CN Unit-V
CN Unit-V
Application Layer
The application layer in the OSI model is the closest layer to the end user which means
that the application layer and end user can interact directly with the software
application. The application layer programs are based on client and servers.
Client
A client is a program that runs on the local machine requesting service from the server.
A client program is a finite program means that the service started by the user and
terminates when the service is completed.
Server
A server is a program that runs on the remote machine providing services to the clients.
When the client requests for a service, then the server opens the door for the incoming
requests, but it never initiates the service.
A server program is an infinite program means that when it starts, it runs infinitely
unless the problem arises. The server waits for the incoming requests from the clients.
When the request arrives at the server, then it responds to the request.
DNS
An application layer protocol defines how the application processes running on
different systems, pass the messages to each other.
DNS is a TCP/IP protocol used on different platforms. The domain name space is
divided into three different sections: generic domains, country domains, and inverse
domain.
Generic Domains
o It defines the registered hosts according to their generic behavior.
o Each node in a tree defines the domain name, which is an index to the DNS
database.
o It uses three-character labels, and these labels describe the organization type.
Label Description
Inverse Domain
The inverse domain is used for mapping an address to a name. When the server has
received a request from the client, and the server contains the files of only authorized
clients. To determine whether the client is on the authorized list or not, it sends a query
to the DNS server and ask for mapping an address to the name.
Working of DNS
o DNS is a client/server network communication protocol. DNS clients send requests to
the. server while DNS servers send responses to the client.
o Client requests contain a name which is converted into an IP address known as a
forward DNS lookups while requests containing an IP address which is converted into
a name known as reverse DNS lookups.
o DNS implements a distributed database to store the name of all the hosts available on
the internet.
o If a client like a web browser sends a request containing a hostname, then a piece of
software such as DNS resolver sends a request to the DNS server to obtain the IP
address of a hostname. If DNS server does not contain the IP address associated with
a hostname, then it forwards the request to another DNS server. If IP address has
arrived at the resolver, which in turn completes the request over the internet protocol.
The concept of SNMP is based on the manager and agent. A manager is like a host
that controls a group of agents, such as routers.
SNMP Manager: It is a computer system that monitors network traffic by the SNMP
agent, and it queries these agents, takes answers, and controls them.
Management components
It has two components
1. SMI
2. MIB
SNMP:It defines the structure of packets that is shared between a manager and an
agent.
SMI (Structure of Management Information): SMI is a network management
component that defines the standard rules for the naming object and object type
(including range and length) and also shows how to encode objects and values.
MIB (Management Information Base): MIB is the second component of the network
management. It is virtual information storage where management information is
stored.
HTTP
o HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.
o It is a protocol used to access the data on the World Wide Web (www).
o The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain text, hypertext,
audio, video, and so on.
o This protocol is known as HyperText Transfer Protocol because of its efficiency that
allows us to use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one
document to another document.
o HTTP is similar to the FTP as it also transfers the files from one host to another host.
But, HTTP is simpler than FTP as HTTP uses only one connection, i.e., no control
connection to transfer the files.
o HTTP is used to carry the data in the form of MIME-like format.
o HTTP is similar to SMTP as the data is transferred between client and server. The HTTP
differs from the SMTP in the way the messages are sent from the client to the server
and from server to the client. SMTP messages are stored and forwarded while HTTP
messages are delivered immediately.
Features of HTTP:
o Connectionless protocol: HTTP is a connectionless protocol. HTTP client initiates a
request and waits for a response from the server. When the server receives the request,
the server processes the request and sends back the response to the HTTP client after
which the client disconnects the connection. The connection between client and server
exist only during the current request and response time only.
o Media independent: HTTP protocol is a media independent as data can be sent as
long as both the client and server know how to handle the data content. It is required
for both the client and server to specify the content type in MIME-type header.
o Stateless: HTTP is a stateless protocol as both the client and server know each other
only during the current request. Due to this nature of the protocol, both the client and
server do not retain the information between various requests of the web pages.
HTTP Transactions
The above figure shows the HTTP transaction between client and server. The client initiates a
transaction by sending a request message to the server. The server replies to the request
message by sending a response message.
Messages
HTTP messages are of two types: request and response. Both the message types follow
the same message format.
Request Message: The request message is sent by the client that consists of a request
line, headers, and sometimes a body.
