PN JUNCTION

A PN-junction is formed when an N-type material is fused together with a P-type material creating
a semiconductor diode.

Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity lies between conductors and insulators.
Semiconductors are classified as intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic semiconductors. Extrinsic
semiconductors are further classified as N-type and P-type semiconductors.

The P-N junction is formed between the p-type and the n-type semiconductors.

Symbol:

The symbol of the PN junction diode is depicted as a triangle pointing towards a line or running
through one vertex. This arrangement shows the direction of current flow in the circuit from the
positive anode terminal to the negative cathode terminal.

Formation of P-N Junction:

In a semiconductor, the P-N junction is created by the method of doping. The p-side or the positive
side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes, and the n-side or the negative side has an excess
of electrons.

As we know, if we use different semiconductor materials to make a P-N junction, there will be a
grain boundary that would inhibit the movement of electrons from one side to the other by
scattering the electrons and holes and thus, we use the process of doping. We will understand the
process of doping with the help of this example. Let us consider a thin p-type silicon semiconductor
sheet. If we add a small amount of pentavalent impurity to this, a part of the p-type Si will get
converted to n-type silicon. This sheet will now contain both the p-type region and the n-type
region and a junction between these two regions.

Working of PN Junction:

When the N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor materials are first joined together a
very large density gradient exists between both sides of the PN junction. The result is that some of
the free electrons from the donor impurity atoms begin to migrate across this newly formed
junction to fill up the holes in the P-type material producing negative ions.

However, because the electrons have moved across the PN junction from the N-type silicon to the
P-type silicon, they leave behind positively charged donor ions ( ND ) on the negative side and now
the holes from the acceptor impurity migrate across the junction in the opposite direction into the
region where there are large numbers of free electrons.

As a result, the charge density of the P-type along the junction is filled with negatively charged
acceptor ions ( NA ), and the charge density of the N-type along the junction becomes positive.
This charge transfer of electrons and holes across the PN junction is known as diffusion. The width
of these P and N layers depends on how heavily each side is doped with acceptor density NA, and
donor density ND, respectively.

This process continues back and forth until the number of electrons which have crossed the
junction have a large enough electrical charge to repel or prevent any more charge carriers from
crossing over the junction. Eventually a state of equilibrium (electrically neutral situation) will
occur producing a “potential barrier” zone around the area of the junction as the donor atoms repel
the holes and the acceptor atoms repel the electrons.

Since no free charge carriers can rest in a position where there is a potential barrier, the regions on
either sides of the junction now become completely depleted of any more free carriers in
comparison to the N and P type materials further away from the junction. This area around the PN
Junction is now called the Depletion Layer.
The total charge on each side of a PN Junction must be equal and opposite to maintain a neutral
charge condition around the junction.

Diffusion and Drift Current:

The processes that follow after forming a P-N junction are of two types – diffusion and drift. There
is a difference in the concentration of holes and electrons at the two sides of a junction. The holes
from the p-side diffuse to the n-side, and the electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side. These
give rise to a diffusion current across the junction.

Also, when an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an ionised donor is left behind on
the n-side, which is immobile. As the process goes on, a layer of positive charge is developed on
the n-side of the junction. Similarly, when a hole goes from the p-side to the n-side, an ionized
acceptor is left behind on the p-side, resulting in the formation of a layer of negative charges in the
p-side of the junction. This region of positive charge and negative charge on either side of the
junction is termed as the depletion region. Due to this positive space charge region on either side
of the junction, an electric field with the direction from a positive charge towards the negative
charge is developed. Due to this electric field, an electron on the p-side of the junction moves to
the n-side of the junction. This motion is termed the drift. Here, we see that the direction of the
drift current is opposite to that of the diffusion current.

Biasing Conditions for the P-N Junction Diode:

There are three biasing conditions for the P-N junction diode, and this is based on the voltage
applied:

1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.

2. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type material
and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Increasing the PN junction diode’s width.

3. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type material
and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.

Zero Biased Junction Diode:

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is applied to the
PN junction. However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority carriers)
in the P-type material with enough energy to overcome the potential barrier will move across the
junction against this barrier potential. This is known as the “Forward Current” and is referenced
as IF.

Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation favourable
and move across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the “Reverse Current”
and is referenced as IR. This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth across the PN junction
is known as diffusion, as shown below.
The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more majority carriers across
the junction. However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers (few free electrons in the P-
region and few holes in the N-region) to drift across the junction.

Then an “Equilibrium” or balance will be established when the majority carriers are equal and both
moving in opposite directions, so that the net result is zero current flowing in the circuit. When
this occurs the junction is said to be in a state of “Dynamic Equilibrium”.

The minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy so this state of equilibrium
can be broken by raising the temperature of the PN junction causing an increase in the generation
of minority carriers, thereby resulting in an increase in leakage current but an electric current
cannot flow since no circuit has been connected to the PN junction.

Forward Bias Junction Diode:

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-
type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage
becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts
for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current will start to flow.
This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them
the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards
the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing
up to this voltage point, called the “knee” on the static curves and then a high current flow through
the diode with little increase in the external voltage as shown below.

