BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN OIL AND GAS

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

Course unit code: SOG1205

Credit units: 3CU

Semester: Two

Year: Two

References

1. Boggs, S. Jr., 1995, Principle of sedimentology and stratigraphy, second

Edition: prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. 774.
2. Hatcher, R.D. Jr., 1995, structural geology – principles, concepts, and
problems, second Edition: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 525.
3. Levorsen, A.I., 1954, geology of petroleum: W.H. Freeman and company, San
Francisco, CA. 724.
4. Link, P.K., 1982. Basic Petroleum Geology, Second Edition: OGCI
publication Tulsa, OK. 425.
5. North F.K, Petroleum Geology.
6. Press, F. and Siever R., 1994 understanding Earth: WH freeman and
Company, New York, 593.

Objectives of the course

To obtain an understanding of the systems that generates fossil hydrocarbons,

principally oil and gas and the basis for successful exploration of this natural
resource.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

What is Petroleum geology?

Petroleum geology is the study of origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and

exploration of hydrocarbon. It refers to the specific set of geological disciplines that
are applied to the search for hydrocarbons (oil exploration).

Petroleum geology uses principles of geochemistry, geology and geophysics. It

involves sedimentary basin analysis, thermodynamics, engineering and fluid
mechanics.

The term “petroleum geology’’ has come into use to describe the area of common
interest between petroleum producers and geologists. It is however accurate to say
geology of petroleum just as we can say geology of clay, geology of gold etc. The
geologic concepts applied to petroleum are all established and recognized geological
principles, which are merely put to practical use in finding and exploiting petroleum
deposits. What the geologists in petroleum industry do is practice the science with
the aid of variety of technologies.

1.1 BASIC VOCABULARY/ TERMINOLOGIES

➢ Petroleum is rock oil. Petroleum is a Latin word with ‘petra’ meaning rock
or stone and ‘oleum’ meaning oil. Petroleum occurs widely in the earth as gas,
liquid (crude oil), semi-solid or solid (asphalt, bitumen or tar) in more than
one of those states at a single place.
➢ Commercially exploitable petroleum occurs underground in the subsurface.
The rock containing it is a reservoir rock or simply a reservoir.

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 ➢ The feature of the rock that restrains the fluid petroleum from moving out of
the reservoir is called a trap.
➢ A small area within a basin province (concentration of fields in a basin) which
may contain oil or gas but has not been proved is a prospect.
➢ Oil and gas are discovered and exploited by drilling boreholes into the ground.
A hole which yields fluids is a well.
➢ A well drilled in search of new accumulation of oil or gas is an exploratory
or wildcat well. If it is successful, it constitutes a discovery.
➢ The process of recording the data derived from the drilling of a well is called
logging.
➢ The search for new sources of petroleum constitutes exploration. The
resource discovered by successful exploration becomes reserves.

1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

1. The pre-geologist years (1842-1901)
No petroleum geology was done before 1900. All area producing oil before
that time had been discovered through seepages. Evidence for anticline
theory was first observed and recorded in Canada 1842.
2. From 1901 to 1925
Surface geological surveys specifically aimed at the identification of oil
structures began in 1901. The anticline theory dominated petroleum
exploration until about 1932. It was believed that all oil fields were actually
located on some form of anticlinal structures even if no such structure could
be mapped.
3. From 1925-1945
The anticlinal theory of oil and gas accumulation was still on the increase. It
was 1930 that drew the attention of petroleum geologist to the potential of
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 traps with no surface evidence of change of dip were found. During the
period, sandstones which had been regarded as the only reservoir rock begin
to reduce. Carbonates were also being found as reservoirs.
4. From 1945- 1960
From World War II, oil exploration which had been majorly in the USA was
now spreading to other parts of the world. By the end of 1940s exploration
drilling had begun in shallow water offshore. In this period, seismic studies
began to pick later extending them offshore. Modern sedimentological
studies began. This led to recognition of great variety of carbonates sediment
types that constitutes production reservoir rocks.
5. 1960 and after
Due to understanding of the subject, there were a number of discoveries in
the USA, Middle East, Libya, and Nigeria which led to fall in the oil prices
1957/1967. This has been attributed to advances in geophysics capacity.
1.3 CONVENTIONAL AND UNCONVENTIONAL RESERVOIRS

2.0 NATURE AND ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM

2.1 Basic Components of Petroleum

Petroleum (oil and natural gas) can only be properly defined in chemical and
physical terms. Therefore petroleum geologist should be aware of the chemical
nature and physical properties of oil and gas.

Chemically, petroleum is an extremely complex mixture of:

a) Hydrocarbon (hydrogen and carbon ) compounds

b) With minor amounts of nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur as impurities.

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There are two major groups in petroleum;

i. Hydrocarbons which may be saturated or unsaturated

The saturated hydrocarbons include;

• Normal paraffins or N-alkane

• Branched paraffins or N-alkane and
• Napthenes or cyclo-paraffins

The unsaturated hydrocarbons are either

• Aromatics Arenes
• Olefins or alkenes
ii. Non-hydrocarbons divided into NSO compounds (Nitrogen Sulphur &
Oxygen) and asphaltenes which are complex structures compounds with more
than 40 carbon atoms.

Hydrocarbons

In the strict sense, these are compounds consisting solely of carbon and hydrogen.
Geochemically, these are compounds primarily composed of carbon and hydrogen
but with subordinate amounts of Nitrogen, Sulphur and Oxygen.

1) Paraffins or alkanes
Alkanes: Are hydrocarbons in which the valence of all the carbon atoms is
satisfied by simple bonds i.e. saturated

Normal paraffins: Are single bond compounds with straight chain structure
formula CnH2n+2

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 Branched paraffins: Are single bond compounds with branched chain
structures formula: CnH2n+2

Napthenes or cyclo –paraffins: Are single bond compounds with ring structure
formula: CnH2n

The vast majority of petroleum hydrocarbons are alkanes or aromatics

hydrocarbons.
2) Aliphatic or alkane hydrocarbons

These refer to hydrocarbons a molecule whose carbon atoms are arranged only
in chains as distinguished from those whose carbon atoms are ring includes;

Normal and iso-paraffins

The olefin and acetylenic hydrocarbons.
3) Saturated hydrocarbon
Saturated hydrocarbons is one in which the valence of the carbon numbers is
satisfied by single bonds.
4) Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are those in which the valence of some or all the
carbon atoms is satisfied by double or triple bonds.
5) Aromatic hydrocarbons
These are hydrocarbons possessing the benzene rings as basic structural units.
They differ from napthene (cyclic alkanes) in that the valence of the carbon
atoms is not satisfied by a single bond i.e. they are unsaturated.
The aromatic hydrocarbons are composed of one or more benzene rings often
with side chain.

