PN JUNCTION

INTRODUCTION
 Conductors are materials that

permit electrons to flow freely from
particle to particle. Examples of
conductors include metals,
aqueous solutions of salts (i.e.,
ionic compounds dissolved in
water), graphite, and the human
body.
 Insulators are materials that
impede the free flow of electrons
from atom to atom and molecule to
molecule. Examples of insulators
include plastics, Styrofoam, paper,
rubber, glass and dry air.
 Semiconductors are those
substances whose conductivity lies
between conductors and insulators.
e.g., Germanium, Silicon, Carbon
etc.
PN JUNCTION
 Also known as diode.

 One of the basics of semiconductor technology.
 Created by placing n-type and p-type material in
close contact.
 Diffusion – mobile charges (holes) in p-type combine
with mobile charges (electrons) in n-type.
 Region of charges left behind (dopant fixed in
crystal lattice)
i. Group III in p-type (one less than Si-negative
charge).
ii. Group IV in n-type (one more proton than Si-
positive charge).
 Region is totally depleted of mobile charges
–“depletion region”
i. Electric field forms due to fixed charges on the
depletion region.
ii. Depletion region has high resistance due to
lack of mobile charges.
PROPERTIES OF PN JUNCTION
 The p- and n- sides of PN Junction

before the contact.
 The P-N Junction after contact, in
equilibrium and in open circuit.
 Carrier concentrations along the
whole device, through the p-n
junction.
 Net space charge density across
the p-n junction.
PRINCIPLES OF PN JUNCTION
DEPLETION REGION
In semiconductor physics, the depletion region, also called depletion
layer, depletion zone, junction region, space charge region or space
charge layer, is an insulating region within a conductive, doped
semiconductor material where the mobile charge carriers have been
diffused away, or have been forced away by an electric field. The only
elements left in the depletion region are ionized donor or acceptor
impurities.
The depletion region is so named because it is formed from a
conducting region by removal of all free charge carriers, leaving none
to carry a current. Understanding the depletion region is key to
explaining modern semiconductor electronics: diodes, bipolar junction
transistors, field-effect transistors, and variable capacitance diodes all
rely on depletion region.
Forward bias
Forward bias (P positive with respect
to N) narrows the depletion region
and lowers the barrier to carrier
injection (shown in the figure to the
right). In more detail, majority
carriers get some energy from the
bias field, enabling them to go into
the region and neutralize opposite
charges. The more bias the more
neutralization (or screening of ions in the region) occurs. The carriers
can be recombined to the ions but thermal energy immediately makes
recombined carrier transition back as Fermi energy is in proximity.
When bias is strong enough that the depletion region becomes very
thin, the diffusion component of the current greatly increases and the
drift component decreases. In this case, the net current is rightward
in the figure of the p–n junction. The carrier density is large (it varies
exponentially with the applied bias voltage), making the junction
conductive and allowing a large forward current. The mathematical
description of the current is
provided by the Shockley diode
equation. The low current
conducted under reverse bias and
the large current under forward
bias is an example.
Reverse bias
Under reverse bias (P negative with
respect to N), the potential drop
(i.e.,voltage) across the depletion
region increases. In more detail, majority carriers are pushed away from the
junction, leaving behind more charged ions. Thus the depletion region is
widened and its field becomes stronger, which increases the drift component
of current and decreases the diffusion component. In this case, the net
current is leftward in the figure of the p–n junction. The carrier density
(mostly, minority carriers) is small and only a very small reverse saturation
current flows.
PN JUNCTION DIODE
If one side of a single crystal of pure semiconductor (Germanium

or Silicon) is doped with acceptor impurity atoms and the other
side is doped with donor impurity atoms, a PN junction is formed
as shown in Fig. P region has a high concentration of holes and N
region contains a large number of electrons.
As soon as the junction is formed, free electrons and holes cross
through the junction by the process of diffusion. During this
process, the electrons
crossing the junction from
N-region into the P region,
recombine with holes in
the P-region very close to
the junction. Similarly
holes crossing the junction
from the P-region into the
N-region, recombine with
electrons in the N-region
very close to the junction.
Thus a region is formed, which does not have any mobile charges
very close to the junction. This region is called depletion region. In
this region, on the left side of the junction, the acceptor atoms
become negative ions and on the right side of the junction, the
donor atoms become positive ions.
An electric field is set up, between the donor and acceptor ions in
the depletion region. The potential at the N-side is higher than the
potential at P-side. Therefore electrons in the N- side are
prevented to go to the lower potential of P-side. Similarly, holes in
the P-side find themselves at a lower potential and are prevented
to cross to the N-side. Thus, there is a barrier at the junction
which opposes the movement of the majority charge carriers. The
difference of potential from one side of the barrier to the other
side is called potential barrier. The potential barrier is
approximately 0.7V for a silicon PN junction and 0.3V for a
germanium PN junction. The distance from one side of the barrier
to the other side is called the width of the barrier, which depends
upon the nature of the material.
Forward Biased
PN Junction Diode:
When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to P-side and
negative terminal to the N-side, so that the potential difference acts in
opposite direction to the barrier potential, then the PN junction diode is said
to be forward biased. When the PN junction is forward biased (Fig), the
applied positive potential repels the holes in the P-region, and the applied
negative potential repels the electrons in the N-region, so the charges move
towards the junction. If the applied potential difference is more than the
potential barrier, some holes and free electrons enter the depletion region.
Hence, the potential barrier as well as the width of the depletion region are
reduced. The positive donor ions and negative acceptor ions within the
depletion region regain electrons and holes respectively. As a result of this,
the depletion region disappears and the potential barrier also disappears.
Hence, under the action of the forward potential difference, the majority
charge carriers flow across the junction in opposite direction and constitute
current flow in the forward direction.
Forward Bias Characteristics

