from the trap. Shales are commonest
seals, but evaporites are most effective. Shales are commonly porous, but because of their
finegrain size, have very high capillary forces that prevent fluid flow.
The geographic extent of a petroleum system is defined by the observed occurrences
of genetically related hydrocarbons that emanated from a given pod of mature source rock.
These related hydrocarbon occurrences and associated migration routes, in turn, are confined
and limited by the presence of sealing surfaces. A seal rock can be defined as one that has
pore throats too small and poorly connected to allow passage of hydrocarbons. The
geographic extent of seal rocks defines the effective limits of the petroleum system. Where
confining seal are lacking, hydrocarbons escape to the surface. Therefore, the seal is essential
element of petroleum system.
Any lithology can serve as a seal for a hydrocarbon accumulation. The only
requirement is that the minimum dispalcement pressure of lithologic unit comprising the
sealing surface be greater than the buoyancy pressure of the hydrocarbon column in the
accumulation. In practice, however, the overwhelming majority of effective seals are
evaporites, fine-grained clastics, and organic-rich rocks. These lithologies are commonly
found as seals because they typically have high entry pressures, are laterally continuous,
maintain a uniform lithology over large areas, are relatively ductile, and significant portion of
the fill of sedimentary basins. Stylolites, formed by pressure solution, can at times provide
effective seals in carbonates. Asphalt can also act as a seal where oil is degraded near surface
and large HC molecules block pore-throats.
Several cms of ordinary clay shale are theoritically adequate to trap large vertical
column of hydrocarbons. Unfortunately there is a low probability that a zone only a few cm
thick could be continuous, unbroken and unbranched and also maintain uniform lithic

73
character over a sizable accumulation. The benefits of a thick seal are that it ptovides many
layers of contingent sealing beds and a larger probability that a sealing surface will actually be
distributed over an entire prospect. Howver, the thickness of a seal does not directly influence
the amount of hydrocarbon column.
Where traps are created by fault offset of reservoirs, seal thickness becomes important
to create lateral seals. Although faulting causes leakes from traps in some cases it can aid
entrapment. Faulting in areas with abundant thick layers of plastic clays can cause plastering
of clay smears across permeable horizons along considerable portions of a fault surface. Also
considerable granulation along the fault surface can locally alter lateral transmissibility in
juxtaposed reservoirs. Finally, fluid movement through reservoirs joined by faulting can
induce pore-filling diagenesis in the reservoirs near a fault.

74
 V. PETROLEUM SYSTEM

Reference

Griffiths, C.M., 1996, A stratigraphy for the 21th century: First Break, v. 14, no. 10, 7 p.

Levorsen (1967), Geology of Petroleum: W. H. Freeman & Company, Second Edition, 724p.
Magoon, L.B. and Dow, W.G., 1994, The petroleum system, in: L.B. Magoon and W.G.
Dow (Eds.), The petroleum system-from source to trap: AAPG Memoir No. 60, p. 3-
24.
Smith, J.T., 1994, Petroleum system logic as an exploration tool in a frontier setting, in: L.B.
Magoon and W.G. Dow (Eds.), The petroleum system-from source to trap: AAPG
Memoir No. 60, p. 25-49.

Introduction
New ideas are constantly being developed and put to use in oil and gas exploration.
Even more common than the development of new ideas is the revival of older concepts, which
are put to use in new ways. The concept of the petroleum system is one that many geologists
are intuitively familiar with and may feel that they have been using all along.
Petroleum investigation is carried out at four levels and geology is considerably
involved in each separate level (Magoon and Dow, 1994). These levels include investigation
of sedimentary basins, petroleum systems, plays, and prospects and all of them are needed to
better understand the genesis and habitat of hydrocarbons.
Investigation of sedimentary basins describe the stratigraphic sequence and structural
style of sedimentary rocks. Petroleum system studies describe the genetic relation between a
particular pod of generating source source rock and the resulting petroleum. Investigations of
plays describe a series of present-day traps, and of prospects, an individual trap, and
determine whether they have economic value and are exploitable with available technology
and tools.
Economic considerations are unimportant in sedimentary basin and petroleum system
investigations, but are essential in play or prospect evaluation. Whenever plays or prospects
are discussed, economically producible hydrocarbons are implied or anticipated. Stated in
another way, without favorable economics, a commercial petroleum play or prospect does not

75
exist. In contrast, a sedimentary basin and petroleum system exist regardless of economic
considerations because these phonemena are based on natural processes. Proof of a
sedimentary basin is sedimentary rock; proof of a petroleum system is the presence of
hydrocarbons, even a puff of gas or a drop of oil.
Historical aspects have differing importance for each level of investigation.
Invstigatigations of sedimentary basins and petroleum systems are relative to the geologic
time when processes are occurring, that is, when sediments are being deposited and when
hydrocarbons are migrating to their traps. In contrast, the present-day existence of a play or
prospect is the important factor. There is little interest in a play or prospect that existed at the
end of Paleozoic but has since been eroded or destroyed. A prospect is conceptual because a
successful prospect turns into an oil or gas field when drilled or dissappears when the prospect
is unsuccessful.
In addition, as the focus of investigation on hydrocarbon occurrence moves from the
sedimentary basin to the prospect level, the cost of the investigation per unit surface are
generally increases. Investigation of sedimentary basins requires a low-density information
grid that covers a large area, such as widely spaced seismic lines, a few strategically placed
exploratory wells, and small-scale geologic maps. In contrast, prospect evaluation requires a
relatively high-density information grid that covers a small area, such as closely spaced
seismic lines on a large-scale map. Eventually, the cost to acquire drilling rights and ro drill
wells must also be included in the economics of the prospect.

