Stone masonry blocks walls

KEYWORDS:

Special properties Improvement of random rubble masonry

Economical aspects Medium to high costs
Stability Very good
Skills required Masonry skills
Equipment required Steel formwork, plate vibrator, masonry
tools
Resistance to Medium to good
earthquake
Resistance to hurricane Very good
Resistance to rain Very good
Resistance to insects Very good
Climatic suitability All climates
Stage of experience Increasing use on the Indian Sub-continent

SHORT DESCRIPTION:

· The drawbacks of random rubble masonry, common in many hilly

areas, are the excessive use of stones, mortar and labour, also its
non-uniformity and the risk of water penetration. By precasting the
stones into uniform concrete blocks these drawbacks are eliminated.

· The technique, developed in India, basically involves steel moulds, a

plate vibrator and trowels. A concrete casting platform and the inner
surfaces of 4 or 5 battery moulds are oiled. The moulds are arranged
side by side on the platform. Into each mould 2 or 3 stones are
placed, with the flattest side of each stone resting on the casting
platform. Gaps between stones or between stones and mould should
be at least 15 mm.
:
 · A concrete mix of 1: 5: 8 (1 cement: 5 sand: 8 graded course
aggregate of 10 mm and less) is filled into the moulds, compacted
with the plate vibrator, and finished with a trowel. The blocks are
demoulded 5 to 10 minutes later (depending on the climatic
conditions), water cured for two weeks and kept dry for another two
weeks.

· The bottom face with the exposed stone texture forms the external
face during construction. The blocks, typically 29 x 19 x 14 cm (l x b
x h), are used in conventional masonry construction, permitting
single brick thick walls (20 cm) for 3-storeyed buildings. Special
blocks with recesses for reinforcement can be used, thus also
achieving earthquake resistance Further information: Bibl. 22.01.

Filling the moulds; Demoulding; Compacting the blocks with a plate

vibrator

The precast stone elements consume slightly more cement in the

production and laying of the blocks, than random rubble masonry,
but waterproofing is achieved without or with far less plastering.
Thinner load-bearing walls are possible and the construction time is
greatly reduced. Even earthquake resistance can be achieved, which
must be rated higher than the costs of construction.

Rammed earth walls

:
 KEYWORDS:

Special properties Good impact resistance and durability

Economical aspects Low cost
Stability Good
Skills required Experience in earth construction
Equipment required Formwork, rammer
Resistance to earthquake Low to medium
Resistance to hurricane Good
Resistance to rain Medium
Resistance to insects Medium
Climatic suitability Hot dry climates, upland climates
Stage of experience Traditional

SHORT DESCRIPTION:

· This method of construction has been used for centuries in various

parts of the world and is commonly known by its French name "Pise".

· Earth is filled into formwork in layers of up to 10 cm and thoroughly

compacted to a thickness of 6 - 7 cm with a ramming tool. When the
formwork is full, it is dismantled and moved (usually horizontally) to
the next position, fixing it firmly over a previously completed row. In
this way the building goes up gradually, layer by layer, row by row.

· Other than patching up cracks, holes and damaged edges

immediately after removing the formwork, no surface treatment is
normally required.

· To a large extent, the choice of formwork and ramming device

influences the speed, cost and quality of construction, so that
experience and/or several trials with alternative equipment is
:
 necessary. As far as possible, the use of stabitizing agents (eg
cement, time, etc.) should be avoided, as they complicate the whole
procedure. However, this is only possible with optimum soil qualities
and good building design.

· Rammed earth is a natural material, constructed with only a small

fraction of the energy input required for other materials to produce
structures of similar strength and durability. It also causes no
wastage or pollution, and when demolished, soils that contain no
stabilizer can be reused over again. Further information: Bibl. 02.06,
02.19, 02.28, 02.32.

Soil

· The most appropriate soil for rammed earth construction contains:

50 to 75 % fine gravel and sand; 15 to 30 % silt (pulverized sand)
and 10 to 20 % clay (cohesive particles).

Formwork

· The formwork must be more rigid than standard concrete

shuttering, because of the high outward pressure of compacted
earth;

· it must be light and easy to dismantle and assemble, so that the

work does not become too tiring and time-consuming;

· it should be the largest size that can be reasonably handled, in

order to reduce the number of moves;

· and it should permit the wall thickness to be varied.