Response Message: The response message is sent by the server to the client that
consists of a status line, headers, and sometimes a body.
o What is E-mail?
o
o E-mail is defined as the transmission of messages on the Internet. It is one of
the most commonly used features over communications networks that may
contain text, files, images, or other attachments. Generally, it is information that
is stored on a computer sent through a network to a specified individual or
group of individuals.
o Email messages are conveyed through email servers; it uses multiple protocols
within the TCP/IP
o suite. For example, SMTP is a protocol
o , stands for simple mail transfer protocol
o and used to send messages whereas other protocols IMAP or POP are used to retrieve
messages from a mail server. If you want to login to your mail account, you just need to
enter a valid email address, password, and the mail servers used to send and receive
messages.
o Although most of the webmail servers automatically configure your mail
account, therefore, you only required to enter your email address and password.
However, you may need to manually configure each account if you use an email
client like Microsoft Outlook or Apple Mail. In addition, to enter the email
address and password, you may also need to enter incoming and outgoing mail
servers and the correct port numbers for each one.
The email was developed to support rich text with custom formatting, and the original
email standard is only capable of supporting plain text messages. In modern times,
email supports HTML
(Hypertext markup language), which makes it capable of emails to support the same formatting
as websites
. The email that supports HTML can contain links, images, CSS layouts
, and also can send files or "email attachments" along with messages. Most of the mail servers
enable users to send several attachments with each message. The attachments were typically
limited to one megabyte in the early days of email. Still, nowadays, many mail servers are able to
support email attachments of 20 megabytes or more in size.
In 1971, as a test e-mail message, Ray Tomlinson sent the first e-mail to himself. This
email was contained the text "something like QWERTYUIOP." However, the e-mail
message was still transmitted through ARPANET, despite sending the e-mail to himself.
Most of the electronic mail was being sent as compared to postal mail till 1996.
Uses of email
Email can be used in different ways: it can be used to communicate either within an
organization or personally, including between two people or a large group of people.
Most people get benefit from communicating by email with colleagues or friends or
individuals or small groups. It allows you to communicate with others around the world
and send and receive images, documents, links, and other attachments. Additionally,
it offers benefit users to communicate with the flexibility on their own schedule.
There is another benefit of using email; if you use it to communicate between two
people or small groups that will beneficial to remind participants of approaching due
dates and time-sensitive activities and send professional follow-up emails after
appointments. Users can also use the email to quickly remind all upcoming events or
inform the group of a time change. Furthermore, it can be used by companies or
organizations to convey information to large numbers of employees or customers.
Mainly, email is used for newsletters, where mailing list subscribers are sent email
marketing campaigns directly and promoted content from a company.
Email can also be used to move a latent sale into a completed purchase or turn leads
into paying customers. For example, a company may create an email that is used to
send emails automatically to online customers who contain products in their shopping
cart. This email can help to remind consumers that they have items in their cart and
stimulate them to purchase those items before the items run out of stock. Also, emails
are used to get reviews by customers after making a purchase. They can survey by
including a question to review the quality of service.
History of E-mail
As compared to ARPANet or the Internet, email is much older. The early email was just
a small advance, which is known as a file directory in nowadays. It was used to just put
a message in other user's directory in the place where they were able to see the
message by logging in. For example, the same as leaving a note on someone's desk.
Possibly MAILBOX was used at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, which was the
first email system of this type from 1965. For sending messages on the same computer,
another early program was SNDMSG.
Users were only able to send messages to several users of the same computer through
email when the internetworking was not beginning. And, the problem became a little
more complex when computers began to talk to each other over networks, we required
to put a message in an envelope and address it for the destination.
Later in 1972, Ray Tomlinson invented email to remove some difficulties. Tomlinson
worked (Like many of the Internet inventors) for Newman and Bolt Beranek as an
ARPANET contractor. To denote sending messages from one computer to another, he
picked up the @ symbol from the keyboard. Then, it became easy to send a message
to another with the help of Internet standards; they were only required to
propose name-of-the-user@name-of-the-computer. One of the first users of the new
system was Internet pioneer Jon Postel. Also, describing as a "nice hack," credited goes
to Jon Postel.
