Experiment No.

I Dated: _ _ _ __

Aim: - To determine resistivity given two/three wires by plotting a graph of potential difference
Versus current.

Apparatus:- A resistance wire, a voltmeter, an ammeter, a battery, a rheostat, one way key and connecting
wires.

Circuit Di~gram : -
\

.f?>t\.tt ~o/
\ . i I
-+ i ;
...------- ~ t--- - - - - - -""- / \./\~ /V ' -
R ~ tJtt
-+
'A

R~ ·,, f"CV\-i- Cb ( .R )
,.__ ___,..___--....,.-- -/"v"\./\/V\.;"'\/ \/\ - --- - - - - - - - -
!

~ b- ; ~~0_~--T j-~~
.

Theory:.- According to ohm's law the·current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends provided the physical conditions of the conductor remain same.

I ex: V Of • Vex: I or V=RI

... (1)
' '

From the graph -plotting between V (on ·y-axis) and I (on - x - axis), the slope of graph,
- ......

.1V ...(2)
tan0=-=R
M
, R
When the length of the wire is L cm, the resistance of wire per cm = L n / cm value of R should be taken

. 7t r2 x R
from equation. (2), & p =---
L

Observations: -
(i) . Length ofresistance wire (I,.)= ..5JL .......... cm & L2 = ... .... 15........... cm.
(ii) .0...-.l'f.n. A
Least count of ammeter= ...... ... 1
 (iii) Least count of voltmet er= Q.~..0.5 ....... V
(iv) ..0.2.3.... .
Radius of the wire (r) = ...... 0..~

Table for Ammet er and voltmeter reading.

Ammeter readin I A Voltmeter readin V (v

Number of V
S.No. Number of nxL.C . R=-0 .
nxL.C. divisions (n) I
divisions (n)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Calculations: Specific resistance of the material of the given wire,

From the graph (V versus I)

~v
Stope of graph (tan0) = - = ·······••Moo.fl
M

Result:

2.
3
4
5
G
l5.Xo-0f
Precautions:
,
1. The connections should e neat, clean and tight.
2. Voltme ter and ammeter should be of proper range.
3. A low resistance rheostat should be used.
4. Current should not be passed through resistance for long time.
 Class - XII
Dated : _ _ _ __
Experiment No.2
Aim: - Find resistance of a given wire using metre bridge.

Apparatus: - A metre bridge, a battery eliminator, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, a one way
key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, thread and connecting wires,

Circuit Diagram: -

+ ,~-E- ----- --1(•\ ---- ~--

kQ,y

Theory: - (i) When reading in galvanometer is zero,

S=R (100-l) ... (1)

OR
l

Where S = unknown resistance of wire

R = resistance from resistance box

1 = balancing length on meter bridge wire in front of R.

(ii) For unknown Resistance

Resistance from · Unknown resistance S

balancing length AB Balancing length BC
S.No. resistance box R =R (100-z)(o hm)
= l (cm) = (100-/) (cm)
I
(ohm)
1 5 . 2.• 5
' ~8
2 2- 2· 2
3 2·2
4
2.•
5
2.· G
 Calculations: Resistance of the given wire,

S= (.i.~.44.:-.. )ohm
Result: ts

Precautions:

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire.
4. Null point should be brought between 45 cm and 55 cm.

I
 Class : XII

Experim ent No .3 Dated:

Aim:- Deternv ne resistan ce of a g~lvano meter by half deflectio n method and to find
its figure of merit .
•
Apparat us: - A galvano meter. a battery eliminat or. two resistan ce boxes (0 - 100 ohm
and O- 5000 ohm),
two one way key and connect ing wires.

Circuit Diagram : -

.,
,-r~,~\ ?!-1
Theory : - (i) The resistan ce of the given galvano meter

.· G R.S.
=- - , w here R 1s
. t h e resistanc
· e
R-S
Connect ed in series with the galvano meter and S is the shunt resistan ce.

(ii) the figure of merit k = E

(R+G)0

Where E is the emf of the cell and 0 is the deflection produce d with resistan ce R .