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 The vast majority of petroleum hydrocarbons are either alkanes or aromatics
hydrocarbons.

6) Asphaltenes
Constitutes a general class of aromatic type substances dissolved in oil which
are defined on the basis of their solubility.
At refinery, asphaltenes are defined as a petroleum component insoluble upon
addition of methane.
In general, asphaltenes are defined as a component of oil soluble in benzene
and insoluble in high alkanes.
Asphaltenes are mainly composed of polyaromatic carbon ring units with
oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur heteroatoms, combined with trace amounts of
heavy metals, particularly chelated vanadium and nickel, and aliphatic side
chains of various lengths.
Many asphaltenes from crude oils around the world contain similar ring units,
which are linked together to make highly diverse large molecules.
These materials are extremely complex mixtures containing hundreds or even
thousands of individual chemical species. Asphaltenes do not have a specific
chemical formula: individual molecules can vary in the number of atoms
contained in the structure, and the average chemical formula can depend on
the source.

7) NSO Compounds
NSO include Nitrogen, Sulphur and Oxygen containing hetero-compounds.
Those removed from column during liquid chromatography (with benzene-
methanol) are termed eluted and are distinguished from those not removed.

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NSO compounds commonly are regarded as having a structure of fused
aromatic rings similar to asphaltenes. They are sometimes referred to as resins
Sulphur
Crudes oils containing detectable amounts of H2S are called sour crudes. If
the suphur is in some other form than H2S, the oil should be high sulphur crude
and not “sour” crude. Very sweet crudes with sulphur content as low as 0.0.2%
are concentrated in Africa (Nigeria, Angola, and Algeria). Low suphur crudes
contain less than 0.6%suphur by weight intermediate 0.6-1.7 while high
suphur crudes contain more than 1.7%.
Concentrations of H2S exceeding 100ppm are considered dangerous they also
highly corrosive to drilling equipment in deep wells where temperatures are
high.
Nitrogen
More than 0.2% is considered high concentration. It can be used as an
injectable in the recovery of light oils.
Oxygen
Oxygen compounds of definite structure are acids and phenols C 6H5OH).
Natural gases may contain considerable quantities of CO2.

Properties of petroleum
▪ API gravity

American petroleum Institute's inverted scale for denoting the 'lightness'

or 'heaviness' of crude oils and other liquid hydrocarbons. Calibrated in
API degrees (or degrees API), it is used universally to expresses a crude's
relative density in an inverse measure lighter the crude, higher the API
gravity, and vice versa because lighter the crude higher its market value.

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 Oil with API greater than 30º is termed light; between 22º and 30º,
medium; below 22º, heavy; and below 10º, extra heavy.

The heavy components in oil, NSO compounds, asphaltenes and aromatics

compounds undergo cracking, resulting in increased API gravity.

API gravity of oil increases with the thermal maturity of the source rock.

▪ Viscosities of oil
Absolute viscosity provides a measure of a fluid’s internal resistance to
flow. The principal factors affecting viscosity are: Oil composition,
Temperature, Dissolved gas and Pressure.
▪ Color and relatives indices of oil
Pareffinic oils are commonly light in color. Yellow to brown by
transmitted light and green by reflected light. Asphalt bearing oils are
commonly brown to black. The indices are lower for light oils. They
are also lower at lower temperatures.

3.0 KEY ELEMENTS OF PETROLEUM SYSTEM

Petroleum geology is principally concerned with the evaluation of seven key

elements in sedimentary basins:

▪ Source
▪ Reservoir
▪ Seal
▪ Trap
▪ Timing
▪ Maturation
▪ migration

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The source rock is a subsurface sedimentary rock unit(s) which is made of shale or
limestone. It contains the precursors of hydrocarbon formation, organic matters
(from decays of ancient biological species) which were subjected to high
temperature for longtime. The source rock is evaluated using the geochemistry
methods.

Reservoir rock: This element is a kind of porous or permeable lithological unit(s)

which retains the immigrating oil and gas from source rock. Oil and gas usually
accumulate on the top of water and they are always there relatively to their difference
of densities. The reservoir rock are basically analyzed by means of assessing their
porosity a permeability but also its analysis takes ranges into various fields such as
stratigraphy, structural analysis, sedimentology , paleontology and reservoir
engineering disciplines.

Cap rock or seal: It is a lithological unit(s) with low permeability which restricts
hydrocarbons to escape from the reservoir. It is made of chalks, shale or evaporites.
Its analysis bases on assessing the extent and thickness to know how much cap rock
is efficient to oil and gas retention. According to lithological deformation that might
have been happen, the cap rock may be found in various types. The tectonic
movements the crust experiences cause the anticline and syncline seals and the
matter of consequences of their shapes; the convex form is more enjoyable to
petroleum exploration than concave one. That is why always the seismology
experiments are always carried out to assess how well they can reach the reservoir
by aiming at seal with a concave shape as to ease and make efficient the petroleum
exploration.

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Trap: The trap is structural or stratigraphic feature that ensures a fixed and firm
position of seal and reservoir which avoids the escape of oil and gas.
Maturation: The assessment of the reservoir quality (nature) involves maturation
analysis by which they know the length of time of petroleum generation or
expulsion.

Migration: Migration is the process of moving oil and gas from the source rock to
the reservoir pores when it is trapped after its generation. The main factors of the oil
and gas migration are compression, buoyancy, chemical potential; thermal
expansion, topography, maturation (increase in volume with time), and gravitational
separation of hydrocarbons and water from each other.

Exploration plays and prospects are typically developed in basins or regions in which
a complete petroleum system has some likelihood of existing.

2.2 Origin of petroleum

There are two theories of origin: Organic (bionic) or Inorganic (abionic).

Organic origin

There are a number of compelling reasons that support an organic development

hypothesis. Carbon and Hydrogen are the primary constituents of organic material,
both plant and animal. Moreover, carbon, hydrogen, and hydrocarbons are
continually produced by the life processes of plants and animals.

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A major breakthrough occurred when it was discovered that hydrocarbons and
related compounds occur in many living organisms and are deposited in the
sediments with little or no change.

Second were observations dealing with the chemical characteristics of petroleum

reservoirs. Nitrogen and porphyrins (chlorophyll derivatives in plants, blood
derivatives in animals) are found in all organic matter; they are also found in many
petroleums. Presence of porphyrins also mean that anaerobic conditions must have
developed early in the formation process because porphyrins are easily and rapidly
oxidized and decompose under aerobic conditions.

Additionally, low Oxygen content also implies a reducing environment. Thus there
is a high probability that petroleum originates within an anaerobic and reducing
environment.

Third were observations dealing with the physical characteristics. Nearly all
petroleum occurs in sediments that are primarily of marine origin. Petroleum
contained in non-marine sediments probably migrated into these areas from marine
source materials located nearby. Furthermore, temperatures in the deeper petroleum
reservoirs seldom exceed 300oF (141oC). But temperatures never exceeded 392oF
(200oC) where porphyrins are present because they are destroyed above this
temperature. Therefore the origin of petroleum is most likely a low-temperature
phenomenon.