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer
becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction
thereby allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes
place is represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the “knee” point.

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large
currents to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The actual potential
difference across the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at
approximately 0.3v for germanium and approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes.

Since the diode can conduct “infinite” current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a
short circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current flow.

Reverse Bias Junction Diode:

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-type
material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.

The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode
and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the
junction towards the negative electrode.

The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and
presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator and a high potential barrier is created across
the junction thus preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material.

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current
flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small reverse
leakage current does flow through the junction which can normally be measured in micro-
amperes, ( μA ).
One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently
high enough value, it will cause the diode’s PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche
effect around the junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the
flow of maximum circuit current, and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static
characteristics curve below.

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilising circuits where a
series limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset
maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage output across the diode. These types of diodes
are commonly known as Zener Diodes.

How does current flow in the PN junction diode?

The flow of electrons from the n-side towards the p-side of the junction takes place when there is
an increase in the voltage. Similarly, the flow of holes from the p-side towards the n-side of the
junction takes place along with the increase in the voltage. This results in the concentration
gradient between both sides of the terminals. Due to the concentration gradient formation, charge
carriers will flow from higher-concentration regions to lower-concentration regions. The
movement of charge carriers inside the P-N junction is the reason behind the current flow in the
circuit.
Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics:

VI characteristics of P-N junction diodes is a curve between the voltage and current through the
circuit. Voltage is taken along the x-axis while the current is taken along the y-axis. The above
graph is the V-I characteristics curve of the P-N junction diode. With the help of the curve, we can
understand that there are three regions in which the diode works, and they are:

• Zero bias

• Forward bias

• Reverse bias

When the P-N junction diode is in zero bias condition, there is no external voltage applied and this
means that the potential barrier at the junction does not allow the flow of current.

When the P-N junction diode is in forward bias condition, the p-type is connected to the positive
terminal while the n-type is connected to the negative terminal of the external voltage. When the
diode is arranged in this manner, there is a reduction in the potential barrier. For silicone diodes,
when the voltage is 0.7 V and for germanium diodes, when the voltage is 0.3 V, the potential
barriers decrease, and there is a flow of current.
When the diode is in forward bias, the current increases slowly, and the curve obtained is non-
linear as the voltage applied to the diode overcomes the potential barrier. Once the diode
overcomes the potential barrier, the diode behaves normally, and the curve rises sharply as the
external voltage increases, and the curve obtained is linear.

When the P-N junction diode is in negative bias condition, the p-type is connected to the negative
terminal while the n-type is connected to the positive terminal of the external voltage. This results
in an increase in the potential barrier. Reverse saturation current flows in the beginning as minority
carriers are present in the junction.

When the applied voltage is increased, the minority charges will have increased kinetic energy
which affects the majority charges. This is the stage when the diode breaks down. This may also
destroy the diode.

Depletion Region:

Depletion region or depletion layer is a region in a P-N junction diode where no mobile charge
carriers are present. Depletion layer acts like a barrier that opposes the flow of electrons from n-
side and holes from p-side.

If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN junction, it
can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross the junction as the
width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.

By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away from
the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has the effect of increasing
or decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself allowing or blocking the flow of current
through the diodes pn-junction.

Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse voltage and
narrows with an increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is due to the differences in
the electrical properties on the two sides of the PN junction resulting in physical changes taking
place.
P-N Junction Diode:

The PN junction diode consists of a p-region and n-region separated by a depletion region where
charge is stored.

If we were to make electrical connections at the ends of both the N-type and the P-type materials
and then connect them to a battery source, an additional energy source now exists to overcome the
potential barrier.

The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the free electrons being able to cross
the depletion region from one side to the other. The behavior of the PN junction with regards to
the potential barrier’s width produces an asymmetrical conducting two terminal device known as
the PN Junction Diode.

A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which has the
electrical characteristic of passing current through itself in one direction only. However, unlike a
resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage. Instead it has an
exponential current-voltage (I-V ) relationship and therefore we can not described its operation by
simply using an equation such as Ohm’s law.

Applications of P-N Junction Diode:

• P-N junction diode can be used as a photodiode as the diode is sensitive to the light when
the configuration of the diode is reverse-biased.

• It can be used as a solar cell.

• When the diode is forward-biased, it can be used in LED lighting applications.

• It is used as rectifier in many electric circuits and as a voltage-controlled oscillator in

Important characteristics:

• Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers, “Holes” and “Electrons”.
• The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively charged.

• A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony (N-type doping),
so that it contains mobile charges which are primarily electrons.

• A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-type doping),
so that it contains mobile charges which are mainly holes.

• The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the depletion region.

• The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the applied
voltage.

• When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a natural Potential
Barrier is developed across a depletion layer which is approximately 0.5 to 0.7v for silicon
diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt for germanium diodes.

• When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion region reduces
and the diode acts like a short circuit allowing full circuit current to flow.

• When a junction diode is Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion region increases
and the diode acts like an open circuit blocking any current flow, (only a very small leakage
current will flow).