Observa tions : -

Galvanometer Figure of
Deflection in Half
Resistance Shunt resistance merit
S.No. the · deflection
R (ohm) galvanometer resistance S E
(ohm) 0/ 2 (in G=~ k=
0 (in div) div) R-S (R + G)0
(ohm)

2
' 0 0 s
2.S 0 \4
3
2.b 0 3
4
D 2
5 - .- -
Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n = ... G.O......... ....;......... ,·

(i)

·rn e-0 rn ::
(ii) For the figure of merit.

k~(R+EG)O ⇒~~
.
3S·G3XIO- ' f' Id)V
s- -

lhe, Qcll ~te, ~ 8~'n ~\Qlno'l'nfJeo -:: n 3 •Ggr:i)r.

Result : -
I =-7
2, 7 lhe -{-,~4re, 111 rrneiYii of Q 3,'verr-, au\tYno<mefe,O -c: --+· l~,i,I
.
1
A/d1 v

Precautions:

I. The connections should be tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The emf of battery should be constant.
4. Jnjtially a high resistance from R. Box (R) should be introduced in the circuit, (otherwise an
excessive current will flow through the galvanometer can be damaged .)
 Class - XII
Dated: _ _ _ __
Experiment No.4
resistance and figure of merit) into a voltm eter
Aim: To conv ert the given galvanometer (of known
.
of desired range (say 0 to 3 V) and verify the same

tance box
arat us: A Wes ton type g~va nom eter who se resistance and figure of merit are given. A resis
App e), a
0 to 10 k n, a batte ry or accu mula tor of 5 V (min imum potential drop equal to the desired rang
of rang e (0 to 3 V)
divider arrangement, one-way key, a voltmeter
rheo stat (of rang e 200 n,) to be used as potential
eter, connecting wires, sand papers etc.
for com parin g the accuracy of converted voltm

Theory
.
Conversion of a galvanometer into a voltmeter
a
in series with the galvanometer to convert it into
A high resis tanc e of suitable value is connected
voltmeter. Voltmeter is always connected in
parallel with the circuit.

Calculation of Series Resistance:

of the
G ohms, scale has N0 divisions on eithe r side
Supp ose the galv anom eter has a resistance of pote ntial
maximum current of IG ampere, then the max imum
zero and that it take s for full scale deflection a desired to have
is JG x G volt. If the converted galv anom eter is
diffe renc e that the galv anom eter can measure of 1G arnp:is
rang e of V volt, then the total resis tance R1 tha~ mus t be tn_cJu..d~d in the citc_uit.ior--a 0ur-rent
a 0

- --given by

R1 = 2IGV. ohm.

s, therefore, the additional resistance R

Sinc e the resis tanc e of the galvanometer is G ohm
eter is given as R1 = R + ~ = V0 I JG
that shou ld be plac ed in series with the galvanom

R = (;; - G) ohm, and connected

Circuit Diagram
P.,~t v-r k«.)'

.. 1 j1---~ I-'- --- ·

.__ ___ ,,..,._,,vvvvvyvYVV\= 1
- ,. -V

,-- --- - --- .

r (i ..-, •-,..+ --- 1-1--,1-- ~. e,
• ,. A_ I

L __ - - -- --- ·- c.,...,_,, . ,. ,-,/4 V,-«..,.,.-r....

c..-...-~ -i:~ viu.,:,f: ~-r.;,, , -..i cJ, ~ k ~ tJu ;e,,t,r,.....,a....=
e-j- 'tJ.... C.,-,,v - kA V.tt-,., ~T.,,._ .·

Observations

Give n resistance of the galvanometer, G = ./.!JJ).

ohm
1.
Give n valu e of figure of merit, k ~ .~f. ~plre
per division.
2.
zero of the galvanometer, No= . $ .~ .. ,
3. The total num ber of division on either side of the
ction of No division, (
4. Current required for producing full scale defle
 JG =k. N0 = ...... .ampere.
.3D X ?AµA :: b 6-'l> µ k '
;:: t 6D X' ~ b - .(
(a) Calculations of the value ofresistance R for placing in series with the galvanometer.