· Different types of formwork are illustrated. The formwork is

normally moved horizontally after each section is completed. In order
to avoid the horizontal cracks that tend to develop between
:
 successive rows of rammed earth (since each row dries out
separately), a climbing formwork was developed at the Kassel
College of Technology, Federal Republic of Germany (Bibl. 02.28,
Vol. 2).

· The length of formwork can range between 150 and 300 cm, the
height between 50 and 100 cm. As the ratio of wall thickness to wall
height should be between 1: 8 and 1: 12 (the latter requiring good
quality control), rammed earth walls can be as thin as 30cm.
However, foreman to stand between the two sides of the form to
compact the soil, a minimum of 40 cm is recommended.
:
 Test to determine optimum sand and clay content

Rammers

· Manual rammers consist of a wooden or steel rod with a heavy

wooden or metal striking head. The heavier it is, the better the
compaction, but the more tiring for the user.

· Pneumatic rammers imitate the manual rammers, but achieve much

higher impact frequencies, thus reducing construction time. The
main drawback is their high cost.

· An alternative is a small vibrating plate, developed at the Kassel

:
 College of Technology. An electric motor with an eccentric rotating
mass transmits vibrations to the plate, thus causing the machine to
move. An automatic switch makes it move back and forth in the
formwork, without manual guidance.

FIGURE

Construction

· A stone, burnt brick or concrete foundation and base course (at

least 30 cm above ground level and exactly as wide as the earth wall)
are required to start with. The top surface must be horizontal
(requiring steps on sloping sites) and should never project beyond
:
 the external face of the Barth wall. A damp proof course between the
footing and wall is recommended in moist environments.

· The sides of the formwork should overlap the wall section below by
at least 10 cm to stand firmly. The work should always begin at a
corner.

· The soil is filled in the formwork in layers of not more than 10 cm.
The person who rams the soil stands on it or on the top edges of the
formwork, and strikes the soil systematically, first along the sides and
then in the centre. The operation is completed, when the sound of
each stroke of the rammer changes from a dull to a solid clear sound.
Once the formwork is moved to the next section, the previous
section should be covered with an appropriate material (grass,
leaves, cloth, plastic sheets) for protection against rain, wind or
direct sunshine.

· Care must be taken to stagger the joints between each row (just as
in masonry work) and wall junctions should be made to interlock
connecting walls. Wall anchors and reinforcements (eg at corners)
made of metal scrips or rods, strong twigs, split bamboo or rope, can
be placed in these junctions and building corners during compaction.

Openings

· These should be well planned so that their sides correspond to the

ends of formwork sections, their height is in line with the top of the
last layer, and the ring beam substitutes the lintel. It is also possible
to insert the window and door frames within the formwork and attach
anchors, so that the frames are rigidly fixed to the wall. Small
openings can also be easily cut into the finished wall by means of a
pise saw (a length of barbed wire with handles at each end) used by
two men.
:
 Surface Treatment

It is important for the durability of the wall that broken edges, cracks
and holes are filled and compacted, immediately after removing the
formwork, as the patching material does not bond with partially dried
up walls.

Illustration adapted from Vorhauer, 1979 (Bibl. 22.09)

:
 FIGURE

Compressed soil blocks walls

KEYWORDS:

Special properties Comparable to burnt clay brick walls

Economical aspects Low cost
Stability Good
Skills required Semi-skilled workers
Equipment required Manual block press
Resistance to earthquake Good
Resistance to hurricane Good
Resistance to rain Medium, depends on stabilization
:
 Resistance to insects Medium
Climatic suitability All except very wet climates
Stage of experience Widely used in many countries

SHORT DESCRIPTION:

· A suitable soil, with a good grain size distribution and a clay content
of 10 to 25 %, can be compacted in a slightly moistened state to
produce strong, dimensionally stable blocks.

· In order to increase their durability, a binder and/or waterproofing

agent is added to the soil. Common binders are cement, lime and
bitumen, and their proportions vary according to the quality of soil
(see Earth, Soil, Laterite and Soil Stabilizers).