Finally, time requirements may be less than 1MM years; this is based on more recent
oil discoveries in Pliocene sediments. However, physical conditions on the Earth
may have been different in the geologic past and therefore it may have taken
considerably more time to develop liquid petroleum.

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Inorganic origin

Early theories postulated an inorganic origin when it became apparent that there
were widespread deposits of petroleum throughout the world. The father of the
periodic table of elements, reasoned that metallic carbides deep within Earth reacted
with water at high temperatures to form acetylene (C2H2) which subsequently
condensed to form heavier hydrocarbons. This reaction is readily reproduced in the
laboratory.

Other hypotheses were a modification of the acetylene theory. They theorized that
the mantle contained iron carbide which would react with percolating water to form
methane. The problem was and still is the lack of evidence for the existence of iron
carbide in the mantle. These theories are referred to as the deep-seated terrestrial
hypothesis.

Another inorganic hypothesis was that of cosmic origin. The theory was that
hydrocarbons precipitates as rain from original nebular matter from which the solar
system was formed and then ejected from earth's interior onto surface rocks. This
theory is known as extraterrestrial hypothesis.

The existence of carbonaceous chondrites (meteorites) and the discovery that

atmospheres containing methane exists for some celestial bodies such as Saturn,
Titan, Jupiter. The only known source for methane is through inorganic reactions.

It has been postulated that the original atmosphere of earth contained methane,
ammonia, hydrogen, water vapor; add to this photochemical reactions (due to UV
radiation) and the result is the creation of an oily, waxy surface layer that may have
been host to a variety of developing prebiotic compounds including the precursors
of life.

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The discovery of a type of meteorite called carbonaceous chondrites, also led to a
renewed interest in an inorganic mechanism for creating organic compounds.
Chondritic meteorites contain greater than 6% organic matter (not graphite) and
traces of various hydrocarbons including amino acids. The chief support of an
inorganic origin is that the hydrocarbons methane, ethane, acetylene, and benzene
have repeatedly been made from inorganic sources. For example, congealed magma
has been found on the Kola Peninsula in Russia (containing gaseous and liquid
hydrocarbons (90% methane, traces of ethane, propane, isobutane). Paraffinic
hydrocarbons have also been found in other igneous rocks.

There are problems with the inorganic hypotheses;

• First, there is no direct evidence that will show whether the source of the
organic material in the chondritic meteorites is the result of a truly inorganic
origin or was in an original parent material which was organically created.
• Second, there is no field evidence that inorganic processes have occurred in
nature, yet there is mounting evidence for an organic origin.
• Third, there should be large amounts of hydrocarbons emitted from volcanoes,
congealed magma, and other igneous rocks if an inorganic origin is the
primary methodology for the creation of hydrocarbons.

Commercial accumulations are restricted to sedimentary basins, petroleum seeps and

accumulations are absent from igneous and metamorphic rocks. Thus current theory
that holds most petroleum is formed by the thermal maturation of organic matter -
An Organic Origin generated the vast reserves (pools) of oil and gas .

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3.1 SOURCE ROCK

A rock in which organic material has been converted into petroleum is called source
rock. Generally, the best source rocks are shales rich in organic matter deposited in
an anaerobic marine environment. Often these are dark shales , although dark color
may be due to other substances.

In some cases, limestone, evaporites and rocks formed from fresh water sedimentary
deposits have also been found act as source beds.

Petroleum is formed by range of processes under a variety of conditions which

account for the great complexity of most petroleum and variety of forms in which it
occurs.

Its takes time for petroleum to form and accumulate. Limited potential is known for
rocks of Pleistocene age or reservoir rocks associated with source beds less than a
million years.

Types of source rock

Active source rock

This is a source rock that is in the process of generating oil or gas. They have oil
window maturities and are at close to their maximum burial depth. Active source
rocks cannot occur at the surface.

Inactive source rock

Is a source rock that was once active but has temporarily stopped generating prior to
becoming spent. They are usually associated with areas of overburden removal and

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will generate hydrocarbons again if reburied. Oil rock correlations are best done
between oils and active source rocks.

Spent source rock

A source rock which has completed the oil and gas generation process. It can still be
an active or inactive source for gas.

Potential source rock

A unit rock that has capacity to generate oil or gas in commercial quantities but not
yet done so because of insufficient catagenesis (thermal maturation).

Limited source rock

Is a unit rock that contains all the prerequisites of source rocks except volume. This
cannot be defined by geochemical data alone but requires geological information as
to the thickness and aerial extent.

Effective source rock

Rock which contains organic matter and is presently generating and/or expelling
hydrocarbons to form commercial accumulations.

3.1.1 Conversion of organic matter to petroleum

The only elements essential to the constitution of petroleum are hydrogen and
carbon, the transformation must be such the O2 and N2 of the original organic matter
(OM) are largely removed and the liquids (fats) and hydrogen –rich organic residues
largely preserved.

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The OM must not be subjected; prolonged exposure to the atmosphere, aerated
surface or subsurface waters carrying acids, elemental sulphur or volcanicity or other
igneous activity.

In many organically rich types of sediment, the bulk of the OM is terrestrial

vegetables matter transported by rivers, depleted in hydrogen before its delivery to
the site of final deposition.

Under aerobic conditions, decomposition of OM is very efficient especially at the

sediment/water interface. Though dominated by aerobic bacteria, the processes are
enhanced by presence of benthonic metazoans predators (worms, bivalves)
Bioturbation is intense in O2 water.

Under anaerobic (less than 0.1mgl-1) conditions decomposition of organic matter is

slower. Anaerobic bacteria may use nitrates or suphaltes in solution until these salts
are exhausted. Yielding N2and H2S in addition to CO2 and H2O generated by earlier
aerobic decomposition.

As dead OM falls to the sea floor as ‘organic rain’ the constitutes necessary for
hydrocarbon generation are preserved only if

• the water column is essentially anoxic (lacking living things)

• the fall is fairly rapid (particle size not wholly microscopic)
• bottom dwelling predators are lacking

Anaerobic decomposition is strongly influenced by grain size. Coarse sands permit

easy diffusion of oxygen and oxy-salts. Activity of anaerobic bacteria is reduced as
the grain size decreases.

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The process is also a product of the sedimentation rate that under slow or interrupted
sedimentation , complex organic substance are rapidly broken down by scavengers
into simple salts and CO2 , whereas rapid deposition buries the OM below the reach
of mud –feeding scavengers.

The transformation of OM to Kerogen proceeds from shallow depths of burial to

depths of perhaps 1000m-6000m (1-6km) and 50-1750C.