5. Required range of the converted voltmeter,

"I
Va = Vofts .Z....
6. The value of required series resistance,
~--••-_-:__-=-,~' P-.~ 7/ "J V ~ t.tU'l
R = -Vo- G
IG

(b) Verification (Checking the performance of the converted voltmeter by comparing it with a standard
voltmeter of the same range using circuit in Fig. 5.10.

7. Voltage indicated by full scale deflection (N 0) of the converted voltmeter,

Vo= .S... volts.

8. Least count of the converted voltmeter,
- ~-,. ~ ·1-, -· ~.
C -

- k 1- _g -·
Vo - .. ... . VO l·fld'
--
~0-1
, IV. -
No ~ ~

Reading of the converted

Standard Error%
galvanometer into voltmeter
-voltmeter Error V' - V
No. of
in No. of in volts reading V ' (volt)
v·- V
Obs. --V.,...,- X100
divisions V = k ' .n (volt)
1 0 0
2
3 0
4 0
5
Note. If the difference (V'-V) happens to be large, then adjust the value of series resistance R such that the
readings V ' and V almost agree.

Precautions and Sources of Error

1. Calculations for the required series resistance for conversion, should be done carefully.
2. The two terminals, one free terminal of the resistance box and the other free terminal of the
galvanometer are the terminals of the converted voltmeter.
3. Any zero error in the galvanometer or voltmeter should be eliminated or accounted for.
4. The standard voltmeter selected for comparing the performance of the converted voltmeter should
preferably be used in experiment.
5. Both the voltmeters (converted and the standard one) should be connected in parallel with the p.d. to be
measured with their positive terminals connected to higher potential side.
 ---- Class - XU
Date d: _ _ _ __
Expe rime nt No. 5
pbje ctive
. . . I J
s betw een u and v or betw een - and - .
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plottmg graph
1 U V

App·aratus
, two other uprights with lateral move ment ), a
An optical bench with three uprights (central upright fixed
thin, one thick) a knitti ng needle and a half metr e
convex lens with lens holder, two optical needles, (one
scale.

RAY DIAG RAM

_1 /·1
- --;:; ~~A r--~ ----d ,;.;, ~--- ,,,.::::.:_-4-_ _o-
~ A /
:H · fc
C'c,~-l,!:._ ➔ I ~ ,{_.f'M ~e.
·"he..:1A.(e
~
p 'h~~l..t....
V----~

THE ORY
-. ,; - ula-ttsed) ~- , -
__ -(.form
- - --
The relation betw een u, v and f for a convex Jens is

I f=~
-=--- ➔
f V U u+v

where, f = focal length of conv ex lens

lens.
u = distance of objec t need le from optical centre of the
lens.
v = dist::i.nce of image need le from optical centre of the
of v has positive value. Henc e, f come s posit ive
Note . According to sign- conv entio n. u has negative value

OBSERVATION

Roug h focal length of the given conv ex lens= g~.. cm

 · I I
I. Table for u, v: - and -
U V

( ., ) I .J )
Serial Posit ion of Obser ved distan ce l= uxv -I cm - (cm
QC = V u V
No. of Objec t Lens Image QA == u · u+v
needl e (5) (6)
Obs. needl e
.A 0 C
(cm) (cm)
(2a) (2c)
1.
2.
3.
4.

6.

CAL CUL ATIO N

Calcu lation s of focal length by graphical metho ds.

ent u along X' - axis and v along Y-
(i) _ u-- ~ 1u rnpl1. -Selec l-41:--sujtab.l~ but the same scale to repres
a_tive and v is positi ve. Plot the
axis. Acco rding to sign - co~ s~ n f11 ttiis case. u--i-s.-11~g
vation tabfes"'eci) nd quadr ant.
vario us point s for differ ent sets of value of u and v from obser
The graph come s out to be a rectan gular hyper bola.