Sedimentary Basin Investigation

Oil and gas fields usually occur in sedimentary rocks, but not necessarily within the
boundary of the sedimentary basins. Thereofore, to understand the occurrences of these
accumulations needs to investigate the sedimentary basins in detail.
The sedimentary basin is a depression filled with sedimentary rocks. The depression,
formed by any tectonic process, is lined by basement rock, which can be igneous,
metamorphic, and/or sedimentary rock. The basin includes the rock matter, organic matter,
and water deposited in this depression. In certain cases, such as with coal and some carbonate
deposites, the sedimentary material is formed in situ.
The term basin has different implications to different specialists. A paleontologist uses
the term im reference to where in the water column fossils live, such as benthic or planktonic.
A petroleum geochemist visualizes the most anoxic part of a paleoocean or continenatal basin
where orgganic matter accumulates and refers to that as a basin. Carbonate and siliciclastic

76
stratigraphers refer to the sedimentary fill that was deposited sometime in the past as the
basin. Structural geologists refer to the container that is created in response to a tectonic
process, such as rifting, as a basin. On interpreting a seismic profile, o geophysiscist refers to
thick package (measured in two-way time) of sedimentary rocks as a basin. Geologists
frequently usse the term geographically, that is, to name and locate a province (Thrace Basin),
which is separate from the genetic use of basin to mean any sedimentary basin. In some cases,
the water column is implied as the basin, in others the sedimentary rock contents are the
basin, and in yet others, the container is the basin.
Sedimentary basin analysis investigates the formation and contents of this depression.
Structural and stratigraphic studies are the most conventional way to study a sedimentary
basin. More recent techniques include seismic stratigraphy and sequence stratigraphy.
Sequence stratigraphy, for example, can be used to understand the distribution of sandstone
and shale in a particular araea as a package of related sedimentary rock. For the petroleum
geologist, in certain areas the reservoir properties of this sandstone can be mapped as well as
the organic facies of the shale. Sedimentary basin analysis includes all aspects of basin
formation and basin fill up to the time petroleum is generated, at which a petroleum system
investigation is required. Because petroleum is mobile, frale and responds to different
physicochemical parameters than does basin fill, this second type of investigation, the
petroleum system, is needed.
Over the last several decades, investigations of sedimentary basins have emphasized
plate tectonics or structural evolution and basin classification schemes evolved from
descriptive geology to genetic interpretations with the advent of plate tectonics theory. With
increased understanding of organic geochemistry, work on the occurrence of oil and gas also
has gone from descriptive to the deterministic.
Each new approach to the analysis of petroliferous sedimentary basins becomes more
focused on the genesis of petroleum. Sedimentary basin type does little to improve our ability
to forecast the volume of petroleum from a particular type of basin. However, as more
petroleum geochemistry is incorporated into the analysis of a sedimentary basin, the success
ratio goes up and the forecast of petroleum occurrence becomes more certain.

Play and Prospect Analysis

Beyond sedimentary basin and petroleum system analysis, the remaining levels of
investigation are play and prospect analysis. The play is one or more prospects, and a prospect
is a potential trap that must be evaluated to see if it contains commercial quantities of

77
hydrocarbons. The presence of reservoir rock, seal rock, trap volume, hydrocarbon charge,
and timing are usually involved in this evaluation.

Petroleum System Investigation

A petroleum system is defined as a natural system that encompasses a pod of active
source rock and all related oil and gas and which includes all the geological elements and
processes that are essential if a hydrocarbon accumulation is to exist. This once-active source
rock may now be inactive or spent (depleted).
Petroleum system logic as used in exploration means the development of an integrated
interpretation of the essential processes of petroleum generation-migration-accumulation in
order to evaluate an exploration opportunity or prospect.
In the ideal situation, this integrated interpretation is developed from a geologic
description that includes the distribution in space and time (spatial and temporal) of essential
elements such as source rocks, reservoir rocks, and overburden rocks. In a frontier area, the
geologic description is typically derived from reflection seismic data calibrated to
stratigraphic control provided by outcrop or sea bottom samples and to wells using a limited
amount of rock samples and wireline log data.
Paleontologic evidence from available samples and seismic stratigraphy are used in the
development of the geologic description of the area.
Petroleum includes high concentrations of
1. thermal or biogenic gas found in conventional reservoirs or in gas hydrate, tight
reservoirs, fractured shale, and coal; or
2. condensates, crude oils, and asphalts found in the nature.
The terms petroleum, hydrocarbons, and oil and gas are synonyms. The term
conventional oil is used for the petroleum other than gas and unconventional oil which are
heavy oil, tar sand, and oil shale. Petroleum is originally referred to crude oil, but its
definition was broadened by Levorsen (1967) to include all naturally occurring hydrocarbons,
whether gaseous, liquid, or solid. Over the past 20 years, whenever the term hydrocarbons has
been used without modifiers, it is usually meant to be synonyms with petroleum. Condensate
is in gas phase in the accumulation and in a liquid phase at the surface, but either way it is
considered petroleum, as are solid petroleum materials such as natural bitumen, natural
asphalt, and bituminous sands (=unconventional oil).
The term system describes the independent elements and processes that form the
functional unit that creates hydrocarbon accumulations.

78
 A pod of active source rock indicates that a contiuous volume of organic matter is
creating petroleum, either through biological activity or temperature, at a specified time. The
volume or pod of active source rock is determined by mapping the organic facies (quantity,
quality, and thermal maturity) considered to be the presently active, inactive, or spent source
rock using organic geochemical data displayed in as geochemical logs. Organic matter
generates petroleum either by biologically or thermally. From the time a petroleum phase is
created, a petroleum system exists. A source rock is active when it is generating this
petroleum, whereas an inactive or spent (depleted) source rock was at some time in the past an
active source rock. The active time can be present day or any time in the past.
The essential elements include
 a petroleum source rock
 reservoir rock
 seal rock
 overburden rock
The processes are
 trap formation
 generation-migration-accumulation of petroleum.
These esssential elements and processes must occur in the time and space so that the
organic matter includede in a source rock can be converted to a petroleum accumulation. A
petroleum system exists whenever the essential elements and processes occur.
The essential elements are a petroleum source rock, reservoir rock, seal rock and
overburden rock at the critical moment. The functions of the first three rock units are obvious.
However, the function of the overburden rock is more subtle because, in addition to providing
the overburden necessary to thermally mature the source rock, it can also have considerable
impact on the geometry of the underlying migration path and trap.
The generation-migration-accumulation of hydrocarbons, or age of the petroleum
system, is based on stratigraphic and petroleum geochemical studies and on the burial history
chart. These two processes are followed by the preservation time, which takes place after the
generation-migration-accumulation of hydrocarbons occur, and is time when hydrocarbons
within the petroleum system are preserved, modified or destroyed. When the generation-
migration-accumulation of the petroleum system extends to the present day, there is no
preservation time, and it would be expected that most of the petroleum preserved and
comparatively little has been biodegraded or destroyed. The last event is the critical moment

79
as determined by the investigator from the burial history chart, and it shows the time
represented on the map and cross section.