Although the World Wide Web offers many services, email is the most widely used
facility and remains the most important application of the Internet
. On the international level, over 600 million people use email. There were hundreds of email
users by 1974, as ARPANET ultimately encouraged it. Furthermore, email caused a radical
shift in Arpa's purpose, as it became the savior of Arpanet.
From there were rapid developments in the field of the email system. A big
enhancement was to sort emails; some email folders for his boss were invented by
Larry Roberts. To organize an email, John Vittal developed some software in 1976. By
1976 commercial packages began to appear, and email had really taken off. The email
had changed people and took them from Arpanet to the Internet. Here was appeared
some interesting features that ordinary people all over the world wanted to use.
Some years later, Ray Tomlinson observed about email. As compared to the previous
one, any single development is stepping rapidly and nearly followed by the next. I think
that all the developments would take a big revolution.
When personal computers came on the scene, the offline reader was one of the first
new developments. Then, email users became able to store their email on their own
personal computers with the help of offline reader and read it. Also, without actually
being connected to the network, they were able to prepare replies like Microsoft
Outlook can do today. In parts of the world, this was specifically useful for people
where the telephone was expensive as compared to the email system.
Without being connected to a telephone, it was able to prepare a reply with connection
charges of many dollars a minute and then get on the network to send it. Also, it was
useful as the offline mode allowed for more simple user interfaces. In this modern time
of very few standards being connected directly to the host email system often resulted
in no capacity for text to wrap around on the screen of the user's computer, and
backspace keys and delete keys may not work and other such annoyances. Offline
readers helped out more to overcome these kinds of difficulties.
The SMTP (simple mail transfer protocol) was the first important email standard. It was
a fairly naïve protocol that is still in use. And, it was made in terms of no attempt to
find the person who sent a message that was the right or not what they claimed to be.
In the email addresses, fraudulent was very easy and is still available. Later, these basic
flaws were used in the protocol by security frauds, worms and viruses, and spammers
forging identities. From 2004, some of these problems are still being processed for a
solution.
But as developed email system offered some important features that helped out
people to understand easily about email. In 1988, Steve Dorner developed Eudora that
was one of the first good commercial systems. But it did not appear for a long time
after Pegasus mail come. Servers began to appear as a standard when Internet
standards POP (Post office protocol) for email began to mature. Each server was a little
different before standard post office protocol (POP). POP was an important standard
that allowed users to work together.
ndividual dialup users were required to charges for an email per-minute in those days.
Also, on the Internet, email and email discussion groups were the main uses for most
people. There were several issues on a wide variety of subjects; they became USENET
as a body of newsgroups.
(WWW), email became available with a simple user interface that was offered by providers like
Hotmail and Yahoo. And, users did not require to pay any charges on these platforms. Now everyone
wanted at least one email address as it is much simple and affordable, and the medium was adopted
by millions of people.
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) started to connect people with each other all over the
world by the 1980s. Also, by 1993 the use of the Internet was becoming widespread,
and the word electronic mail was replaced by email.
Today, email has become a primary platform to communicate with people all over the
world. There are continuing updates to the system with so many people using email
for communication. Although email has some security issues, there have been laws
passed to prevent the spread of junk email over the years.
Advantages of Email
There are many advantages of email, which are as follows:
Disadvantages of Email
o Impersonal: As compared to other forms of communication, emails are less personal.
For example, when you talk to anyone over the phone or meeting face to face is more
appropriate for communicating than email.
o Misunderstandings: As email includes only text, and there is no tone of voice or body
language to provide context. Therefore, misunderstandings can occur easily with email.
If someone sends a joke on email, it can be taken seriously. Also, well-meaning
information can be quickly typed as rude or aggressive that can impact wrong.
Additionally, if someone types with short abbreviations and descriptions to send
content on the email, it can easily be misinterpreted.
o Malicious Use: As email can be sent by anyone if they have an only email address.