,i~) -·· -~ fl~ V G-raph..Select a ~uita,ble but the same scale to repres ent ~u along X'
- axis.
u

Resul t

The focal length of the given conve x lens as determ ined from

= - - _ 124
vu • t3 -= 20• b Crn--i
l. focal length from f
u --v ~
2. (u - v) graph =~):~ cm

3. .!. _~ graph =~:i. cm

u \/

PRECAUTIONS (to be taken)

heigh t as the centre of the lens.
1. Tips of the objec t and image needl es shoul d lie at the same
at a distan ce at least 30 cm away from the
2. Parall ax shoul d be remov ed from tip to tip by keepi ng eye
needle.
only real. invert ed image of it is forme d .
3. The objec t needl e shoul d be placed at such a distan ce that
4. Index correc tion for u and v shoul d be applied .
 II

Class - XII
Dated: _ _ _ __
Experiment No. 6

OBJECTIVE
(i) To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angel of
incidence and the angle of deviation.
(ii) to determine the refractive index of material (glass) of the prism.

APPARTU S
Drawing Board, white sheet of paper,, prism drawing pins, pencil, half metre scale, office pins, graph
paper and a protractor.

Ray diagram

A ,k
, ✓

·N1 ,
,N,_

' ;;,,:::;:-~it- -,~ /

C,

Theory formula used

The refractive index (n) of the material of the prism is give by

n= sm(A\Dm J
sm(~)
where, Dm angle of minimum deviation and A angle of the prism.

OBSERVATONS
An1gIe o f onsm
. 'A'= ......
Serial No. of Obs. (I) Angle of incidenceL i (2) Angle of deviation L D (3)
1. 35° 4-'l 1)
2. 40° 41~
45° Q'\1)
3.
4. 50° d.h o
55° ~L"!. I D
5.
6. 60° '
Calculation
 along X-axis and LD along"</~
Pl~t a graph betwee n angle of incidence Li.and angle of deviation.,LD talcing
of minim um deviation D1n
corres pondin g to the lowest point of the graph.
Let the value of angle of minim um deviation, Dm = .-~ 1>
Th = sin(~ ) ::: -~ o+39
sirrl6 J/c'M (Go) ~
, t
s,/)') ~)
I
axis. The graph is as shown in From this graph, find the value of angle

O
..s;l)"J -.::>f)o ,-
,...
, ·52
en, n . (A) 2
01 ·, , -
).. ).
sm 2
RESU LT
of deviation (D) first
(i) i -D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (i) increases, the angle
increase in angle
decrea ses, attains a minimum value (Dm) and then starts increasing for further
of incidence. 0
(ii) angle of minim um deviation, Dm =--~
(iii) Refractive index of the material of the prism, n = l~S2
PRECA UTION S (to be taken)
I. The angle of incidence should lie between 350 - 600.
2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distanc e between the two pins should not be less than 10mm.
4. Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident and emergent rays.
5. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.
Experiment No.7
- - WWW
Cla ss - XII Dated: _ _ _ __

OB JEC T
by usin g con vex lens and plan e mirror.
To find the refr acti ve inde x of a liquid·

APPARATUS k knit ting nee dle

, a plan e mir ror clea n tran spar ent liqu id in a bea ker, an opti cal needle, (a thic
A con vex lens slab ,
). an iron stan d with base and clam p arra nge men t, plum b line, plan e glas s
pass ed thro ugh a rubb er cork
a spee dom eter , half met re scal e etc
.
Dia gram
- --- , , __ A'
-- -'- A . ..

t, F

. #
/

UiJ ,; ~ '~~~ ~ ~b i-n iu t f~

THE OR Y focal length of thei

h l leng th of glas s con vex lens and liqu id lens and F be the
If .fi and be the foca
com bina tion then, 1 1
1 1 1 1
- =- +- or/2 -= - - -fl
F /1 /2 F

ius of curvature of convex lens surface) ,

R2 = ex
is a pian o con cave lens with R, = R (rad
Liqu id lens formed
From lens mak er's form ula
1
-12 = (n- 1) - R1
[1 1]
--
R2
1 (n-1 ) R
We have - = - - or n = l +-
. /2 R /2

Putt ing value of f2 n can be calculated.

ace
For radius of curvature of con vex lens surf
a2
R= -+ -2
h
1. on plane surface (h,) = .... .
611
2. On curved surface (h2) = .... .
'l ,.. = m"''- '" rfic:: t~nf'P he:tw
een two lees of speedometer
OBSER VATIO N
l . Rough focal length of comf;x ie~s = ·.:t.9 .... crti. •
2. Table for distanc e of needle tip from lens and mirror