· The advantages of building with stabilized soil blocks compared

with most other soil construction techniques are:

· higher compressive strength and greater water resistance;

· ability to carry away by hand immediately after production;

· small drying and storage space requirement, as the block can be

stacked immediately or on the day after production;

· easy transportation of dried blocks with low breakage rate;

· possibility of building walls with a higher height to thickness ratio;

· savings in cost, material and energy, as no external rendering is

needed on well stabilized compressed blocks;

· lower cost of production and energy input than for equivalent

volume of burnt clay bricks or concrete blocks, which are
alternatives to stabilized compressed soil blocks.
:
 Soil Selection

· The most appropriate soils for stabilized block production have

sand contents of about 75 %, and minimum clay content of 10 %.
The shaded area in the chart gives the impression that very few soil
types fall within this group, but in reality their availability is almost
universal. It is excavated after removing 10 - 15 cm of the topsoil in
order to exclude organic matter.

· To achieve satisfactory results, however, a series of field tests are

essential. Wherever laboratory facilities are available, they should be
made use of, as field tests are not sufficiently accurate.
:
 FIGURE

Soil Preparation

· Soils are rarely found in the state required for block production. In
most cases, they need to be ground and screened through a 5 mm
wire mesh.

· Mixing should take place close to the block mould and all additives
thoroughly blended in the dry state. Unlike mixing concrete, the
predetermined quantity of water must be sprinkled for even
distribution.
:
 · Each mix must be checked by squeezing a lump in one hand and
allowing it to drop on a hard surface from about 1 metre height. If the
lump remains together, it is too moist; if it disintegrates completely, it
is too dry. The correct moisture content will not moisten the hand,
but will make a firm lump which breaks apart into several smaller
pieces when dropped. When using cement as the binder, only so
much material should be prepared, as can be used up in about 20
minutes.

Making the Blocks

· Compaction of the soil mix in a mould can be done dynamically (ie

sudden impact by tamping) or statically (ie gradual compression).
Static pressure is obtained by blockmaking machines, which has
become the most common method.

· The simplest, but slowest and most tiring method of block

production is by tamping the soil in a mould (usually with hinged or
detachable parts).

· More efficiently, a block press is used, in which the soil mix is

compressed to 60 %, or even 50 %, of its original volume. The
machines are either manually operated or motorized, but the
procedure always involves filling the mould(s), compacting the soil
(sometimes after pre-compaction), demoulding the block and
removal to the drying area (see ANNEX: Machines and Equipment).
On average, a team of 3 people is generally needed to operate the
machine and remove the blocks. They must be assisted by a team of
4 - 6 workers, who excavate and prepare the soil at the same pace
as the blocks are produced.
:
 FIGURE

Drying and Curing

· Unlike traditional unstabilized, hand-moulded mud blocks, which

:
 have to be left to dry where they are made, compressed soil blocks
are carried to a shaded curing area. Weakly compacted blocks are
laid in rows on the ground and stacked a day later, while denser
blocks can be stacked up to 5 layers immediately.

· If bitumen stabilizer is used, drying can be completed within 5 days,

whereas cement requires about 15 days and lime 25 days. With both
cement and lime, the blocks must be kept moist for the first 5 days
by daily sprinkling.

LOK BRIK System (Bibl. 22.04)

· This system, developed by Dr. A. Bruce Etherington of AIT,

Bangkok, is a variation of standard compressed soil block
constructions, by which the walls can be built with great accuracy
and speed, even with unskilled labour.

· The interlocking soil-cement bricks are made in a modified CINVA-

Ram brickmaking machine (see ANNEX), which has two parallel
upward thrust pistons (to ensure more accurate dimensions of the
finished block) and a system of positive and negative frogs (to form
recesses or protruding parts).

· No mortar is needed for laying the bricks, but vertical holes are
provided, into which grout (thin fluid mortar) is poured. Vertical steel
reinforcement can also be inserted wherever necessary, making the
construction earthquake resistant.

· Apart from costs saved in material and labour, the uniformity and
accuracy of construction gives it an appealing finish, so that no
rendering is needed and further costs are saved.
:
 FIGURE

Bamboo reinforced earth walls

KEYWORDS:

Special properties High earthquake resistance

Economical aspects Low cost
Stability Good
Skills required Traditional earth construction skills
Equipment required Bamboo cutting tools, formwork, tamper
Resistance to earthquake Good
Resistance to hurricane Good
Resistance to rain Low
:
 Resistance to insects Low
Climatic suitability All except very humid climates
Stage of experience Experimental and traditional techniques

SHORT DESCRIPTION:

· Rammed earth walls generally have low earthquake resistance, but

with bamboo reinforcements this problem can be overcome.