Sometimes, an unauthorized person can send you mail, which can be harmful in terms
of stealing your personal information. Thus, they can also use email to spread gossip
or false information.
o Accidents Will Happen: With email, you can make fatal mistakes by clicking the wrong
button in a hurry. For instance, instead of sending it to a single person, you can
accidentally send sensitive information to a large group of people. Thus, the
information can be disclosed, when you have clicked the wrong name in an address
list. Therefore, it can be harmful and generate big trouble in the workplace.
o Spam: Although in recent days, the features of email have been improved, there are
still big issues with unsolicited advertising arriving and spam through email. It can
easily become overwhelming and takes time and energy to control.
o Information Overload: As it is very easy to send email to many people at a time, which
can create information overload. In many modern workplaces, it is a major problem
where it is required to move a lot of information and impossible to tell if an email is
important. And, email needs organization and upkeep. The bad feeling is one of the
other problems with email when you returned from vacation and found hundreds of
unopened emails in your inbox.
o Viruses: Although there are many ways to travel viruses in the devices, email is one of
the common ways to enter viruses and infect devices. Sometimes when you get a mail,
it might be the virus come with an attached document. And, the virus can infect the
system when you click on the email and open the attached link. Furthermore, an
anonymous person or a trusted friend or contact can send infected emails.
o Pressure to Respond: If you get emails and you do not answer them, the sender can
get annoyed and think you are ignoring them. Thus, this can be a reason to make
pressure on your put to keep opening emails and then respond in some way.
o Time Consuming: When you get an email and read, write, and respond to emails that
can take up vast amounts of time and energy. Many modern workers spend their most
time with emails, which may be caused to take more time to complete work.
o Overlong Messages: Generally, email is a source of communication with the intention
of brief messages. There are some people who write overlong messages that can take
much time than required.
o Insecure: There are many hackers available that want to gain your important
information, so email is a common source to seek sensitive data, such as political,
financial, documents, or personal messages. In recent times, there have various high-
profile cases occurred that shown how email is insecure about information theft.
Different types of Email
There are many types of email; such are as follows:
1.Newsletters
2.Lead Nurturing
3.Promotional emails:
4.Standalone Emails:
o AOL
o Zoho
o Gmail
o ProtonMail
o Com
o Microsoft Outlook
o Yahoo Mail
Email is a platform that allows users to communicate with people or groups of people
around the world. As email security is more important but consequent, it is not
inherently secure.
There are many techniques that can be used by individuals, organizations, and service
providers. These techniques provide how to protect sensitive information with email
communication and accounts from unauthorized access, loss, or destruction.
Individuals can protect their account with the help of creating strong passwords and
changing them frequently. They can use alphabetical, numerical, special symbols to
make a strong password that helps to protect your account. Users can also install and
run an antivirus and antimalware software on their computer, as well as create spam
filters and folders to separate potentially malicious emails and junk mail.
Also, there are some techniques the helps organizations to secure email include
implementing an email security gateway, training employees on deploying automated
email encryption solutions, and proper email usage. By processing and scanning all
received emails, email gateways check emails for threats, and analyze that should be
allowed into the system or not. A multilayered gateway is a powerful technique since
attacks are increasing rapidly and becoming complicated and sophisticated. Some
emails that cannot be caught by the gateway, training employees on how to
differentiate malicious messages, and properly use email are the best approach, which
helps users avoid threatening mails.
For potentially sensitive information, the automated email encryption solutions are
used that scans all outgoing messages; it will encrypt the sensitive information before
it is sent to the intended recipient. This process helps to send email securely and
prevent hackers from gaining access to the secret information, even if they stop it. The
only intended recipient can view the original information with permission.
Email service providers can also help to enhance security with the help of accessing
control standards and mechanisms and establishing a strong password. Additionally,
providers should also offer digital signatures and encryption solutions to secure emails
in transit and in users' inboxes. Finally, to protect users from malicious, unrecognized,
and untrustworthy messages, service providers should implement firewalls and spam-
filtering software applications.
In the email address, before the part of the @ symbol, contains the department of an
organization, alias, user, or group. As shown in the above example, help is the support
department at our company koneti.
Next, the @ (at sign) is required for all SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) email
address that is a divider in the email address, since the first message was sent by Ray
Tomlinson.
Finally, users belong to the domain name, javatpoint.com. For the domain, the .com is
the top-level domain (TLD).
What is streaming?
The first websites were simple pages of text with maybe an image or two. Today,
however, anyone with a fast enough Internet connection can watch high-definition
movies or make a video call over the Internet. This is possible because of a
technology called streaming.
A web page is given an online address called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). A
particular collection of web pages that belong to a specific URL is called a website,
e.g., www.facebook.com, www.google.com, etc. So, the World Wide Web is like a huge
electronic book whose pages are stored on multiple servers across the world.