The circuit for the study of forward bias characteristics of PN junction diode is
shown in Fig a. The voltage between P- end and N-end is increased from zero
in suitable equal steps and the corresponding currents are noted down. Fig b
shows the forward bias characteristic curve of the diode. Voltage is the
independent variable. Therefore, it is plotted along X-axis. Since, current is
the dependent variable, it is plotted against Y-axis. From the characteristic
curve, the following conclusions can be made.
i. The forward characteristic is not a straight line. Hence the ratio V/I is
not a constant (i.e) the diode does not obey Ohm's law. This implies
that the semiconductor diode is a non-linear conductor of electricity.
ii. It can be seen from the characteristic curve that initially, the current is
very small. This is because, the diode will start conducting, only when
the external voltage overcomes the barrier potential (0.7V for silicon
diode). As the voltage is increased to 0.7 V, large number of free
electrons and holes start crossing the junction. Above 0.7V, the current
increases rapidly. The voltage at which the current starts to increase
rapidly is known as cut-in voltage or knee voltage of the diode.
Reverse Biased
PN Junction Diode:
When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N-side and
negative terminal to the P-side, so that the applied potential difference is in
the same direction as that of barrier potential, the junction is said to be
reverse biased.
When the PN junction is reverse biased (Fig), electrons in the N region and
holes in the P- region are attracted away from the junction.
Because of this, the number of negative ions in the P-region and positive ions
in the N- region increases. Hence the depletion region becomes wider and
the potential barrier is increased.
Since the depletion region does not contain majority charge carriers, it acts
like an insulator. Therefore, no current should flow in the external circuit.
But, in practice, a very small current of the order of few microamperes flows
in the reverse direction. This is due to the minority carriers flowing in the
opposite direction. This reverse current is small, because the number of
minority carriers in both regions is very small. Since the major source of
minority carriers is, thermally broken covalent bonds, the reverse current
mainly depends on the junction temperature.
Reverse Bias Characteristics
The circuit for the study of reverse bias characteristics of PN junction diode is
shown in Fig a. The voltage is increased from zero in suitable steps. For each
voltage, the corresponding current readings are noted down. Fig b shows the
reverse bias characteristic curve of the diode. From the characteristic curve,
it can be concluded that, as voltage is increased from zero, reverse current
(in the order of microamperes) increases and reaches the maximum value at
a small value of the reverse voltage. When the voltage is further increased,
the current is almost independent of the reverse voltage upto a certain
critical value. This reverse current is known as the reverse saturation current
or leakage current. This current is due to the minority charge carriers, which
depends on junction temperature.
APPLICATIONS PN JUNCTION
Due to this characteristic, the diode finds number of applications as

given below:
 Rectification
The conversion of alternating current into direct current is
known as rectification. A p-n junction diode allows electric current
when it is forward biased and blocks electric current when it is
reverse biased. This action of p-n junction diode enables us to
use it as a rectifier.
 Diodes are used in clamping circuits for DC restoration.
 Diodes are used in clipping circuits for wave shaping.
 Diodes are used in voltage multipliers.
 Diodes are used as switch in digital logic circuits used in
computers.
 Diodes are used in demodulation circuits.
 Laser diodes are used in optical communications.
 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are used in digital displays.
 Diodes are used in voltage regulators.
CONCLUSION
The p-n junction is the basic building block for other s/c devices.
Understanding of junction theory serve as the foundation to
understanding other s/c devices. Modern p-n junctions are
fabricated using “planar technology”. When p-n junction is
formed – the uncompensated –ve ions (NA-) on the p-side and
uncompensated +ve ion (ND+) on n-side. Thus, depletion region
formed at the junction. At thermal equilibrium, the drift current
(due to the electric field) balanced by diffusion current (due to
concentration gradients of the mobile carriers).When +V applied
to p-side – large current will flow through the junction, while when
–V applied virtually no current flows .Practical devices depart
from ideal characteristics because of carrier generation &
recombination in the depletion layer, high injection under forward
bias and series-resistance effect.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 NCERT textbook class 12

 NCERT physical lab manual
 INTERNET
 www.yahoo.com
 www.scribd.com
 www.google.com
 www.google.com/wikipedia/p-n+junction/

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INTRODUCTION

 Conductors are materials that

 Also known as diode.

 The p- and n- sides of PN Junction

If one side of a single crystal of pure semiconductor (Germanium

Forward Bias Characteristics

Reverse Bias Characteristics

Due to this characteristic, the diode finds number of applications as

 NCERT textbook class 12

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