· The examples on the following pages (taken from Bibl. 22.09) show
traditional methods, generally known as wattle and daub (or
"bajareque" in Latinamerica), and an innovative construction
developed by Prof. Gernot Minke of Kassel College of Technology
(Federal Republic of Germany) and implemented in a village in
Guatemala (in cooperation with the University Francisco Marroquin
and CEMAT, Guatemala).

· The traditional examples can also be built with low quality timbers,
but bamboo provides straight components (for uniform
constructions) and higher tensile strengths.

· The example from Guatemala combines the advantages of rammed

earth construction (high density walls) and tensile strength of
bamboo. The walls comprise a number of independent vertical
sections, which are held together at the top by a bamboo ring beam.
During an earthquake each section can respond to seismic forces
individually, thus avoiding differential stresses within the whole wall,
which can subsequently collapse. The roof rests on timber supports
which are structurally separated from the walls, so that any wall
movements will not cause to roof to collapse.

· Treatment of the bamboo is essential to avoid biological

destruction.
:
 FIGURE
:
 FIGURE
:
 FIGURE

Experimental low-cost earthquake resistant house in Guatemala (top:

Bibl. 22.09; bottom: Bibl. 22.05)

Burnt clay brick walls

KEYWORDS:

Special properties Improved method of bricklaying

:
 Economical aspects Medium costs
Stability Very good
Skills required Masonry skills
Equipment required Simple frames and string holders
Resistance to earthquake Good
Resistance to hurricane Very good
Resistance to rain Very good
Resistance to insects Very good
Climatic stability All climates
Stage of experience Increasing applications in India

SHORT DESCRIPTION:

· This example, developed at the CBRI, Roorkee, India, shows how

simple devices and a well organized work place can not only
increase the speed of construction (field trials resulted in a 30
percent increase), but also greatly improve the accuracy and quality
of brickwork. All that is needed is a set of end-frames for different
wall thicknesses and heights, string holders that can be used with
any straight, vertical member, of rectangular cross-section (eg
concrete columns), boards to hold the mortar, a few accessories,
and a well worked out plan of action.

· The mortar used for laying the bricks and for plastering must satisfy
a number of requirements: it must be easy to spread, remain plastic
as long as it is being applied, but then harden rapidly to resist
deformation.

· Mortars basically consist of sand and a suitable binder, in most

cases ordinary portland cement, in proportions varying from 1: 3 to 1:
12 (cement: sand), depending on the strengths required. However,
the use of OPC alone makes a harsh mortar, which achieves
:
 undesirably high strengths. Hence it is advisable to add lime, which
makes a more workable mortar, prevents cracking and achieves
strengths that correspond to those of the bricks.

· The high costs of OPC can be reduced by replacing 30 % of it by a

suitable pozzolana (see section on Pozzolanas). Further information:
Bibl. 22.03.

Bricklaying With Higher Efficiency

:
 FIGURE

· With a few end-frames (as illustrated) the usual, time- consuming

process of plumbing and stringing the wall is avoided. Each end-
frame consists of two wooden planks held at right angles by a
welded steel frame. The widths of the boards correspond to the wall
thickness, ie half, one, or one and a half brick length.
:
 · Simple L-shaped wooden string holders, which are held in place by
the tension of the string, are slid along the edge of the frame as
required. Accurate marks on the frame, corresponding to the height
of the brick plus mortar joint, eliminate the need for measurements at
each layer.

· Higher efficiency is also achieved by improving the layout of the

work place. The principal idea is to place stacks of bricks and mortar
boards in alternate succession parallel to the wall under
construction, at a distance of 50 - 60 cm for the mason to move
along. The bricks are placed on edge for the bricklayer to grip easily.
The mortar is placed on the boards, substituting the traditional metal
pans, which the masons normally hold in one hand. Bricks and
mortar are continuously supplied from the other side by helpers.

· The mortar is picked up on a trowel and unloaded on the wall while

moving along it for a distance of about 1 m. Then 8 - 10 bricks are
placed in line with the string, each time filling the vertical joints with
mortar. The procedure is then repeated for the next metre and so on.
For each new layer the string holders are just pushed up to the next
mark.

· The string holders can also be used independently for filler brick
walls in framed buildings by fixing them directly on the reinforced
columns. The method is equally applicable for work on scaffolding.