Distance of needle tip Focal length

From lens From plane Mean x = x1 +x2 X
Arrang ement 2
surface mirror (cm)
X2 (cm)
(cm)
X1 (cm)
(2) (3') (4) (5)
(1)
Withou t liquid 20• £ 2.1 2.o # ~ 4-, ~ 2..o • ~
With liquid q n- I ~ t) l ~ ~o•?: , r= =- 'J.o<>i
Radms of curvatu re
R = 231'.lfc m.
CALCU LATIO NS
_,_ _ , ~
2o •8, ....30 • 3 _
1_1 1

tz - F - ti· - St)•3 120·2' G~o •2-t

R \ + ~3· 411 S' -\ rr, : ' +t), 3 ~ l.~

n = 1 + f2 ~ rn :: ~6' 3t ./)

Result • 'fue. te_'( m(:\\\Je, l'll~(?j o-<- a .ll qui~ by ~°S (om\Jrj 1{','M a~ ~
~ \~me, ~~t')~ , ~ 1, 3~ ·

PRECA UTION S (To:Be Taken)

1. The liquid taken should be transparent.
2. Only few drops of liquid should be taken so that its layer is not thick .
3. The paralla x should be remove.cl tip to tip.

4
 Class - XII
Experiment No.8 Dated: _ _ _ __

OBJECT
To draw the 1-V characteristic curve of a p-n jW1ctin in forward-bias and reverse-bias.

APPARATUS
A p-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a high resistance rheostat, one 0-3
volt voltmeter, one 0-50 volt voltmeter, one 0-100 mA ammeter, one 0-100 µA A ammeter, one way key,
connecting wires and pieces of sand paper.
rm A AA
---~--- + -

ti
11
~--L-
~-

OBSERV ATJONS
(a) For forward - bias· . .oS
0 V
Least count of voltmeter = .........
Lest count of milli-ammeter=Ot.2. mA

1. Table for forward-bias volta e and forward current

Serial No. of Obs. Forward-bias Voltage VF (V) Fon:vard current IF (mA)
(1 ) (2) (3)
1.
2. __,
3.
4. 1-
5. 0
6.
Least count of voltmeter = ..O.~ ... V
Least count of micro-ammeter = ..2.. µA

2. Table for reverse-bias volta e and reverse current

Serial No. of Obs. Reverse-bias Voltage VR (V) Reverse cwTent IR (µA)
(1) (2) (3)
1. 2, O• · 2
2.
3.
4.

'
5.
r...
,,,
 )
,. ;,. · -
CA LC UL AT ION S ·,
• ': ~, .. • >.

,.
(a) For for wa rd- bia s for wa rd cur ren t IF (col um n 3) tak ing VF alo ng
rd- bia s vol tag e· VF ( col um n 2) and
Plo t a graph bet we en for wa s gra ph is cal led for wa rd- bia s cha rac teri stic
xis . Th e gra ph com es as sho wn in Thi
X-a xis and IF alo ng Y-a
~urve a jun ctio n dio de.

He nce jun ctio n res ista nce for for wa rd-_bias. ~

.

) r = L'.Vp :: t-4 -;: j_ -:- ') l'ih rrl'

/ ll/F O•E,-0•\.I 0<2-
(,l He nce jun ctio n res ista nce for rev ers e-b ias.
-o --
_j - o• 3~ o•
I'
)·\t:- oh
_ ll vR _ ,• 2
I y
r- - - --- --- := --- - '
fl/R 4 • 0 r 2 • \) ')_
PR EC AU TIO NS (to be tak en)
tight.
1. All con nec tion s sho uld be nea t, cle an and
wh en the circ uit is not bei ng used.
2. Ke y sho uld be use d in circ uit and ope ned
should not be app lied .
3. For wa rd- bia s vol tag e bey ond bre akd ow n
sho uld not be app lied .
4. Rev ers e-b i_a s vol tag e bey ond bre akd ow n