Small websites store all of their WebPages on a single server, but big websites or
organizations place their WebPages on different servers in different countries so that
when users of a country search their site they could get the information quickly from
the nearest server.
So, the web provides a communication platform for users to retrieve and exchange
information over the internet. Unlike a book, where we move from one page to another
in a sequence, on World Wide Web we follow a web of hypertext links to visit a web
page and from that web page to move to other web pages. You need a browser, which
is installed on your computer, to access the Web.
But, when you have opened a website like google.com for information, you are using
the World Wide Web; a network of servers over the internet. You request a webpage
from your computer using a browser, and the server renders that page to your browser.
Your computer is called a client who runs a program (web browser), and asks the other
computer (server) for the information it needs.
The moment you open the browser and type a URL in the address bar or search
something on Google, the WWW starts working. There are three main technologies
involved in transferring information (web pages) from servers to clients (computers of
users). These technologies include Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and Web browsers.
MULTIPLEXING AND DEMULTIPLEXING
• Multiplexing
• Multiplexing is a process in which multiple data channels are combined into a
single data or physical channel at the source.
• Multiplexing divides the physical line (medium) into logical segments called as
channels.
• Multiplexing is a technique by which different analog and digital streams of
transmission can be simultaneously processed over a shared link.
• Multiplexing divides the high capacity medium into low capacity logical medium which
is then shared by different streams.
• Multiplexing also known as MUX.
Disadvantages of Multiplexing:
• 1. Complexity.
• 2. Bandwidth is wasted.
• Types of Multiplexing
• FDM used with analog signals. Perhaps its most common use is in television and radio transmission.
• It accept signals from multiple sources.
• It has a specified bandwidth, the signals are combined into another, more complex signal with large
bandwidth.
• MUX extracts and separates the individual components its carries frequencies.
FDM
Applications of FDM:
• 1. FDM is used for A.M. Radio and Radio broacasting.
• 2. FDM is used for T.V. broadcasting.
Advantages of FDM:
• 1. Simple and inexpensive.
• 2. All the receivers, cellular telephones, need not to be at the same location
• 3. It is not sensitive to propagation delays.
• 4. It allows maximum transmission link usage.
Disadvantages of FDM:
• 1. In FDM there is need of filters, which are very expensive and complicated to
construct and design.
• 2. Analog signal only having limited frequency range.
• 3. Sometimes, it is necessary to use more complex linear amplifiers in FDM
systems.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
2.Asynchronous TDM.
1.Synchronous TDM:
• The multiplexer allocates exactly the same time slot to each device at all times, whether or not a device has anything to
transmit.
• The multiplexer allocates the exactly the same times lot to each transmission devices at all times.
• Time slots are grouped into frames. A frame consists of one complete cycle of time slots.
• Time slot 1, for example, is assigned to device 1 alone and cannot be used by any other device
Advantages of synchronous TDM:
• Each slot contains an index of the device to be sent to and a message. Thus, the number of slots in a
frame is not necessary to be equal to the number of input devices.
• More than one slot in a frame can be allocated for an input device Asynchronous
TDM allows maximization the link.
• It allows a number of lower speed input lines to be multiplexed to a single higher speed line
• Asynchronous TDM also called as statistical time division multiplexing.
• In asynchronous TDM, a frame contains a fix number of time slots.
• Each slot has
an index of which device to receive.
Demultiplexing
• Demultiplexing is the process of separating multiplexed data channels at the destination.
• Demultiplex (DEMUX) is the reverse of the multiplex (MUX) process combining
multiple unrelated analog or digital signal streams into one signal over a single
shared medium, such as a single conductor of copper wire or fiber optic cable.
• Thus, demultiplex is reconverting a signal containing multiple analog or digital signal
streams back into the original separate and unrelated signals.
• In demultiplexing process, we use filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its
constituent component signals. Then each signal is passed to an amplitude
demodulation process to separate the carrier signal from the message signal. Then, the
message signal is sent to the waiting receiver.
Sr. TDM FDM
No.
1. TDM stands for Time Division FDM stands for Frequency Division
Multiplexing. Multiplexing.
2. TDM divides a channel by allocating FDM divides the channel into multiple,
3. TDM provides much better flexibility FDM provides much less flexibility
frequency.
of time slots.
delays. delays.