Concrete hollow block walls

KEYWORDS:

Special properties Strong, light walls; rapid construction

Economical aspects Medium to high costs
Stability Very good
:
 Skills required Masonry skills
Equipment required Blockmaking equipment, masonry tools
Resistance to earthquake Very good
Resistance to hurricane Very good
Resistance to rain Very good
Resistance to insects Very good
Climatic stability All climates
Stage of experience Widely used method

SHORT DESCRIPTION:

· The use of concrete hollow blocks has several advantages:

· they can be made much larger than solid bricks, and if lightweight
aggregate is used, can be very light, without forfeiting much of their
load-bearing capacity;

· they can be made to any shape and size, and remain dimensionally
stable;

· they require far less mortar than solid bricks (because of the
cavities and less proportion of joints, due to the large size), and
construction of walls is easier and quicker;

· the cavities can be filled with reinforcement and concrete, achieving

high earthquake resistance;

· the air-space provides good thermal insulation, which is of

advantage in highland and cooler regions (alternatively, the cavities
can be filled with thermal insulation material);

· the cavities can also be used as ducts for electrical installation and
plumbing.
:
 · The concrete hollow blocks can be made in simple hand moulds
and vibrator (for production on the building site) or in expensive,
stationary or "egg-laying" machines (for mass production). Further
information: Bibl. 22.07, 22.08.

Standard Hollow Blocks

FIGURE

· Concrete hollow blocks generally have two cavities and the length
is twice the width plus l cm (thickness of joint).

· In order to be able to divide the block into two identical halves, a

narrow cavity in the centre is needed. Division of blocks is done with
a few knocks along the centre line with the edge of a hammer.

The Zipbloc System (Bibl. 22.08)

:
 · This system is based on a special type of hollow block (53 x 25 x 14
cm), which can be used for different types of walls, as well as for
ceiling and roof construction.

· For wall constructions, the blocks are assembled vertically with a

little mortar. The gaps between these vertical units are filled with
concrete 1: 3: 6 (1 cement: 3 sand: 6 aggregate). Reinforcing steel is
placed in the vertical cavities and also filled with concrete. In most
cases, it is sufficient to fill only one cavity. Door and window frames
are eliminated, as the shape of the block provides the necessary
jamb for fixing shutters.

· For ceilings and roofs, inverted T-beams of required length are

precast and placed on the walls at 60 cm centres and propped at
mid-span. The concrete hollow blocks are placed to span two beams
(as illustrated). On top of this a welded steel mat is provided (for
temperature stresses) and screed is cast in-situ.

Bamboo walls

KEYWORDS:

Special properties Light, flexible; great variety of

constructions
Economical aspects Low cost
Stability Low to medium
Skills required Traditional bamboo construction skills
Equipment required Tools for cutting and splitting bamboo

Resistance to Good
earthquake
Resistance to hurricane Low
Resistance to rain Low
:
 Resistance to insects Low
Climatic stability Warm humid climates
Stage of experience Traditional

SHORT DESCRIPTION:

· In bamboo-growing regions the climate is generally warm and

humid, requiring construction materials of low thermal storage
capacity and designs which permit good cross-ventilation. Bamboo
constructions ideally satisfy these requirements, which is why they
have long been used for housing in warm humid climates.

· Plain bamboo walls cannot be made air-tight or waterproof, so that

cross-ventilation is a natural feature, providing indoor comfort and
removing moisture.

· The flexibility and high tensile strength makes bamboo walls highly
earthquake resistant, and in case of collapse, their low weight
causes less damage to people and property; reconstruction is
relatively quick and easy.

· Special skills are required to handle bamboo, but these are

traditionally available in most bamboo-growing regions.

· The main drawbacks are the relatively low durability (due to

biological hazards), the low resistance to hurricanes and fire,
therefore protective measures are essential (see section on
PROTECTIVE MEASURES).

Further information: Bibl. 13.02, 13.04, 13.05, 13.09, 13.10, 13.12.

:
 Examples of Traditional Bamboo Wall Construction (Bibl. 13.02):
Halved bamboo culms arranged vertically like Spanish roof tiles;
Bamboo boards (split and flattened culms) interwoven with the
frame; Bamboo battens (made from culms split into eight segments)
nailed to a light frame; Panels of woven bamboo strips nailed and/ or
tied to the bamboo frame
:
 Timber panel walls

KEYWORDS:

Special properties Suitable for prefabrication, quick assembly

Economical aspects Medium costs
Stability Good
Skills required Carpentry skills
Equipment required Carpentry tools
Resistance to earthquake Good
Resistance to hurricane Low to medium
Resistance to rain Low to medium
Resistance to insects Low
Climatic stability Warm humid climates
Stage of experience Standard construction

SHORT DESCRIPTION:

· With a well coordinated, modular design, only a few types of wall

panels need to be prefabricated, and the less the number of different
components, the quicker and cheaper is the process of
prefabrication.