Consequently, carbon content of the kerogen residue increases and the H: C ratio
decreases with increasing temperature.

During this post-depositional alteration, the organic constitutes of sediments are

progressively transformed by thermal process into two fraction;

• A fluid product high in hydrogen, eventually petroleum and natural gas

• A residue high in carbon such as bituminous coal

Mild transformation yields liquid products; intense transformation leads to methane

plus the high carbon residue, analogous to the formation of coal in the combustion.

The process of transformation can be measured by means of variety of organic

geochemical indicators, now routinely used for the evaluations of all potential
hydrocarbon source sediments.

The formation of hydrocarbon liquids from an organic rich source rock with kerogen
and bitumen to accumulates as oil or gas.

Generation depends on three main factors: the presence of organic matter rich
enough to yield hydrocarbons, adequate temperature, and sufficient time to bring the

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source rock to maturity. Pressure and the presence of bacteria and catalysts also
affect generation. Generation is a critical phase in the development of a petroleum
system.

3.1.2 Organic geochemical indicators

The transformation of kerogen to mature petroleum involves a progressive increase

in atomic ratio of H: C (determined in the laboratory by combustion).

The H:C ratio of lost methane is 4.0 while for bitumen is 1.74 – 1.98. Different
source material yield different H:C ratios, e.g wood yields H:C of 1.463, peat 1.308,
while lignite yields 1.044.

Analogous measurements made on shales include variety of ratios. One

measurement of transformation is the ratio of portable carbon (proportion fluidised
at 50000Cin an inert atmosphere) to total organic carbon. The latter is measured by
first treating the rock with acids to remove any carbonate content and then measuring
CO2 combustion product at about1000C. Metamorphosed shales yield ratios of 0.1
or less typical source.

3.1.3 Types of organic matter

Oil is not derived as coal is, from terrestrial vegetation. It is from sapropelic material
aquatic origin and normally also OM of animal (zooplanktonic) derivation.

Humic organic material largely of carbohydrate - ligin composition with solvent

proteins high in Nitrogen but deficient in hydrogen. It is associated with continental
sediments and is easily identified by optical methods.

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The yield of liquid, volatiles products is very low supplemented by CO2 and H2O.
Thermal alteration yields humic acids soluble in alkalis, low in H2, high in O2.

Humic OM is therefore gas prone. Its carbonisation generates methane virtually

without light liquid fraction.

Sapropelic organic material is essentially structureless vegetable mud or algnite

containing polymerised material lipid and protein derivation. Lipids derived from
spores have high hydrogen contents.

Sapropelic OM is associated with aquatic sedimentary facies both marine and

lacustrine. Its yield of volatiles is much greater than that of humic material.

In polynological extracts immature sediments, the principal types of OM yielding

different H: C ratios are as shown below.

a) Less than 0.8 predominantly humic

b) Between 0.8 and 1.0 mixed humic and sapropelic
c) Above 1.0, predominantly sapropelic

The Van Krevelen diagram which depicts the way coal evolves during carbonisation
has been modified by Bernard Tissot to depict the maturation pathways followed by
four basic types of OM in sedimentary rocks. The Bernard tissot diagram is shown
below.

a. Type I OM

It is a rare type high grade algae sediments commonly lacustrine containing

sapropelic OM. It includes oil shales, H: C ratio 1.6-1.8.

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 b. Type II OM

An intermediate derivation, commonly marginal marine with a mixture of

continental and aquatic (especially planktonic) OM. Algae tissue, pollen and spores
are important contributors. This type includes the principle source sediments for oil.
H: C ratio is 1.4

c. Type III OM

Sediments contain primary humic organic matter. The OM is of terrestrial, Woody

origin equivalent to vitrinite of coals. H: C ratio is 1.0 or less.

d. Type IV OM

Comes from any source, have been oxidised, recycled or altered during early thermal
event. The inert carbonaceous material is now deficient in hydrogen (HC ratio 0.4
or less). It yields negligible or no hydrocarbons.

Because fluvial and deltaic sediments contain more OM of terrestrial, humic origin
than do marine sediments and because also this OM has more opportunity to became
degraded or recycled, such sediment tend to be gas prone. Where they contain oil, it
is likely to be migratory from other sources.

However, high H: C ratio is not itself enough to ensure the generation of petroleum;
cellulose has a high H: C ratio. The hydrogen must be boned to the carbon and not
to the oxygen. The critical element in maturation process is the manner of
elimination of the oxygen. Does it go out as carbon dioxide or as water?

NB: production of CO2 and H2O represent a zone of immature digenesis.

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3.1.4 Analysis of Source Rocks

In terms of source rock analysis several facts need to be established including; the
question of whether there is any source rock in the area must be answered.
Delineation and identification of potential source rock depending on studies of local
stratigraphy, paleogeography and sedimentology to determine the like hood of
organic – rich sediments having been deposited in the past.

If the likelihood of there being a source rock is thought to be high, then the next
thing to address is the state of thermal maturity of the source and timing of
maturation. Maturation of source rocks depends on temperature such that the
majority of oil generation occurs in the 60oC to 120oC. Gas generation starts at
similar temperatures but may continue up beyond this range. In order to determine
the likelihood of oil/gas generation, thermal history of source rock must be
calculated and this is performed with combination of geochemical analysis of the
source rock.

For the rock to be a source rock, it must have three features:

• Quantity of organic matter

• Quality capable of yielding moveable hydrocarbons
• Thermal maturity

The first two components are products of the depositional setting. The third is a
function of the structural and tectonic history of the province.

The quantity of organic matter is commonly assessed by a measure of the total

organic carbon (TOC) contained in a rock. Quality is measured by determining the

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types of kerogen contained in the organic matter. Thermal maturity is most often
estimated by using vitrinite reflectance measurements and data from pyrolysis.

3.2 Petroleum migration

Migration is the movement of hydrocarbons from their source into reservoir rocks.

The movement of newly generated hydrocarbons out of their source rock is primary
migration, also called expulsion. The further movement of the hydrocarbons into
reservoir rock in a hydrocarbon trap or other area of accumulation is secondary
migration. Migration typically occurs from a structurally low area to a higher area
in the subsurface because of the relative buoyancy of hydrocarbons in comparison
to the surrounding rock. Migration can be local or can occur along distances of
hundreds of kilometres in large sedimentary basins, and is critical to the formation
of a viable petroleum system.

3.2.1 Primary migration

How does petroleum leave its source rock? Apparently, both compaction and the
flow of water are involved. Petroleum comes from source beds deposited mostly on
the sea floors. It usually begins and ends its journey in company with interstitial
water. This water is found in the interstices or pores of the rock. Connate water more
exact term in water “born with” the rock as deposition continues at the surface. The
growing weight of the overburden compresses the shale into less and less space.
However, its not the mineral grain compressed but the pore space. The interstitial
water is squeezed out, carrying droplets of oil in suspension and other hydrocarbons
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in solution. Although the solubility of water in oil is negligible compared to that of
gas both are more soluble under pressure.

Fluid squeezed out of the shale (more easily to compact) will collect in adjacent
sandstone (difficult to compact due to spherical grains) which retain more of its
original porosity.

3.2.2 Secondary migration

Hydrocarbons are moved through permeable rock by gravity. The force work in
several ways;

i. By compressing pore space containing fluid

ii. By causing water containing hydrocarbons to flow and,
iii. By causing water to displace less dense petroleum fluid upwards.

Water flow through formation does not flow like a river, it can move a few inches a
year which can add up to many miles in a geologically short time. What causes water
to flow is difference in fluid potential just like difference in electrical potential
causes electricity to flow from high voltage to lower voltage. Suspended oil droplets
and gas are carried along in the flowing water. As oil saturation increases, small
droplets coalesce into; larger ones and the accumulating oil begins to behave
differently. Because of their buoyancy large oil droplets flow, and accumulate at the
top.

In secondary migration, the effective porosity and permeability of the reservoir rock
are more important than total porosity. These factors controls how easily the
reservoir rock can accumulate fluids as well as how much it can hold.

3.3 Reservoir rock

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A reservoir rock is a subsurface body of rock having sufficient porosity and
permeability to store and transmit fluids. Sedimentary rocks are the most common
reservoir rocks because they have more porosity than most igneous and metamorphic
rocks and they form under temperature conditions at which hydrocarbons can be
preserved. A reservoir is a critical component of a complete petroleum system.

Though most sedimentary rocks possess significant porosity and permeability when
freshly deposited, the rate at which these vital properties are reduced with age is
principally due to compaction. Compaction of sedimentary rock like its initial
porosity depends more on texture than it does on composition. It’s the texture of
many familiar sedimentary rocks, (geometric properties and the manner of their
packing) that eliminates them from the effective reservoir category unless they are
extensively fractured. Shales and mudstones, siltstone, cherts, coal, evaporates,
marlstones, dense or cherty limestone are not good reservoir rocks. This leaves only
relatively or very coarse clastic sediments (sandstone, grit, conglomerates) and
grained or crystalline carbonate rocks as common reservoir rocks.

3.3.1 Sandstone Reservoirs

The term sand implies a particular, restricted range of dominate grain size (62.5mm
and 2.0 mm) and not a particular composition. The easy acquisition of that grain
size during weathering, the maintenance of it during transport by water, ice or wind,
exclude from the mineral dominance of sands and sandstones all but two or three
mineral or rock fragment specie.

The majority of the grains must be made of something hard, stable, and insoluble
and without crystal characteristic such as cleavage that would deprive the grains of
roughly aquidimensional form.

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All reservoir sandstone therefore contains quartz as an important constituent; a great
majority of important ones are essentially quartzose in composition.

Performance of sandstone as a reservoir rock

It is a combination of porosity and permeability. In effect, depends literally upon the

degree to which it is a truly a sand. Concentration of sand with effective porosity
requires mechanism to exclude fine materials from both the supply site and the
deposition site.

The texture of the sand-sized frame work grains there composition must not be
obscured, the sand grains themselves should not include as excessive proportion
composed of decomposed or deformed materials.

Thus the quality of sand stone as initially deposited is a function of the source area,
the deposition process, and the environment in which the deposition takes place.
Sand exists only where there is sufficient relief to supply it.

Clearly a high feldspar content is undesirable in a source rock because feldspars

easily decompose to form clays. A high lithic content is also undesirable, because
many lithic constituents are readily decomposed as feldspar and they may also be
easily deformed under compaction, seriously reducing porosity and permeability.

Despite these cautions, it must be acknowledged that there are a great number of
felspathic, lithic, volcaniclastic sand stone reservoirs of excellent quality.

Secondary porosity in a rock is space formally occupied by solids which are liable
in the fluid environment which the rock becomes subjected. The removal of the
solids is almost always by dissolution but dissolution alone is not sufficient, some

26
products must be removed from the system. Two classes of solid are removed by
solution;

Most commonly dissolved are the non-quartz constituents (carbonates,

feldspars, rock fragments, shells, pellets).

Introduced cements, may be re-dissolved at depth causing secondary

regeneration of primary porosity. Other, less significant causes of secondary
porosity are the fracture, corrosion and honey combining of grains. Secondary
porosity is significant only within the restricted depth range in which these
several factors are most favorably combined.

Factors controlling sand stone reservoir quality.

1. Influence of provenance
2. Minor influence of age
3. Influence of environment and mode of deposition
4. Porosities in sand stone
5. Digenetic processes on sandstone including secondary porosity, cementation
of sandstone, compaction etc.
6. Clays in pore space
7. Principal environment of sandstone reservoir including Aeolian (dune)
sandstone reservoirs, glacial sandstone reservoirs, fluvial sandstone
reservoirs, deltaic sandstone reservoir, sandstone reservoirs of coastal marine
environment, deep water sandstone reservoir.

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3.3.2 Carbonate Reservoir

Most carbonate rocks begin as skeletal assemblages. They are the accumulations of
the remains of carbonate secreting animals and plants. Plant fossils are more
important than animals in the initial creation of carbonate deposits of the types now
providing reservoir rocks. This is because they constitute the primary food source
for all organisms and are therefore the beginning for the creation of carbonate rocks
in the first place.

Sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis, the depositional sites must be shallow the
waters warm and of essentially normal marine salinity. The waters must also be
oxygenated at the surface, though they must be reducing quite shortly below it.
Supply of terigious clastics must be low.

The principal non-skeletal components of carbonate reservoir rocks are:

a) Lime mud – mud may be directly organic, formed by accumulation of the

remains of microscopic organism, it may be wholly detrital. However, it is
precipitated directly from warm sea water as needles of aragonite. Marine
waters near the surface are slightly supersaturated with CaCO3. Mud is then
precipitated by any agency acting to remove CO 2 from system and thereby
increasing its PH.
b) Coated grains forwarded by deposition of CaCO3 around any nucleus Oolites
consist initially of minute aragonite crystals tangentially arranged and
embedded in organic matter. The crystals are later replaced by radical crystal
of calcite.

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 c) Feacal pellets formed by worms, ingesting lime mud to feed on its content of
organic matter.
d) Lumps- any aggregation of grains like grape stone
e) Detrital grains- abraded and re-deposited not necessary within another
carbonate. Lime sands are exceedingly important reservoir.

Classification of carbonate rocks

i. Boundstone
ii. Grainstone
iii. Packstone
iv. Wakestone
v. Mudstone

Carbonate porosity types

1. Fabric selective porosity

a) Interparticle porosity
b) Intercrystalline porosity
c) Fenestral porosity
d) Skeletal framework, moldic or shelter porosity
2. Porosity not fabric selective
a) Fracture porosity
b) Channel porosity
c) Vuggy or cavernous porosity

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 d) Bioturbation
e) Breccia porosity

3.3.3 Analysis of reservoir

The existence of a reservoir rock (typically, sandstone and fractured limestone) is

determined through a combination of regional studies (i.e. analysis of other wells in
the area), stratigraphy and sedimentology (to quantify the pattern and extent of
sedimentation) and seismic interpretation. Once a possible hydrocarbon reservoir is
identified, the key physical characteristics of a reservoir that are of interest to
hydrocarbon explorationist are its porosity and permeability. Traditionally , these
were determined through the study of hand specimen, contiguous parts of the
reservoir that outcrop at the surface and by the technique of formation evaluation
using wireline tools passed down the well itself. Modern advances in seismic data
acquisition and processing have meant that seismic attributes of subsurface rocks are
readily available and can be used to infer physical / sedimentary properties of the
rocks themselves.

3.4 SEAL /CAP ROCK

This is an impermeable rock that acts as a barrier to further migration of hydrocarbon

liquids. Rocks that form a barrier or cap above and around reservoir rock forming a
trap such that fluids cannot migrate beyond the reservoir. The permeability of a seal
capable of retaining fluids through geologic time is ~ 10-6 to 10-8 darcies. The
common examples of a cap rock are shale, mudstone anhydrite and salt.

3.5TRAP

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The permeability of the formation that seals off a petroleum reservoir is never
absolutely zero, but just low enough to reduce the flow rate effectively to zero under
reservoir conditions.

Effective permeability is the rock’s permeability to a given fluid when another fluid
is also present. Water has seven times the ability of oil cling to the grains porous
rock. So it tends to fill small pores and keep oil out. In petroleum reservoir,
interstitial water is nearly available for oil and narrows the passage between pores,
lowering the rock’s effective permeability to oil.

Relative permeability is the ratio of effective to absolute permeability. A rock that

contains oil but no water has a relative permeability of 1.0 for oil. Relative
permeability of 0.0 means that water has filled enough of the pore space to keep the
oil from flowing.

A tight formation may keep fluids from leaving and underlying reservoir bed by
preventing their vertical migration. However, fluids may still migrate horizontally
beneath the seal. For accumulation to form, petroleum fluids must encounter a trap,
a geological combination of impermeability and structure that stops any further
migration. Assuming an anticline, oil rises with the water entering the anticline but
rises against the flow on the down dip side. If the water is not flowing too fast, the
oil droplets brought in by the flowing water move preferentially towards the crest of
the anticline. They concentrate and coalesce near the highest point. As more oil is
brought in the water the pool grows.

To accumulate oil, the anticline must be closed. It must dip toward both flanks and
plunge in both directions along its axis. Otherwise the oil will continue to migrate
up dip.

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With a few exceptions, petroleum reserves are water wet i.e. the oil is not in contact
with the rock grain because they are coated with a film of water. Most oil field has
50% to 80% maximum oil saturation. Above 80% oil saturation, the oil can be
produced with very little water mixed in; below 10% the oil is not recoverable.

The oil zone is always underlain by water along the oil-water contact. Oil saturation
increases gradually from near 0% at the base of this zone to 50% to 80% at the top.

Natural gas is present in nearly all hydrocarbon reservoir, dissolved in the oil (as
solution gas) and to some extent in the water. In many situations, however,
reservoir conditions and gas saturation allow un dissolved gas to accumulate above
the oil zone as a gas cap. The wetting fluid in a gas is usually water occasionally
oil. The transition zone between oil and gas (the gas oil contact) is thinner than the
oil-water contact zone because of the greater difference in density and surface
tension between gas and oil.

3.5.1 Types of Traps

Trap is a configuration of rocks suitable for containing hydrocarbons and sealed by
a relatively impermeable formation through which hydrocarbons will not migrate.

Traps are described as

• structural traps
o Hydrocarbon traps that form in geologic structures such as folds and
faults
• stratigraphic traps
o Hydrocarbon traps that result from changes in rock type or pinch-outs,
unconformities, or other sedimentary features such as reefs or buildups

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 • Minor group- the hydrodynamic trap in which the major trapping mechanisms
is the force of moving water

3.5.1.1Structural Traps

Structural trap is a type of geological trap that forms as a result of changes in the
structure of the subsurface, due to tectonic, diapiric, gravitational and compactional
processes. These changes block the upward migration of hydrocarbons and can lead
to the formation of a petroleum reservoir.

Structural traps are the most important type of trap as they represent the majority of
the world's discovered petroleum resources. The three basic forms of structural traps
are the anticline trap, the fault trap and the salt dome trap.

Anticlinal trap

An anticline is an area of the subsurface where the strata have been pushed into
forming a domed shape. If there is a layer of impermeable rock present in this dome
shape, then hydrocarbons can accumulate at the crest until the anticline is filled to
the spill point - the highest point where hydrocarbons can escape the anticline. This
type of trap is by far the most significant to the hydrocarbon industry. Anticline traps
are usually long oval domes of land that can often be seen by looking at a geological
map or by flying over the land.

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Fault trap

This trap is formed by the movement of permeable and impermeable layers of rock
along a fault line. The permeable reservoir rock faults such that it is now adjacent to
an impermeable rock, preventing hydrocarbons from further migration. In some
cases, there can be an impermeable substance smeared along the fault line (such as
clay) that also acts to prevent migration. This is known as clay smear.

Salt dome trap

Masses of salt are pushed up through clastic rocks due to their greater buoyancy,
eventually breaking through and rising towards the surface. This salt is impermeable
and when it crosses a layer of permeable rock, in which hydrocarbons are migrating,
it blocks the pathway in much the same manner as a fault trap.

3.5.1.2Stratigraphic Traps

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Stratigraphic traps are formed as a result of lateral and vertical variations in the
thickness, texture, porosity or lithology of the reservoir rock. Examples of this type
of trap are an unconformity trap, pinch-outs, a lens trap and a reef trap.

A stratigraphic trap accumulates oil due to changes of rock character rather than
faulting or folding of the rock. The term "stratigraphy" basically means "the study
of the rocks and their variations". One thing stratigraphy has shown us is that many
layers of rock change, sometimes over short distances, even within the same rock
layer. As an example, it is possible that a layer of rock which is a sandstone at one
location is a siltstone or a shale at another location. In between, the rock grades
between the two rock types. From the section on reservoir rocks, we learned that
sandstones make a good reservoir because of the many pore spaces contained within.
On the other hand, shale, made up of clay particles, does NOT make a good reservoir,
because it does not contain large pore spaces. Therefore, if oil migrates into the
sandstone, it will flow along this rock layer until it hits the low-porosity shale. A
stratigraphic trap is born!

i. Pinch-out

A pinch out trap occurs where porous and permeable sand body is isolated above,
below and at its up dip edge by shale or other less permeable sediments. Oil or gas
enters the sand body and migrates up dip until it reaches the low permeability zone
where the reservoir “pinches out”.

ii. Lens

Alens is an isolated body of sandstone or other permeable rock enclosed within shale
or other less permeable rock. Its edge taper out in all directions. Turbidity currents

35
under water slides, isolated beach or stream deposits alluvial fans, and other deposits
can form lenses.

iii. Beach sand

The linear zone of sediments making a former coastline may form a series of
sandstone reservoir. Unlike river sandbars, grain orientation and direction of
maximum permeability are cross the trend. Information on facies changes is
especially useful in locating this type of reservoir. The coarser, the best sorted, most
permeable sand is found in the shoreline zone that was affected by wave action. It is
the most likely place to find oil both because of its porosity and permeability and
because, if tectonically undeformed its structurally the highest part of the
stratigraphic unit.

iv. Shoestring sand

A good example of why stratigraphic traps are hard to find is the shoestring sand.
This type of reservoir is often an overlapping series of coarser stream sediments that
were undulated and buried beneath thick deposits of clay. It appears as sinuous string
of sandstone winding erratically through impermeable shales. Tracing the course of
a shoestring is almost as difficult as finding it.

v. Reef

A wave resistant accumulation of corals or shells serves as an anchor for calcareous

debris which forms limestone. If deeply sub mergred faster than it can accrete, it
may become buried beneath marine shales. Such an isolated reef is called a bioherm,
it may be porous enough to hold large accumulations of hydrocarbons especially if
it has been dolomitized. Limestone rocks are especially vulnerable to dissolution by

36
ground water particularly if raised above the water table leaching by weak solutions
of atmospheric carbon dioxide may form vugs (small voids) or caverns (large voids)
capable of containing hydrocarbons.

Overlying deposits may be laid down in such away as to form a draped anticline- a
structural feature that may also trap oil and gas.

vi. Unconformity

These are stratigraphic traps associated with unconformities permeable outcrops

overlain by impermeable layers can accumulate hydrocarbons from sources both
above and below the unconformity. Buried anticlinial outcrops may trap petroleum
in both flanks down dip eroded crest. Locations that would have been oil seeps on
the former landscape surface become traps beneath an unconformity. A porous
permeable formation lapping out on its unconformity can also become a trap.

vii. Permeability changes

Digenetic changes can create traps within areas of formerly permeable rocks or can
create traps within area with formerly impermeable rocks.

Minerals crystalizing out of water between the grains of porous sandstone may
reduce local permeability enough to form a barrier to hydrocarbon migration.
Alternatively, circulating water may increase permeability by leaching out cement
and vugs in limestone. Thereby increasing the potential for hydrocarbon
accumulation.

Petroleum itself can seal permeable rock. If exposed to oxygen or altered by bacteria,
an oil seep often loses its volatile components and becomes thick and tar like. It may

37
plug the rock pores so tightly that no further migration to ward the surface can
occurs.

3.5.1.3 Hydrodynamic Traps

Hydrodynamic traps are a far less common type of trap. They are caused by the
differences in water pressure that are associated with water flow, creating a tilt of
the hydrocarbon-water contact.

3.5.1.4 Combination Traps

Many petroleum traps have both stratigraphic and structural features. Some, in
which both types of characteristics are essential in trapping petroleum, are difficult
to classify as either primary structural or primarily stratigraphic. For instance
originally horizontal formations that now pinch out up dip can trap hydrocarbon that
might not otherwise have accumulated.

3.5 TIMING

The accumulation of oil underground is a dynamic phenomenon. It is a function not

only of the location and configuration of source and reservoir beds but also of timing.
A potential trap may form but remain barren because all the petroleum has migrated
out of the areas or it may form and be destroyed before hydrocarbons are
generated. An accumulation of hydrocarbon in a perfectly suitable reservoir may
eventually be lost either because of deformation and destruction of its trap or by
excessive heat and pressure.

38
4.0 PETROLEUM EXPLORATION

The petroleum geologist’s main job is to identify locations most likely to produce
oil and gas. In accomplishing this objective, he will at various times find himself
examining data that have been gathered by others. While exploring or drilling,
conducting, directing, or contracting for geophysical or geological surveys to obtain
new information, the geologist uses and adds to maps, sections and other graphic
data to document a prospect. He also evaluates the commerciality of the prospect.

EXPLORING WITHIN KNOWN OIL PROVINCES

A petroleum geologist usually works from base maps and charts showing existing
wells, property lines, roads, buildings and other surface geographic features.
Sometimes as in a partly developed field, the main the main factor in his
recommendation for a new drilling site is simply a choice among existing leases.
When considering sites away from the main drilling activity, he may recommend
further exploration by seismic or other methods to help determine where leases
should be sought.

The geologist looks for localities where formation characteristics are favorable to
the accumulation of petroleum. He studies well logs, cores and other locally obtained
data for leads-dues that might help narrow the search for a prospect.

EXPLORING UNKNOWN AREAS

In unexplored area, the geologist must begin his search by gathering basic
information. Surface topography and near-surface, as well as geographic features
such as drainage and development can be studied through aerial and satellite
photography. Regional and deep surface structure can be broadly outlined by using

39
relatively inexpensive magnetic and gravity metric surveys; interesting localities can
be brought into sharper locus by seismic surveys.

Regions in which explorations are difficult or expensive may be explored by a

company under contract with a consortium of oil companies.

As he learns more about a region, the geologist narrows his search. He concentrates
on particular formations and studies local structural features, sediments types,
permeability trends, possible source beds and significant clues about depositional
environments as the sub surface picture comes into focus, he refines his information:
areas of maximum porosity, permeability, potential, capacity for oil etc. the size of
a potential reserve is calculated for comparison with the cost of recovery.

GEOLOGIC SURVEY

Surface Data

The process of observing the most direct geologic evidence available-the surface.
The character of underground formations and structures can often be deducted from
what appears at the surface.

Early drillers produced oil from shallow wells near seeps. Gradually, they learned
that large oil pools were likely to be found near the axis of an anticline. Anticlines
with surface expression are relatively easy to locate. The eroded outcrops dip in both
directions away from a central axis. Similarly, the presence of fault traps can often
be deduced by careful observation and mapping of outcrops.

Aerial Photography

40
Oil and gas seeps are obviously signs of a subsurface petroleum source. Aerial
photography and satellite photography provide new information especially on
remote and undeveloped areas.

In aerial photography, differences in pattern may indicate the presence or absence of

trace minerals in the soil-including hydrocarbons. This in certain instances it is
possible to detect from hundreds of miles up, hydrocarbon seeps whose existence
was not suspected.

Visible light aerial photographs are often viewed under stereo pairs providing a 3D
image. Such photography is useful for:

• Determining the dip and strike of outcrops.

• Formation thickness
• Fault trends
• Other structural characteristics and,
• Discovering suitable relationships between seemingly unrelated surface
features.

Surface geological mapping to subdivide sediments into different formations may

give clues to the subsurface if the formations are arranged according to their ages.

GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYING.

The only sure way of finding out whether there is oil beneath the ground is to drill a
well. But drilling is expensive, so the petroleum geologist resorts to methods that are
more cost effective and provide data on large areas. In doing so, he relies on a
geophysicist- a specialist in using geophysical sensing to find potential subsurface
traps.

41
The principal geophysical surveying methods in use today are seismic, magnetic and
gravimetric. Seismic exploration provides the most detailed picture of subsurface
geology but is by far the most expensive. In unexplored areas, the geophysicist
conducts relatively inexpensive magnetic and gravimetric surveys first to find the
best areas in which to obtain the more definitive but costlier seismic profiles.

Magnetic Surveys

Quickest and least expensive to study gross subsurface geology over a broad area.
Magnetometer is used to measure local variation of earth’s magnetic field and
indirectly, the thickness of sedimentary rock layers where oil might be found.

Most of the igneous or metamorphic basement rock that underlies sedimentary rock
contains iron or titanium, metals that affect the earth’s magnetic field.

The degree of concentration depends not only upon the amount of iron or titanium
present in the rock but also upon the depth of the rock. A body of igneous rock
1,000m down will affect a magnetometer more strongly than a similar mass 10,000m
down. These areas of relatively low magnetic field strength are usually area with
thickest sequence of no-magnetic sedimentary rocks.

Magnetics can be useful in locating grabens or other basins beneath miles or

sedimentary rocks, hidden columns of salt rising through heavier overlying strata or
basement rock associated with buried structural highs. However magnetic contours
are of little use in revealing details of structure or stratigraphy.

Gravimetric surveys

Most igneous or metamorphic basement rock is denser than porous sedimentary rock
and therefore, exerts greater gravitational attraction areas with more basement rocks
and less sedimentary rock will therefore read higher on a gravity meter. A

42
gravimetric survey will; Reveal basement rock structure at costs like for magnetic
survey. Gravity meter can measure gravity anomalies as small as one billion of the
earth’s surface gravity. After correction for latitude, altitude and other factors,
readings are potted like contours of magnetic variation.

Seismic Surveys

Seismology is based on the transformation of sound waves by rocks of the crust.

Strong earthquakes create pressure waves that are transmitted through the entire
earth and detected by seismographs on the other side.

Seismic surveys by the petroleum geologists make use of artificially generated

pulses. These pulses are much weaker but are focused on areas of stratigraphic
interest.

The speed of seismic waves through the crust varies directly with density and
inversely with porosity.

Pressure waves induced at or near surface such as by an exploration, are transmitted

downward and outward from source until a velocity boundary such as boundary
between rock types. Equipment used in obtaining a seismic detection system, a
timing system and a recording system. In land based operation, mutual pulses, is by
detonating explosive charges or frequency mechanical vibrator.

Reflected pulses are detected mechanically by an array of geophones and transmitted

via land line to timing and recording devices.

Seismic exploration offshore is easier and faster than that on land because the source
and geophones can be towed behind a ship across a grid covering hundreds of square
miles.

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STRATIGRAPHIC TESTING

Geophysical surveys provide information on structural thickness and trends but tell
the geologist little about the character of the formations. To find out what type of
rock is represented by each seismic horizon as well as important information such
as porosity, permeability and formation fluids present, the geologist must collect
samples that he can examine directly and he must perform tests on the rocks in place
beneath the surface. These tasks are accomplished by means of a stratigraphic test.

The only way to get at the rock in subsurface formation is to drill hole. A strat test
is a borehole that is drilled especially to gather data on rock types and sequences.

As stratigraphic test/well is being drilled, the geologist examines;

• Cutting fragments of rock formation, gouged out by the bit

• Core samples-solid cylinder or plug of rock from rock drilled
• Side wall core sample

GEOLOGIC MAPS

An outcrop map shows rock types at the surface or just beneath the soil. Comparison
with topographic maps may show the bow shaped outcrops. Dips are also indicated
onto the geologic map.

CROSS SECTIONS

Any vertical face of the block diagram viewed straight on a cross section represents
a portion of the crust as though it were a layer of cake sliced by a huge knife,
revealing the layers inside.

Panel diagrams

44
A series of intersecting cross sections joined together and viewed obliquely from
above resemble a panel diagram

A panel diagram is useful in showing how formation structure and stratigraphic unit
thickness vary both horizontally and vertically.

PALEOGEOLOGIC MAPS

Geologists use many different kinds of maps to represent what lies beneath the
surface. If geologists were able to remove all strata above unconformity
(hypothetical example) he would be able to see the surface of land as it existed at
some time in the past. A paleogeologic or sub crop maps shows the rock types that
constitutes the buried landscape. Such a map is used to locate likely reservoirs beds
such as out crops of sandstone or other elevated porous rocks.

SUBGEOLOGIC MAPS

The bottom as opposed to the top of an unconformity is portrayed by a subgeologic

or worm’s eye, map. This type of map shows the formation that lap out on the buried
landscape as seen from above. A subgeologic map is useful in tracing the
depositional history of rocks above an unconformity.

STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAPS

Contour lines can be used to show shapes of hidden surfaces. One of the most useful
contour maps is the structure contour map. They are important in locating subsurface
structural highs which often do not correspond with surface topography. If the axis
of an outcropping anticline is titled the high points of deeper members of folded
series will be displaced laterally from those of the subsurface strata. The petroleum
geologist is usually more concerned with the conformation of deeper layers where
petroleum migrates and accumulates than with surface topography.

45
ISOPAC MAPS

Different types of maps can be used to portray different properties of the same
horizon. Having determined the thickness of horizon if at a number of points, the
geologist can draw a set of contour lines connecting points of equal thickness- an
isopach map.

LITHOFACIES MAPS

If the geologist wishes to show how the charater of rock varies horizontally with a
formation, he can construct a lithofacies map, one of many different types of facies
maps.

Contours can be drawn connecting points of equal carbonate percentage, equal ratios
of carbonates to clashes showing lateral variations in rock type. Geologist will use
similar maps to show lateral variations in porosity, permeability and other factors. A
facies map showing variations in fossil occurrence is a biofacies map.

COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Powerful computers now coming into common use enable the geologist to
manipulate 3D data on a video screen as though turning solid model in his hand.
Using programming, he can create from raw stratigraphic data an image of the
subsurface geology in which horizons can be blocked out or hidden by a strike of a
key.

46
Basin types

47