Petroleum System Name

The name of the petroleum system includes the source rock, followed by the name of
the major reservoir rock, and then symbol expressing the level of certainty. A petroleum
system can be identified at three level of certainty: known, hypothetical, or speculative. The
level of certainty indicates the confidence for which a particular pod of actice source rock has
generated the hydrocarbons in an accumulation. In a known (!) petroleum system, a good
geochemical match exists between the active source rock and the oil or gas accumulations. In
a hypothetical (.) petroleum system, geochemical information identifies a source rock, but no
geochemical match exists between the source rock and the petroleum accumulation. In a
speculative petroleum system (?), the existence of either a source rock or petroleum is
postulated entirely on the basis of geologic and geophysical evidence. At the end of the
system’s name, the level of certainty is indicated by (!) known, (.) for hypothetical, and (?) for
speculative.

Characteristics and Limits

The geographic, stratigraphic, and temporal extent of the petroleum system is specified
and is best depicted using a table includes field name, discovery date, reservoir rock, API
Gravity (oAPI), cummulative oil production (million bbl), and remaining reserves (million
bbl) and the following four figures:
1. A burial history chart depicting the citical movement, age, and essential elements at a
specified location.
2. a map and
3. a cross section drawn at the critical moment depicting the spatial relationship of the
essential elements and
4. a petroleum system events chart showing the temporal relationship of the essential
elements and processes and the preservation time and critical movement of the system.
Critical moment is that point in time selected by the investigator that best depicts the
generation-migration-accumulation of most hydrocarbons in a petroleum system.
Geologically, generation, migration, and accumulation of petroleum at one location usually
occur over ashort time span.

80
 A map or cross section drawn at the critical moment best shows the geographic and
stratigraphic extent of the system. The geographic extent of the petroleum system at the
critical moment is defined by a line that circumscribes the pod of active source rock and
includes all the discoverd petroleum shows, seeps, and accumulations that originated from
that pod. The cross section shows the geometry of the essential elements at the time of
hydrocarbon accumulation and best depicts the stratigraphic extent of the system. A plan map,
drawn at the critical time, includes aline that circumscribes the pod of active source rock and
all related discovered hydrocarbons. This map best depicts the geographic extent of the
petroleum system.
The burial history chart shows that time when most of the petroleum in the system is
generated and accumulated in its primary trap.
The petroleum system event chart shows eight different events. The top four events
record the time of deposition from stratigraphic studies of the essential elements, and the next
two events record the time of petroleum system processes took place. The formation of traps
is investigated using geophysical data and structural geologic analysis.
Examples for geologic map, event chart, burial history chart and geologic cross
section drawn at the critical moment to define petroleum system:

81
82
83
Exercise: Partial or Complete Petroleum Systems
1. Three examples of partial or complete petroleum systems at the critical moment are
given in Figure VI.5. Complete the cross section in B and C. Note that the petroleum
accumulation is charged by a single pod of active source rock (one petroleum system).
2. The number of petroleum systems is determined by the number of pods of active
source, as shown by the three examples in Figure VI.6. Complete the cross sections in
A and B. Note that petroleum accumulation is charged by a single pod of active source
rock (A and C) and by two pods of active source rock (B).
3. Discuss the differences between one petroleum system and two petroleum systems.

84
 C

Figure VI.5. Three examples of partial or complete petroleum systems at the critical
movementm ((A): The essential elements are present, but the system is incomplete
(thus no petroleum system); (B): one petroleum system; and (C): two petroleum
systems. Notice that the overburden rocks create the geometry of the most recent
sedimentary basin and the source was deposited in a larger, older sedimentary basin
(Magoon and Dow, 1994)).

85
 B

Petroleum Geology
The geologic concepts applied to petroleum are all established and recognised
geologic principles, which are merely put to practical use in finding and exploiting petroleum
deposits (Levorsen, 1967). A person who applies these principles to finding petroleum,
howver, may properly be called a petroleum geologist
Drilling, makes the actual discovery of a pool. However, the proper location of the
wildcat well to test a trap, the depth to which it should be drilled, and the detection and
outlining of the oil or gas pool from what is revealed by that well and others, are wholy
geologic problems.
They constitute the essence of the geology of petroleum and are the most important
work of the petroleum geologist. He may need to consider only a simple combination of

86
stratigraphy and structural geology, or he may have to take account of a complex combination
of data, involving such various fields as stratigraphy, sedimentation, paleontology, geologic
history, fluid flow, structural geology, petrography, geophysics, geochemistry, and
metamorphism.

Laws of Geology
Geology as yet is a science with very few laws (Griffiths, 1996). The Law of
Superposition says that “younger rocks overlie older” and Walther’s Law says that “in area
of continuous deposition, facies that are in vertical proximity are also in lateral proximity”.
The concept of Uniformitarianism developed in the late 18th century by James Hutton
concerned the continuity of process over time by stating that the present is key to the past.
This is the idae that processes and rates observed today may be applied throughout the Earth’s
history.
The Law of Superposition is in daily use in every exploration department. It controls
the interpretation of seismic lines and well log sections. Walther’s Law is rarely used in
practice and has great potential for quantitative use. Uniformitarianism forms the conceptual
basis of sedimentology and most of the environmental interpretations that underpin modern
stratigraphy.
Topographic and Geologic Maps
Topographic maps display shapes of the land surface by contours which is a line
connnecting the equal elevations above sea-level. Drainage patterns, vegetation, and man-
made structures are also given in topographic maps. Geologic maps, on the other hand,
include basically the contact lines between different lithostratigraphic units and the structural
elements such as folds, faults, unconformities, etc. The strike and dip are also given on
geologic maps.
Strike is the direction of the intersection line between bedding plane and a horizantal
plane. Dip is the angle between bedding and a horizantal plane along the direction
perpendicular to the strike direction. Dip values are measured along other directions are called
apparent dip.

87
 VI. STRATIGRAPHY AND CORRELATIONS
References
Dunbar, C.O. and Rodgers, J., 1957, Principles of stratigraphy: John Wiley and Sons, New
York and London, 356 p.
Gray, M., McAfee Jr., R. and Wolf, C.L. (Eds.), 1972, Glossary of Geology: American
Geological Institute, Washington, 805 p.
Griffiths, C.M., 1996, A stratigraphy for the 21th century: First Break, v. 14, No. 10, 7 p.
Jeffry, C., 1977, Biological nomenclature: Crane, Russak and Company, Inc., New York,
Second Edition, 72 p.
Jones, R.W. and Simmons, M.D., 1999, Biostratigraphy in production and development
geology: The Geological Society of London, 318 p.
McGowran, B., 2005, Biostratigraphy:Microfossils and geological time: Cambridge
University Press, 459 p.
Visher, G.S., 1990, Exploration stratigraphy: PennWell Books, Second Edition, 433 p.

Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy is the integrating framework for interpreting petroleum accumulations.
Tectonic controls, plate tectonic history, basin deveopemnt and fill, reservoir patterns, source
rocks, and patterns of fluid migration all interrelate in the developmental history of
stratigraphic units (Visher, 1990).
Stratigraphic Classification
Stratigraphy, from Latin stratum + Greek graphia, is the description of all rock bodies
forming the Earth's crust and their organization into distinctive, useful, mappable units based
on their inherent properties or attributes in order to establish their distribution and relationship
in space and their succession in time, and to interpret geologic history. Stratigraphy forms the
cornerstone of most hydrocarbon exploration activity (Griffiths reviewed the stratigraphy
applied in petroleum exploration in 1996). The term stratum (plural: strata) refers to layer of
rock characterized by particular lithologic properties and attributes that distinguish it from
adjacent layers.
Stratigraphic classification is the systematic organization of the Earth's rock bodies,
as they are found in their original relationships, into units based on any of the properties or
attributes that may be useful in stratigraphic work. There are various types of stratigraphy,
such as bio-stratigraphy, litho-stratigraphy, chrono-stratigraphy, chemo-stratigraphy,

88
magneto-stratigraphy, cyclo-stratigraphy, sequence-stratigraphy, etc. are developed, mainly
because of the lack of any universally accepted model for stratigraphy.
Therefore, the future of stratigraphy must lie within integration rather than
fragmentation. The sequence stratigraphy has offered the possibility of providing a unifying
stratigraphical framework.

Lithostratigraphy
The element of stratigraphy that deals with the description and nomenclature of the
rocks of the Earth based on their lithology and their stratigraphic relations. The purpose of
lithostratigraphic classification is to organize systematically rock strata of the earth into
named units that will represent the principle variations of these rocks in lithologic character.
A body of rocks that is defined and recognized on the basis of its lithologic properties or
combination of lithologic properties and stratigraphic relations.
Lithostratigraphic units are bodies of rocks, bedded or unbedded, that are defined and
characterized on the basis of their lithologic properties and their stratigraphic relations.
Lithostratigraphic units are defined and recognized by observable physical features and not by
their inferred age, the time span they represent, inferred geologic history, or manner of
formation.
A lithostratigraphic unit may consist of sedimentary, or igneous, or metamorphic
rocks. The geographic extent of a lithostratigraphic unit is controlled entirely by the
continuity and extent of its diagnostic lithologic features. They are the basic units of geologic
mapping.
The formal lithostratigraphic units are supergroup (two or more groups), groups (two
or more formations), formation (primary unit of lithostratigraphy), member (named lithologic
entity within the formation, bed (named distinctive layer in a member of formation). The
formation is the primary formal unit of lithostratigraphic classification. They are the only
formal lithostratigraphic units into which the stratigraphic column everywhere should be
divided completely on the basis of lithology. The contrast in lithology between formations
required to justify their establishment varies with the complexity of the geology of a region
and the detail needed for geologic mapping and to work out its geologic history. No formation
is considered justifiable and useful that cannot be delineated at the scale of geologic mapping
practiced in the region. The thickness of formations may range from less than a meter to
several thousand meters.

89
Biostratigraphy
Biostratigraphy is that element of stratigraphy, which is concerned with the
organization of strata into units based on their fossil content. Biostratigraphic units
(biozones) are bodies of strata that are defined or characterized on the basis of their contained
fossils. Fossils are named following the rules given in ICBN (Jeffry, 1977). Biostratigraphic
units exist only where the particular diagnostic feature or attribute on which they are based
has been identified. Biostratigraphic units, therefore, are objective units based on the
identification of fossil taxa. Their recognition depends on the identification of either their
defining or characterizing attributes. Biostratigraphic units may be enlarged to include more
of the stratigraphic record, both vertically and geographically, when additional data are
obtained. In addition, since they depend on taxonomic practice, changes in their taxonomic
base may enlarge or reduce the body of strata included in a particular biostratigraphic unit.
A biostratigraphic unit may be based on a single taxon, on combinations of taxa, on
relative abundances, on specified morphological features, or on variations in any of the many
other features related to the content and distribution of fossils in strata. The same interval of
strata may be zoned differently depending on the diagnostic criteria or fossil group chosen.
Thus, there may be several kinds of biostratigraphic units in the same interval of strata that
may have gaps between them or overlaps of their vertical and horizontal ranges.
Biostratigraphic units are distinct from other kinds of stratigraphic units in that the organisms
whose fossil remains establish them show evolutionary changes through geologic time that
are not repeated in the stratigraphic record. This makes the fossil assemblages of any one age
distinctive from any other.
Biozone is the general term for any kind of biostratigraphic unit. However, since strata
can be zoned biostratigraphically in many different ways, there are different kinds of
biozones, each having different significance and each being usefull under appropriate
circumstances.
It is important, therefore, to have seperate, specific, and well-defined terms for each in
order to indicate clearly which kind of biozones is being used (Figure VIII.1).
Four kinds of biozones are in common use: range zones, interval zones, assemblage
zones, and acme zone. These types of biozones have no hierarchical significance, and are not
based on mutually exclusive criteria. A single stratigraphic interval may, therefore, be divided
independently into range zones, interval zones, etc., depending on the biostratigraphic features
chosen.

90
 Assemblage zone is the body of strata characterized by a distinctive natural
assemblage of all forms present or the forms present of a certain kind or kinds.
Range Zone is a body of strata representing the known stratigraphic and geographic
range of occurrence of a particular taxon or combination of two taxa of any rank. It is the sum
of the documented occurrences in all individual sections and localities from which the
particular taxon has been identified. Some of the the principal types of range zones are taxon-
range zone, concurrent-range zone, oppel zone, lineage zone.
Acme zone is a body of strata representing the acme or maximum development of
some taxon but not its total range.
Interval zone comprises the strata between two distinctive biohorizons but does not
itself necessarily represent any distinctive biostratigraphic range or even any particulary
distinctive biostratigraphic assemblage.

Range Zone

Acme Zone

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Figure VI.1. Different types of biozones.

Chronostratigraphy

Chronostratigraphic classification is the organization of rocks into units on the basis

of their age or time of origin. The purpose of chronostratigraphic classification is to organize
systematically the rocks forming the Earth's crust into named units (chronostratigraphic units)
corresponding to intervals of geologic time (geochronologic units) to serve as a basis for time-
correlation and a reference system for recording events of geologic history.

Chronostratigraphy is that element of stratigraphy that deals with the organization of

strata into units based on their age relations. Chronostratigraphic units are bodies of rocks,
layered or unlayered, that were formed during a specified interval of geologic time. Such a
unit represents all rocks formed during a certain time span of earth history and only those
rocks formed during that time span. Chronostratigraphic units are bounded by isochronous
surfaces.

Chronostratigraphic units are eonothem, erathem, system, series, stage, and

chronozone. Geochronologic units (the units of geologic time during which
chronostratigraphic units were formed) are eon, era, period, epoch, age, and chron
respectively. Chronozone is a formal term for the lowest ranking division in the hierarchy of
chronostratigraphic terms. Chron is the corresponding geochronologic term. The time span of
a chronozone is usually defined in terms of the time span of a previously designated
stratigraphic unit such as a formation or a member or a biozone.

Lithostratigraphic Correlation

Stratigraphic sequences in some areas vary laterally and vertically because of

compositional changes, unconformities, onlap and offlap relations, and past tectonic
activities in both source and depositional environments. The rate, extent, and character of
lithic and paleontologic intertonguing create complex correlation problems demanding
solution before the gross geologic history of any area may be clarified. To determine
lateral and vertical relationships of sedimentary units and sequences, the following
procedure is suggested.

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 1) Establish the broad, regional stratigraphic and structural trends of the area
under investigation.
2) Become familiar with the characteristics of all major lithologic and
paleontologic units and their relationships by selecting, developing, measuring and
sampling controlled surface and subsurface sections. Special care must be
exercised in accurately idenfying the rocks. These data are then plotted
graphically.
3) After the sections are plotted, the next phase requires their correlation in terms
of either time (preferable) or rock or both.
4) On completion of correlation, the assembled data (lithologic, paleontologic,
geophysical) must be integrated into maps and cross sections for final
interpretation.

Correlation of Electric Logs

Since 1930, geologists and petroleum engineers have recognized the importance of the
electric log (and others) as an aid in solving certain subsurface geologic, production, and
geophysical problems. Electric logging, like other mechanical logging methods (radioactivity,
caliper, sonic, micro, drill-time, induction, etc) has its limitations, thus, it is the responsibility
of the geologist and engineer to recognize these limitations before dogmatically interpreting
the characteristics of the log curves in terms of rock types penetrated. The electric log consists
of a spontaneous-potential (SP) curve and at least three resistivity (R) curves; the former
curve is shown on the left side of the log strip and the latter on the right. Service company
operators vary logging procedures and combinations of curves from one geologic
environment to another, depending on the character of the stratigraphic section.

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 VII. WELL LOGGING

References

Miller, M.S., 1970, Mechanical well-logging methods: Virginia Division of Mineral

Resources, v. 16, no. 4, p.29-38.
Schlumberger, 1990, Well-logging, 340 p.
Selley, R.C., 1998, Elements of Petroleum Geology, Academic Press, Second Edition, 470 p.

INTRODUCTION
Boreholes yield much geological and engineering information, particularly when
extensive lengths of cores are recovered. Because coring is so expensive, holes are usually
drilled with an ordinary rotary bit. Further information is gained about the penetrated
formations by measuring their geophysical properties with the aid of wireline logs. Wireline
logging, mainly used by the petroleum industry, has progressed in scope and usefulness since
the turn of the 20th century. The greatest development of logging instruments has occurred in
the past 50-55 years, resulting largely from intensive efforts of logging-company research
centers. The tools and technology have evolved so.
The word "log" was first used in a geological sense by well drillers who kept a record
of the rocks penetrated in a well as drilling progressed. The records, called drillers' logs, were
usually very simple and often consisted of only a one- or two-word description for several
hundred feet of rock. Later this type of log was supplemented by more-detailed descriptions,
known as geologic logs, which were prepared by geologists through microscopic examination
of rock cuttings. Although helpful in geological studies, the drillers' log and the geologic log
are limited in descriptive accuracy and depth control because of physical problems involved
in collecting samples. Contamination or caving from overlying strata is the primary problem.
Uncertainties also arise because the samples are collected at 10- or 20-foot intervals during
rotary drilling or at irregular intervals during cable-tool tests. The electrical well log, using
downhole instruments to record continuous data, was therefore developed to supply more-
specific and much-needed information.
Formally geophysical logs were run after drilling a section of the well and before
setting casing, so several log runs (open hole logging) are necessary during the drilling of a

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single well. Openhole logging is based on measurements of the formation’s electrical, nuclear
and acoustical properties. Nowadays, however, it is possible to run some geophysical logs
within the drill pipe while the well is actually being drilled (cased-hole logging). Cased-hole
logging includes measurement of nuclear, acoustical and magnetic properties. MWD
(measurement while drilling) is an important advance in formation evaluation, providing early
warnings of rock type, hydrocarbon saturation and zones of high pressures.
The equipment that measures the geophysical properties of the penetrated rocks is
housed in a cylindirical sonde, which is lowered down the borehole on a multiconductor
electric cable (Fig. IX.1). On reaching the bottom of the hole, the recording circuits are
switched on and the various properties are measured as the sonde is drawn to the surface. The
measurements are transmitted up the cable and recorded on film or magnetic tape in the
logging unit. In onshore operations the recorders are generally mounted on a truck.
Well logs record many different parameters of the rocks, such as formation resistivity,
sonic velocity, density and radioactivity, and as well as the properties of the fluids (oil, gas, or
water) contained in the rock. The recorded data can then be interpreted to determine the

Fig VII.1. Well logging.

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lithology and porosity of the penetrated formations and also the type and quantity of fluids
within the pores. In general, they allow geologists to correlate rock formations from many
wells so that maps of the reservoir can be created. They allow geophysicists to “calibrate”
their seismic data (converting from time to depth) and aid in interpretation. They allow
engineers to collect data for 3D earth modeling and reservoir simulation work.
Formation evaluation through the use of well logs is a large and complex topic. Main
oil companies employ full-time log analysts. The following account is only intended as an
introduction to the topic. The various types of log are now described and the principles of log
analysis reviewed.

ELECTRIC LOGS
Spontaneous Potential Log
The spontaneous potential, or self potential, log is the oldest type of geophysical log in
use. The first run was in 1927. The spontaneous log records the electric potential set up
between an electrode in a sonde drawn up the borehole and a fixed electrode at the earth’s
surface (in a mud pit) (Fig. IX.2). It can only be used in open (i.e. uncased) holes filled with
conductive mud. Provided that there is a minimum amount of permeability, the S.P. response
is dependent primarily on the difference in salinity between drilling mud and the formation
water.
The electric charge of the S.P. is caused by the flow of ions (largely Na+ and Cl-)
from concentrated to more dilute solutions. Generally this flow is from salty formation water
to fresher drilling mud (Fig. IX.3). This naturally occurring electric potential is basically
related to the permeability of the formation. Deflection of the log from an arbitrarily
determined shale baseline indicated permeable, and therefore porous sandstones or
carbonates. In most cases this deflection, termed a normal or negative S.P. deflection,
reversed or positive S.P., occurs when formation waters are fresher than the mud filtrate. A

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Figure VII.2. SP logging.

poorly defined or absent S.P. deflection occurs in uniformly impermeable formations or

where the salinities of mud and formation water are comparable (Fig. IX.4). In most cases,
with a normal S.P. the curve can be used to differentiate between interbedded impermeable
shales and permeable sandstones or carbonates.

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Figure VII.3. Flow of ions in SP log.

Figure VII.4. Deflections in SP logs.

In summary the S.P. log may be used to delineate permeable zones, and hence it aids
lithological identification and well to well correlation. The S.P. log can also be used to locate
the boundaries in between layers and also to calculate resistivity of formation water (Rw). The
S.P. is limited by the fact that it can not be run in cased holes and is ineffective when

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resistivity of mud filtrate (Rmf) is approximately equal to Rw. This situation occurs with
many offshore wells drilled using saltwater-based drilling muds.

Resistivity Logs
This log measures the electrical resistivity of the formation. Resistivity is defined as
the degree to which a substance resists the flow of electric current. Resistivity is a function of
porosity and pore fluid in a rock. The three main ways of measuring the electrical resistivity
of formations penetrated by boreholes are the normal log, laterolog, and induction log
techniques. With the normal, or conventional resistivity, log an electric potential and flow of
current is set up between an electrode on the sonde and an electrode at the surface. A pair of
electrodes on the sonde is used to measure the variation in formation resistivity as the sonde is
raised at the surface.
Normal resistivity devices, although largely superseded by more sophisticated types,
may be encountered on old well logs. For low-resistivity salty muds, lateologs, or guard logs,
are now generally used. In these systems single elctrodes cause focused current to flow
horizantally into the formation. This horizantal flow is achieved by placing two guard
electrodes above and below the current electrode. As with the conventional resistivity logs,
various types of laterologs can be used to measure resistivity at different distances from the
borehole. This measurement is achieved by changing the geometry of the focusing electrodes.
For freshwater or oil-based muds, which have low resistivity, a third type of device is
used. This device is the induction log.
The electrical resistivity of formations varies greatly. Solid rock is highly resistive, as
is porous rock saturated in freshwater, oil, or gas. Shale, on the other hand, and porous
formations saturated with salty water or brine have very low resistivities. When run
simultaneously, S.P. and resistivity logs enable qualitative interpretations of lithology and the
nature of pore fluids to be made (Fig. IX.5).
One of the functions of drilling mud is to prevent fluids from flowing into the borehole
from permeable formations. At such intervals a cake of mud builds up around the borehole
wall, and mud filtrate is squeezed into the formation. Thus the original pore fluid is displaced,

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Figure VII.5. SP and resistivity logs.

be it connate water, oil, or gas. So a circular invaded, or flushed, zone is created around the
borehole with a resistivity (referred to as Rxo) that may be very different from the resistivity
of the uninvaded zone (Rt). A transition zone separates the two. As already noted, various
types of resistivity log are not only adopted for different types of mud but also for measuring
resistivity of both uninvaded zone (Rt) and the flushed zone (Rxo). The latter are generally
referred to as microresistivity logs, of which there are many different types with different
trade names.

RADIOACTIVE LOGS
Three types of logs that measure radioactivity are commonly used: the gamma-ray,
neutron, and density logs.

The Gamma-Ray Log (and Caliper)

The gamma-ray log uses a scintillation counter to measure the natural radioactivity of
formations as the sonde is drawn up the borehole. Natural radiation is due to disintegration of

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nuclei in the subsurface. Potassium, Thorium and Uranium are the major decay series that
contribute to natural radiation. Potassium is commonly found in illitic clays and to a lesser
extent in feldspars, mica, and glauconite. Zirconium, monazite, and various phosphate
minerals are also radioactive. Organic matter commonly scavenges uranium and thorium, and
thus oil source rocks, oil shales, sapropelites, and algal coals are radioactive. Because K, Th,
and U tend to be concentrated in shales and are low or absent in clean sandstones and
carbonates, the gamma response is similar to the SP log and it is thus an important aid to
lithological identification. The radioactivity is measured in API units and generally plotted on
a scale of 0-100 or 0-120 API.
Conventionally, the natural gamma reading is presented on the left-hand column of the
log in a similar manner to, and often simultanously with, the S.P. log. The GR and SP logs
show strong correlation. Both deflect to the right for shales and to the left for clean sands.
Deflection to the left of this line does not indicate permeability, but rather a change from shale
to clean lithology, generally sandstone or carbonate. The gamma reading is affected by hole
diameter, so it is generally run together with a caliper log, a mechanical device that records
the diameter of the borehole to assist in the quantitative interpretation of many other logs that
are sensitive to borehole diameter and wall roughness. The caliper log shows where the hole
may be locally enlarged by washing out or caving and hence deviating the expected gamma-
ray and other log responses. The hole may also be narrower than the gauge of the bit where
bridging occurs. The deflections are towards smaller radius where mud cake has accumulated
in porous formations and the oversize excursions where caving has taken place. Shales and
coals are lithologies that tend to cave. The absence of mud cake adjacent to a porous bed may
indicate a tight sand or possible overpressure. Because GR is not sensitive to bed thickness
and can be run as a cased-hole log, it is used to delineate zones for perforation.
The gamma log is important for identifying lithology, calculating shaliness of
reservoirs, and correlating between adjacent wells. Shale formations (hardened mud and clay)
have more organic material so they emit more radiation (higher gamma ray counts).
Sandstones, limestones, and salts have low organic materials, and therefore have low Gamma
Ray counts (low radioactivity).

The Neutron Log

The neutron log, as its name suggests, is produced by a device that bombards the
formation with neutrons from an americium beryllium or other radioactive source. Neutron
bombardment causes rocks to emit gamma rays in proportion to their hydrogen content. This

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gamma radiation is recorded by the sonde. Hydrogen occurs in all formation fluids (oil, gas,
or water) in reservoirs, but not in the minerals. Thus the response of the neutron log is
essentially correlative with porosity. Hole size, lithology, and hydrocarbons, however, all
affect the neutron log response. The effect of variation in hole size is overcome by
simultaneously running a caliper with an automatic correction for the bit gauge. In the early
days, the neutron log was recorded in API units. Because it is so accurate for clean reservoirs,
the neutron log is now directly recorded in either limestone or sandstone porosity units (LPUs
and SPUs, respectively). As with all porosity logs, the log curve is presented to the right of
the depth scale, with porosity increasing to the left. Because shales always contain some
bonded water, the neutron log will always give ahigher apparent porosity reading in dirty
reservoirs than actually exists. The hydrogen content of oil and water is about equal, but is
lower than hydrocarbon gas. Thus the neutron log may give too low porosity in gas reservoirs.
The neutron log can be run in cased holes because its neutron bombardment penetrates steel.

The Density Log

The third type of radioactivity tool measures formation density by emitting gamma
radiation from the tool and recording the amount of gamma radiation returning from the
formation. For this reason the device is often called the gamma-gamma tool. Corrections are
automatically made within the sonde for the effects of borehole diameter and mudcake
thickness. The corrected gamma radiation reading can be related to the electron density of the
atoms in the formation, which is, in turn, directly related to the bulk density of the formation.
The bulk density, which is a function of lithology and porosity, as used in well logging, is the
number of grams or mass weight of a substance divided by its volume. Porosity may be
calculated from the following equation:

Porosity (Ø)= Pma-Pb/Pma-Pf

Where Pma= density of the dry rock (G/cm3), Pb= bulk density recorded by the log,
and Pf= density of the fluid. Density values commonly taken for different lithologies are as
follows: Sandstone (2.65 g/cm3), Limestone (2.71 g/cm3), Dolomite (2.87 g/cm3). The fluids
in the pores near the borehole wall is generally the mud filtrate from the drilling mud, it reads
this value for the porosity. Thus the density of the fluid may vary from 1.0 g/cm 3 for
freshwater mud to 1.1 g/cm3 for salty mud. Shale also affects the accuracy of the density-
derived porosity of the reservoir. Also, several minerals have anomalous densities, the log
traces of which may affect porosity values. Notable among these minerals are mica, siderite,

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and pyrite. The presence of oil has little effect on porosity values, but gas lowers the density
of a rock and thus causes the log to give too high a porosity. This effect can be turned to an
advantage, however, when combined with the information derived from the neutron log.

Sonic Log or Acoustic Log

A third way of establishing the porosity of a rock is by measuring its acoustic velocity
by the sonic, or acoustic, log. In this technique interval transit times are recorded of clicks
emitted from one end of the sonde travelling to one or more receivers at the other hand. The
sound waves generally travel faster thorugh the formation than through the borehole mud. The
time interval is usually small and depends upon the matrix velocity or the speed of sound
through a particular formation. The sonic velocity varies inversely with the recorded time
interval. Thus, a hard formation has a high sonic velocity and transmits sound faster than a
soft formation, which has a low sonic velocity. The dominant influence on sonic velocity
variations is porosity. The higher the proportion of open space in a rock, the less the speed of
sound and the greater the recorded time interval. Oil and gas that occur in the voids lower the
speed of sound more than water, and higher porosity is sometimes indicated in their presence.
In addition to porosity evaluation, the sonic log is used for correlation and lithologic
determination, for fracture location, and as an aid to seismic interpretation (it can be used to
determine the interval velocities of formations and thus relate timing of seismic reflectors to
actual rocks around the borehole by means of computed time-depth conversions. The sonic
method is the least accurate of the three porosity logs (neutron, density, and sonic) because it
is the one most affected by lithology. On the other hand, for this reason, it is widely employed
as a means of lithology identification and hence for correlation from well to well.

Dipmeter Log
The dipmeter is a device for measuring the direction of dip of beds adjacent to
borehole. It is essentially a multi-arm microresistivty. Three or four spring-loaded arms record
separate microresistivity tracks, while within the sonde, a magnetic compass records the
orientation of the tool as it is drawn up the hole. A computer correlates deviations, or kicks
on the logs and calculates the amount and direction of bedding dip. Dipmeter results are
presented as a plot of dip symbols, each one representing an individual dipmeter computation
result.
Each dip symbol, or “arrow”, consists of a base circle and extending from it a small
line. The position of the base circle shows the depth of the result (ordinate) and the magnitude

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of the dip. The depth scale corresponds to that of the open-hole logs. The small line on the
symbol points vectorioally in the direction of the dip azimuth. True north is towards the top of
the plot. A black base indicates a better quality correlation. Three basic types of motif are
commonly identifiable (Fig. VIII.6):

Figure VII.6. Dipmeter paterns.

1) A sequence of arrows with the lowest dip magnitude and with a reasonably constant
azimuth will normally reflect the structural dip. For easy receognition, such patterns
are lined with a green marking pencil; hence they are termed “green patterns”. They
are generally seen in shales and indicate the structural dip of the formation.
2) For a sequence of arrows of roughly the same azimuth, characterized by increasing
dip magnitude with increasing depth, a red marking pencil is used (red patterns). Red
patterns appear frequently in connection with faults, bars, channels or reefs.
3) A sequence of arrows of roughly the same azimuth, characterized by decreasing dip
magnitude with increasing depth, is colored blue (blue patterns). They may be
caused by sedimentary progrades in reefs, submarine fans, or delta lobes. They may
also be caused by folds, faults, or unconformities.

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 Random motifs can reflect poor hole conditions or they might be geologically
significant, indicating fractures, slumps, conglomerates or grainflows. The dipmeter provides
much valuable information, but it can only be interpreted fully in the light of other logs and
geological data.

Uses of Logs in Petrophysical Analysis, Summary

The previous sections provide a short, and therefore simplified, review of a major
group of borehole logging techniques that are crucial to the exploration for and production of
hydrocarbons. New tools and techniques are continuously being introduces, but the basic
principles remain constant. Fig. VIII.7. provides a summary of the more common geophysical
logs and their principal uses. Fig. VIII.8. provide typical examples of suites of logs and their
responses for parts of two boreholes. In the old days the calculations of Rw, Sw, Ø and so
forth were made using service company chart books and calculator. Today, however,

Figure VII.7. Summary of the more common geophysical logs and their principal uses.

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Figure VII.8. typical examples of suites of logs and their responses for parts of two
boreholes.

computer-processed interpretations, which give continuous readings of lithology, porosity,

and the percentages of the various fluids, are preferable.

Applications of Logs in Facies Analysis

In addition to their application in identfying lithology, porosity, and hydrocarbon
saturation, logs are used in other ways. When the stratigraphy of a well has been worked out,
whether it be the lithostratigraphy or the biostratigraphy, adjacent wells can be
stratigraphically correlated. Logs can also be used to determine the facies and depositional
environment of a reservoir. From such studies the geometry and orientation of reservoirs may
be predicted. Carbonate facies are largely defined, and their depositional environments are
deduced, from petrography. Geophysical logs show porosity distribution in carbonates, but
because it is commonly of secondary origin, little correlation exists between log response and
original facies. In sandstones, however, porosity is mainly of primary origin. Studies of

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modern depositional environments show that they deposit sediments with characteristic
vertical profiles of grain size. For example, channels often fine up, from a basal conglomerate,
via sand, to silt and clay. Conversely, prograding deltas and barrier islands deposit upward-
coarsening grain-size profiles. Grain-size profiles may thus be of use in facies analysis. Both
the S.P. and gamma logs may indicate grain-size profiles in sand-shale sequences.
The gamma log may be used in a similar way, since the clay content (and hence
radioactivity) of sands increase with declining grain-size. Exceptions to this general statement
may be caused by intraformational clay clast conglomerates and the presence of anomalous
radioactive minerals, such as glauconite, mica, and zircon. Gamma and S.P. logs often show
three basic motifs (Fig. VIII.9):
1) Sands that fine upward gradually from a sharp base (bell motifs)
2) Sands that coarsen up gradually towards a sharp top (funnel motifs)
3) Clean sands with sharp upper and lower boundaries (blocky motifs)
No log motif is specific to a particular sedimentary environment, but combining an
analysis of log profile with the composition of well samples, an interpretation of environment
can be attempted.
Constituents to look for in the cuttings are glauconite, shell debris, carbonaceous
detritus and mica. Glauconite forms during the early diagenesis of shallow marine sediments.
Once formed, it is stable in the marine realm, but can be transported landward on to beaches
or basinward on to deepsea fans. Glauconite is readily oxidized at outcrop, however, so
reworked second-cycle glauconite is virtually unknown. Thus the presence of glauconite
grains in a sandstone indicates a marine environment, although its absence indicates nothing.
Shell-secreting invertebrates live in freshwater and seawater environments, but shelly
sands tend to be marine rather than nonmarine. Diagnosis is obviously enhanced if fragments
of specific marine fossils can be identified.
Carbonaceous detritus includes coal, plant fragments, and kerogen. These substances
may be of continental or marine origin, but the preservation of organic matter generally

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Figure VII.9. Basic log motifs in Gamma and S.P. logs.

indicates rapid deposition with minimal reworking and oxidation. Similarly, the presence of
mica indicates rapid sedimentation in either marine or continental environments.
These four constituents are commonly recorded in well sample descriptions. Coupled
with a study of log motifs, their presence may aid the identification of depositional
environment of sand bodies and hence the prediction of the reservoir geometry and trend. In
an ideal world facies analysis should be based on a detailed sedimentological, petrographical
and biostratigraphical study of cores.

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