· Well seasoned timber should be used in order to prevent moisture

movements and distortions which could make assembly difficult and
cause dangerous stresses in the course of time.

· Protective measures against biological agents, hurricanes and fire

are essential (see section on PROTECTIVE MEASURES).

· The illustrations on the next three pages are taken from the
excellently illustrated UNIDO Manual on Wooden House
:
 Construction, which was prepared by the Instituto de Pesquisas
Tecnologicas (IPI), Sao Paulo, Brazil, for a self-help community
building project at Coroados, Manaus, under a contract with the
Housing Society for the Amazon State (SHAM).

Further information: Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnologicas (IPI) do

Estado de Sao Paulo, S.A., P.O. Box 7141, 05508 Sao Paulo, Brazil;
Bibl. 14.22.
:
 FIGURE
:
 FIGURE
:
 FIGURE

Sulphur concrete walls

:
 KEYWORDS:

Special properties Cheaper alternative to cement concrete

walls
Economical aspects Low to medium costs
Stability Very good
Skills required Experience in use of sulphur
Equipment required Concrete mixer with heater
Resistance to Very good
earthquake
Resistance to hurricane Very good
Resistance to rain Very good
Resistance to insects Very good
Climatic stability All climates
Stage of experience Experimental

SHORT DESCRIPTION:

· The ingredients of sulphur concrete are elemental sulphur, send

end a plasticizer. Sulphur concrete remains unaffected by impurities,
such as salts, which are harmful to reinforced cement concrete.

· The most appropriate use of sulphur concrete for walls is to make

hollow blocks, especially interlocking blocks, which can be
assembled with great speed and accuracy.

· Block production requires some skill and experience in the use of

sulphur, as the molten sulphur hardens quickly. Because of the short
curing time, only few moulds are required. Any broken blocks can be
remelted and recycled.

· The illustrations overleaf show a practical example of interlocking

sulphur concrete block walls in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. The
:
 blocks were based on the LOK BLOK system developed by Professor
Bruce Etherington (see LOK BILD System) and adapted to sulphur
concrete by Bernard Lefebvre.

Further information: Alvaro Ortega, Research Consultant, 3460 Peel

Street, Apt. 811, Montreal P.Q., Canada; Bibl. 18.06, 18.07.

Sulphur Concrete Block Walls in Dubai, United Arab Emirates

(Photos: A. Ortega)

· The interlocking blocks are quickly assembled without mortar.

· The smooth, non-absorbing marble-like surfaces eliminate the

need for plastering or painting, and can easily be cleaned by washing
with plain water.

· Depending on the aggregates, different coloured blocks can be

made, producing attractive wall surfaces.

Walls from agro-waste

KEYWORDS:

Special properties Promising use of local waste materials

Economical aspects Low cost
Stability Good
Skills required Average construction skills
Equipment required Wooden hand mould, masonry equipment
Resistance to earthquake Good
Resistance to hurricane Good
Resistance to rain Depends on stabilization
Resistance to insects Medium
Climatic stability All except very wet climates
:
 Stage of experience Experimental

SHORT DESCRIPTION:

· The system described here, developed at the Forest Products

Research and Development Institute, Philippines, uses hollow soil-
cement blocks, which contain a certain amount of beach sand and
agricultural wastes, such as rice husks, sawdust, wood chips and
coconuttrunk particles.

· The blocks (10 x 20 x 40 cm with 3 rectangular holes) are made in

wooden hand moulds. The raw mixture, with a moisture content
similar to that for common soil cement blocks, is filled into the mould,
tamped and levelled, after which the blocks can be demoulded and
placed on their narrow sides for moist curing (about 10 days).

· Wall construction is the same as for concrete hollow blocks, and

extremely rigid constructions are achieved by filling the cavities with
steel reinforcement and concrete.

Further information: Forest Products Research and Development

Institute, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines; Bibl. 19.11.
:
 The hand mould and finished hollow block; Construction and
reinforcement of hollow block walls
: