Module 4. Diss

MODULE 4
JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

BASIC EDUCATION DEPARTMENT-SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL 1
DISCIPLINES AND IDEAS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES
INTRODUCTION
Discipline and Ideas in the Social Sciences is a worktext that spouses an innovative approach to learning
by coming up with inquiry-based and activity-supported lessons in social science for Senior High School
students. By balancing ample textual content and student-centered reflections, the aim of this module is to
introduce the students to various modes of thinking, intellectual traditions, and historical contexts in the study
of society. The format for the entire module is designed to sharpen the students’ analytical thinking about
humanity as a whole and the society in which they belong. A healthy mix of examples about and applications
on local experiences, as well as realities from foreign context, should keep the lessons sensitive to the realities
of its primary readers (the Filipino youth) as well as connected to the currents of global community.
This module combines academic text with activities designed for Senior High School students who shall
carry them out both individually and as part of a group. As this module is designed mainly to introduce the
students to the approaches, ideas, and perspectives of the Social Sciences, the focus is not on mere listing of
every social philosopher or thinker but on the context of how ideas about society were created and shaped in
various situations and periods, as well as on the application of those broad ideas in concrete real-life situations.
At the end of this subject, you are expected to:

 Define the Social Sciences as the study of society.
 Demonstrate an understanding of the disciplines within the Social Sciences.
 Interpret personal and social experiences using relevant approaches in the Social Sciences.

Table of Contents
Introduction
Table of Contents
Post-Test (Module 3)
Module 4 :Dominant Approaches and Ideas (Part 1)
Introduction --------------------------------------------------------------------1
Description of the Module ----------------------------------------------------2
Objectives ------------------------------------------------------------------------2
Pre-Test---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3-4
Activity 1.1---------------------------------------------------------------------------------5
Discussion: Lesson 1: Structural Functionalism------------------------------------6
Self-Check 1.1 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17-19
Discussion: Lesson 2: Marxism---------------------------------------------------------19
Self-Check 1.2 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26-27
Discussion: Lesson 3: Symbolic Interactionism------------------------------------28
Self-Check 1.3 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30-32
Activity 1.2--------------------------------------------------------------------------------32-34
Points to Remember --------------------------------------------------------------------35
References --------------------------------------------------------------------------------36

POST-TEST (Module 3)
Directions: Read and analyze the following statements. Choose the correct word that is being described. Write the
correct letter that corresponds to your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. It is a tiny political entity, which for the Greeks meant both society and political system.
a. Politics
b. Democracy
c. Monarchy
2. An English philosopher who also witnessed the turmoil of an English civil war-Revolution.
The Glorious.
a. John Locke
b. Thomas Hobbes
c. Aristotle
3. It has influenced world finance at many important junctions throughout history and is a vital part of everyday
lives.
a. Anthropology
b. Economics
c. Politics
4. He was inspired by French writers, who shared his hatred of mercantilism.
a. Adam Smith
b. Aristotle
c. Confucius
5. He was a historian from North America that have greatly influenced the study in the Arabic-spelling world.
a. Confucius
b. Marcus Tullius’ Cicero
c. Ibn Khaldum
6. A single world government.
a. Democracy
b. Monarchy
c. Rebuplican
7. It introduced secularization by elevating the state over the church as the originator of law.
a. Treatise

b. Polis
c. Defensor Pacis
8. It is a way to understand the social world base on scientific facts.
a. Political revolutions
b. Religion
c. Positivism to sociology
9. It is a very important aspect of sociology because it is also interested in changes in human populations.
a. Anthropology
b. Demography
c. Economics
10. He founded the first exclusive psychology laboratory in 1879.
a. Adam Smith
b. Plato
c. Wilhelm Wudnt
II. Directions: Read and analyze the following statements. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and write FALSE if
the statement is incorrect. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Anthropology is the science that concerns itself with how societies produce goods and services.
2. Marcus Tillius’ Cicero (106-45BC), was strongly influenced by stoics.
3. Aristotle introduced empirical observation into the study of politics.
4. Confucius advocated the rights of men and women.
5. The government programs sweeping, Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries led to a focus on social change
and the establishment of social order that still concerns sociologists today.
6. Karl Marx is the father of sociology
7. Sociology has grown into a diverse and dynamic discipline, experiencing a proliferation of specialty areas.
8. Auguste Comte is the Father of Economics.
9. The American Sociological Associations (ASA) was formed in 1905 with 115 members.
10. Psychology has a long past, but a short history.

III. Directions: Identify the word being described by the statements below. Choose your answer inside the box. Write
your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
Defensor Pacis The social contract The Prince
Montesquieu The spirit of laws
Sixfold typology Two Treaties on Civil Government.
1. A treatise originally dedicated to Florence’s ruler.

2. It has introduced secularization by elevating the state over the church as the originator of laws.
3. It is a political system having the number of people ruling (one, few, or many) and by whether the form was
legitimate or corrupts.
4. It constructs a civil society in which the separate wills of individuals are combined to govern as the “general
will” of the collective that overrides individual wills, forcing a man to be free.
5. He contributed to modern comparative politics with his “ The Spirit of Laws”.

Module 3: Dominant Approaches and
Ideas (Part 1)
Introduction
The social sciences are not only composed of disciplines that showcase how it views and studies every facet of
society. The disciplines prove how social science is applicable and practical, meaning that the social sciences are things
that you can use every day to understand reality much better. Without the disciplines, the social sciences would not
exist at all. But the social sciences also have theoretical foundations and ideological thrusts. That is why apart from the
disciplines, the social sciences have what we call the dominant approaches and ideas that are present within the different
disciplines. These are the roots of a discipline, or better yet, the very inspiration of the different social sciences. A
particular approach or ideology has the capacity to influence all of the disciplines, for the theory that each ideology
provides encompasses all of the disciplines and affects them in many ways. This module shall discuss different dominant
approaches and ideas that are present in today’s society, and how each of these approaches and ideas play a role in the
character and everyday living of society.

Description of Module
This module discusses key concepts and approaches in the Social Science. It contains the self-check questions
based on your understanding of the lesson. You are expected to answer every question and activities in this module.
Objectives
At the end of this module, you are expected to:

 Analyze the basic concepts and principles of the major social science theories.
 Identify the different theories of the major social science.
 Explain the different model of structural functionalism.
 Understand what is Marxism is.
 Explain the “ The Looking Glass Self”.
 Differentiate the social sciences approaches.
 Apply the major social theories and its importance in examining socio-cultural, economic, and political
conditions.
General Instructions:
At the start of the module you are to take the pre-test to see how much background information and knowledge
you have about the topics to be discussed.
This module is self-instructional. You can read, analyze concepts and ideas presented, and reflect on them. The activities
and Self-Check Questions will help you assess how you progress as you go through the module.
Your answer on the Self-Check Questions and Activities will be evaluated by your teacher. These will be part of
your formative evaluation.
The post-test will be given in a separate booklet upon completion of this module. It will serve as the summative
evaluation of your performance.
Work on this module independently. Your teacher not be around to supervise you as you go through this module.
It is expected that you will make the most of it.
This module shall be passed on _______________. You can pass your output online through lazaro.cp@pnu.edu.ph
but it will be collected if you can’t access online. This module will be collected upon distribution of the new set of
modules.

Pre -Test
Directions: Read and analyze the following statements. Choose your answer from the given choices below.
Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. It is a theoretical approach to understanding the relationship between humans and society.
a. Structural functionalism
b. Symbolic interactionism
c. Marxism
2. It has obviously changed a lot in the hundred years since Marx’s time.
a. Capitalism
b. Marxism
c. Psychoanalysis
3. It is the final goal, toward which socialist society would constantly build, is the human one of abolishing
alienation.
a. Relativism
b. Marxism
c. Communism
4. It refers to the actual attempt to achieve goals that the system requires.
a. Integration
b. Latency
c. Goal attainment
5. It refers to the search for arrangements that allow the system to cope with the internal environment.
a. Integration
b. Latency
c. Goal attainment
6. It begins to answer the question of order in society.
a. Structural- functionalism theory
c. Marxism
7. It compares the workings of society to a living organism comprised of various functioning organs working
together in unison to keep the organism alive and healthy.
a. Structural- functionalism
c. Latency
8. Its main influence among workers and intellectuals in capitalist countries, especially in Europe, who have
used it as a major tool in defining their problems and constructing political strategies.
a. Marxism
b. Structural- functionalism
c. Symbolic interactionism
9. He developed the social-psychological concept of the looking glass self.
a. Karl Marx
b. Charles Cooley
c. Sigmund Freud
10. He described the self as “taking the role of the other”/ the premise for which the self is actualized.
a. George Herbert Mead
b. Charles Cooley
c. Sigmund Freud

1.1
Directions: Discover the words behind the jumbled letters and give your idea about each word. Write your
answer on a separate sheet of paper. (2pts. each)
1. CTUTRURALS MSILANIOTCNUF
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2. RAMXISM
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3. BOCLIYMS RTEINCIONATMIS
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4. IALSOC GETINRAIONT
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5. NIOTALIENA
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6. LLYCAXIARAPDO
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7. ILASOC INBRA
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8. SERLCHA LYEOOC
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9. NGIKOOL SSGLA SLFE
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10. KLRA MRXA
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LESSON 1:
Structural Fucntionalism
Structural functionalism compares the workings of society to a living organism comprised of various
functioning organs working together in unison to keep the organism alive and healthy. The institutions of society
function in the same manner as the organs of the human body, and each serves a specific function which is required to
maintain the stability of the entire system.
Structural functionalism divides society into functional units such as family, government, education, economy,
religion and science. The members of each functional unit are aware of their specific roles and duties, and they also
share common cultural beliefs and social norms. In this way, the system maintains its stability and reproduces itself
over time through socialization within the family unit and by social control through peer groups and polity. Abrupt or
unexpected social change, however, can severely disrupt the balance between the interconnected institutions and affect
the entire society.
Belief in the theory, of structural functionalism began to decline during the 19605 as more conflict-based social
theories began to gain acceptance. Contributing to the decline of structural functional theory was its inability to take
into account social change, the inequalities among different members of society and the conflicts and contradictions
that occur between various functional units in a modern and complex - society. Conflict-based social theories tend to
view differences 1n values and unequal access to resources as inevitably leading to conflict between societal groups
and institutions.
A little Background and history-The early functionalists were anthropologists (i.e., Levi-Strauss, Radcliff-
Brown, Malinowski, and others). These were seminal thinkers of the middle 18005 who made direct observations of
primitive cultures, theorizing about the organization of these folk in relation to Western society. While these early
academicians were sometimes quite biased in their perceptions of the people who fell under their gaze, their theories
were often quite simple and required only a few assumptions. The point they were making was this: Individual and
group behavior, more often than not, serves a FUNCTION for the larger society. For sociology, many of these functional
anthropological notions were drawn together by Talcott Parsons, a young professor at Harvard University around 1950,
with considerable input from early social philosophers Max Weber, Herbert Spencer, and Emile Durkheim. Parsons’
work was further extended by subsequent sociologists of the time and after. Structural-functional theory became the
paradigm theory in sociology for about twenty years or so, because it saliently defined society as a system with checks
and balances.
1. The unit act implies an actor, someone to emit behavior.
2. A unit act involves an end, or a goal.

3. A unit act occurs in social space, (301153th 0f: -conditi0ns for action that the actor cannot control, and -means for
action that the actor can control. I
4. Norms and values that serve to shape the actor’s choice of means. The demonstrated facts are that as (actors): we are
goal directed. We work within system rules most of the time. We use our own faculties to choose appropriate options
in meeting our needs.
Parsons would say these facts are evidence for faith in the Theory of Social Action. The concept of
Voluntarism in action theory implies a conscious mind, capable of making decisions. We voluntarily choose to conform
to social norms, to choose means that are not radically deviant, and we value goals that everybody else values. Parsons
begins with social structure revealing its consequences. One could begin with the consequences, and explain the logical
development of social structure. It really doesn’t matter all that much.
The concept of Social Integration means that there are no elements of society that are in actual conflict with
each other. If socialization works, each of us values similar ideals, each holds similar goals, each understands the
importance of cooperatively working toward the same ends. The culture provides the basis for meeting social and
personal goals. Culture provides an environment that allows specific socialization patterns to emerge, molding each
personality to relative conformity, allowing specific role performances to occur. Every aspect of society is consistent
with all other parts. On a global level, Structural-Functional theory explains how and why all of the elements in a society
might cooperate with each other to form social progress.
Now an institution is a social invention that meets certain requirements of a society. Institutions are sets of
rules, regulations, norms, and expectations regarding the behaviors of people along cultural guidelines. Every society
needs a way of processing young citizens through childhood and on into adulthood, marriage, childrearing, and so on.
The Institution of the Nuclear Family in our own society _ provides individuals with a set of tried and true
behavioral codes. Follow these rules and you will grow up wanting to marry one day, raise a passel of kids, and
eventually bounce grandchildren on your knee. Each institution partially meets the needs of each of the others. In
exchange for the loyalty and allegiance of family members, the political institution protects us and leads us. In exchange
for our labor, the economy provides us with money and goods. The Political Institution provides law and order,
protection from harm, standards of health 8: welfare. In return, it asks for loyalty and compliance. The Economic
Institution provides wages in exchange for labor, goods' and services in exchange for currency, and provides a higher
standard of living through cooperative Competition. The Religious Institution provides moral standards for behavior,
approval as a worthy person, compassion when we are troubled, allows the group to enjoy our triumphs. It asks for our
acceptance of its ”truths”, conformity to its standards, and a little currency to keep it running: The Community
Institution provides, through education, the knowledge necessary to perform in the economic arena, converts little
humans into citizens in exchange for tax monies, and support. The Family Institution, of which ours is the Nuclear
Family, provides an orderly process of mating and procreation, regulates sexuality, offers methods for 'protection of
individuals during mating and maturation, suggests strongly that mates be confidants and share each other’s troubles
and successes. Each institution works to benefit itself and the other four.
Parson’s Structural -Functional Model of Society-Institutional Interaction

Polity
Leadership/Protection Loyalty/Compliance
Leadership/Protection
Morality/Comfort Teaching/Accumulation
Religion Family Education

Faith/Conformity Socilaized children
Teaching/Accumulation
Goods Labor/Company
Functional Requirements of Society
There are certain functional requirements that must be satisfied if a society to survive. Within any society there
are'functional subsystems (institutions) tl meet those requirements. Each institution is similarly structured to provide
for tl requirements of all the others. Individuals are socialized to wants and needs that a1 socially appropriate. Balance
of power between institutions is always maintained, an if social needs are met, individual needs are also met. Therefore,
each part of a societj is interdependent with all the others. Every individual, if properly socialized, 1‘s ar integrated
functionary of the larger society. It is a very tidy picture of cooperative social life.
Structural-functional theory begins to answer the question of order in society. The Hobbesian Question is”in
a society where competition between individuals is paramount, how is order possible?” The answer is that human
beings are social animals that create social forms (i.e., social structure), in order to organize the elements of society.
Let’s take an example from real life.
On October 28th, 1929, life in American society was a hectic and busy model of functionalism. Bakers were
buying sacks of flour and other materials to make the bread that would be bought by families to be eaten that evening.
Clothing manufacturers in the industrial northeast were creating new styles for the coming fashion season from cloth
woven in mills in the southeast. The virgin wools and cottons from which Cloth was woven was purchased from farmers
in the south and west. School children were thinking about having fun at recess, or the hot meal their mothers would
provide after their chores after school. Everybody’s busy everybody has a place in the social order. With few exceptions,
even the poor were included in the social order. In fact, about 80% of the population was poor.
Structural-functionalists focus on such social arrangements and observe the effects. The arrangement (Social
Structure) contains the linkages (roles) between people (Statuses) which enable them (provides functions) to have their
needs met. A structural behavior (role behavior) is functional when it is helpful to the overall integration and adaptation
of individuals to the society’s requirements.
The Institution of the Family
Let’s try another example. In order to propagate the society, there needs to be some reason for the
intermingling of male and female biological juices. However, in order to maintain social order and avoid conflict, society
must control that intermingling so that the resulting propagation can eventually lay claim to the properties and birth
rights of the intermingles. So persons holding. Status A at birth (the ascribed status of female gender) have the world
defined for them in such a way that they learn to deeply desire ”love” from a person of opposite Status B (the ascribed
status of male gender). How does A find B? How will she know he’s the right one? Social structure comes to the rescue.
Avenues of opportunity have been built so that our two lovebirds can, and most likely will, be thrown together.
Once they find each other (they go to the same church, the same school, live in the same or similar
neighborhoods, shop at the same stores, share the same goals), they will enter into quite standardized, albeit exotic to
them,”coupling rituals” (dates) all designed to result in the binding of two extended families into one, to produce
children, and to entrench the intermingles in the routine business of everyday family life.
Suppose A and B' are not suited for 'love’” (they are the same sex, married to others already, have a large age
difference, come from divergence social classes or have conflicting religious training, or wildly different ethnicity). Then,
love will not develop between them because it is not functional to either society or to the individuals concerned. In other
words, there has to exist a preponderance of similarity (homogamy) of social characteristics before love can even be
considered.
In many ways, social structure is oppressive. We marry each other for love, but what has really occurred is that
society has once again forced us to make the only decision that we are allowed to make. Ninety-four percent of all
Americans marry at least once. Almost all who do marry cite love as the reason for their decision. Thus, love is
INTEGRATIVE to individuals in that it helps individuals to solve personal dilemmas. Love is also ADAPTIVE to the
social system in that it allows the system to procure behaviors from its members that are functional Functional for
Institutions and Subsystems such as the Family.
Given that a family is a subsystem of the institution of the family boundaries exist around each institution and
subsystems of it so that functions particular to each can be maintained. Such boundaries are both physical (e.g., marriage
licenses, domestic law, single family dwellings, wedding bands, and so on) and conceptual (e.g., marriage is sacred,
rights of parents to raise children as they see fit, enforcement of informal rules ‘ dealing with marital interaction, roles
of husbands and wives, and so on).
The whole social system consists of as many institutions as are necessary for the social system to continue in
existence. Each institutional boundary is permeable, so that it can receive information from other institutions in a
cooperative manner. Thus, the family interacts with the economy to the mutual satisfaction of both. The political system
interacts with education, education with the economy, and religion with the family, political system and economy.
Patterned Variables of Social Interaction
Structural Functionalism divides all social interaction into two groups. Primary relationships (e.g., the
warm, thoughtful, caring, intimate treatment that lovers might employ) and Secondary relationships (e.g., the
business like, courteous, rule oriented, colder approach that one might encounter at the post office or in registering for
classes at the university). There are only five potential dilemmas that exist in all social situations. These are the
Patterned Variables. Through these, we determine whether others are to be treated as part of the larger society
(secondary relationships), or in terms of more intimate groups (primary relationships). You will also remember that
Theory is a statement of relationships between concepts (variables), that is either descriptive, explanatory, or
predictive. Every scientific theory is not testable until hypotheses are derived and operationalized. Parsons would tell
us that every single social interaction is guided by one side (primary or secondary) of one set of the patterned variables.
The decision to treat an individual as primary or secondary depends on the role relationship that one has with the
person in question. The patterned variables stem from Tonnies’ notion of:
To put the patterned variables into perspective regarding their social implementation, Parsons gives us the
A.G.I.L. model of social organization (Adaptation, Goal Attainment, Integration, and Latency-A G. I. L.). He divides society
up conceptually into matters 0le) Problem Solving and 2) System Maintenance. Take a look at Figure below.
Gesellschaft and Germeinscahft

(small town-primary) (metropolis-secondary)
Role : Appreciative over Cognitive Cognitive over Appreciative
Person: Cathectic over Cognitive Cognitive over Cathectic
Culture: Expressive over Beliefs Beliefs over Expressive symbols
1 Affectivity Affective Neutrality
Emotional relationship non- Rational uses of others for
rational individual goal attainment
2 Collectivily Orientation Self-orientation
Self-goals are other goals Self’s goals are idosyncratic
3 Particularism Universalism
Relationships influence Others treated universally in all
behavior to others situations
4 Qualities (A scribed Performances (Achieved
Attributes) emotional Attributes)
responses relationship Behavior influenced by other’s
factors, age, sex merit, ability, talent
5 Diffuseness Specificity
Multiple role relation Single role relationship
To put the patterned variables into perspective regarding their social implementation, Parson gives us the
A.G.I.L model of social organization (Adaptation, Goal Attainment, Integration, and Latency – A.G.I.L). He divides society
up conceptually into matters of 1.) Problem Solving and 2.) System Maintenance. Take a look figure below.

A.G.I.L Model of Social Organization
Universalism Particularism
over over
Affective Neutrally Affectivity
Adaptation Goal Attainment Performance
-system must cope with -system must over
Specify situational experience achieve goals Specificity
Over
performance
Problem Solving
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
System Maintenance Latency Integration

-renew, maintaim -cooperation
cultural patterns: system must: Diffuses
Qualities -tension management regulate over
over -pattern maintenance interrelations Specificity
Diffuseness
Affective Neutralty Affectivity
Over over
Adaptation and Goal Attainment are part of Problem Solving, while integration and Latency are part of System
Maintenance. Each of the pairs of patterned variables are assigned to one of the squares in the figure. In any social
situation, there are always problems to be solved (needs to be met, uncertain conditions to be waded through, troubles,
strife, accidents, and so on), while simultaneously the social system has to be maintained. Patterned variables are
particular to problem solving and system maintenance. This little model provides us with a description of how the social
system regulates itself and allows for growth and change. Two primary goals of any system are to solve problems and
maintain itself.
Adaptation and Goal Attainment are system functions that solve problems:
Adaptation refers to the search for arrangements (social structures) that allow the system to cope with external
environment and change.
1. Goal Attainment ~ refers to the actual attempt to achieve goals that the system requires. Integration and Latency
are system functions that maintain the system:

2. Integration refers to the search for arrangements that allow the system to cope with internal environment maintains
cooperation between subsystems.
3. Latency refers to two aspects of Maintenance: Pattern maintenance deters deviations, maintains socialization, desire
to conform, and permits some deviance (coffee breaks, taking personal time on the job).
Tension Management houses mechanisms that forestall strain, role segregation, insulation, role priority.
Goal attainment is achieved simultaneously on a daily basis. There is routine maintenance of gear, food
preparation, hourly plotting of the ship’s course. Goals change as situations change. When environmental situations
warrant all hands are required to bend to single-minded tasks, such as replenishment, taking on fuel, moving into battle
positions, and encountering emergencies. The ship is organized so that every task is choreographed to cooperate with
the performance of every other, task. Perfect Integration. In cases where some inefficiencies in integration occur, the
ship provides for tension management movies on the fan tail, free time in the form of liberty, delivery of propaganda
and rituals for reinforcing the goals and maintaining behavior patterns.
The model works well in describing social interaction on any level of observation, from routine family
functioning to large scale societal management of crisis. See if you can make sense out of the model given the following
family conditions: 1) we want a new house, 2) somebody stole my socks, 3) we can’t pay the rent, and 4) we buy a new
computer. I’ll do one for you.
We want a new house! This is a problem to solve. We have attempted to adapt the needs of our growing family
to the small house that we now are buying, but we can see it won’t be big enough in the near future. In Adaptation, we
treat each other equally and politely to avoid conflicts and outbursts. Everyone has to perform precisely and follow all
rules to maintain the family’s sanity through all this. Our goal to buy a new house requires planning and careful, even
tedious, watching of the family budget so that we can save the down payment. Occasionally, we are overcome by the
tedium and someone will joke or laugh at the problem to ease tension (Latency), and we take every opportunity we can
to live a nice life until the new house is possible (Integration). In other words, every change or condition that affects
one aspect of the family, affects all other aspects of the family. One change brings the whole system to [bear on the
problem until it is solved. If the problem cannot be solved it may result in the demise of the family system.
Finally, there is the larger, sweeping model of social integration that ties together the individual personality
and motivation to action, social structure and role performance, with the entire cultural system. It works like this: The
culture provides the basis for all meaning for events and objects in our lives. Culture is the reasoning behind every
behavior we perceive} and it even guides our very perception. To understand our culture is to become enabled to
operate and interact within it to become socialized (definition: personality development and the motivational: system
that causes in us desires, wants and needs). The sets of behavior codes (role performances) that a person accepts as
appropriate behavior are at once avenues for us to have our needs met (goals attained), and ways for society to have its
needs met (social structure). That we would even know that we have space problems' in the house in which we are now
living is possible only because we live in a culture that defines our living arrangements for us. Culture tells us that we
are cramping up. The next model explains how we come to define problems to be solved and how we are able to see the
system that we are attempting to maintain.

Culture provides an umbrella of meaning over both Personality system, and Social Structure:
Culture
Motivational Names, values, symbols, standards, and practices , Social Structure

Personality rules and regulation, application of meaning Role of
Structure Harmonious role relationship Performance
This is the Hierarchical System of Social control
The Concept of Cultural System
Person’s Concept of Social Integration

Personality System Role Performance
Motivational System Cultural System Social Structure
Cognitions Belief System Cognitive Styles
Concept Formation Reality statements Defines option
the concept of love I believe in love who is lovable
“love means never” Love conquers all He’s hot, ava ilable
Adaption of self for ……naked, blue, and howling
goal attain/prob.solving
Cathexis Expressive symbols Appreciative Style

gratification Symbolic/emotional Acceptance of Behavior
Acceptable moves>Goal Attain Gestures Flattery/ Gooeyness
Hearts& flowers “I love you too”
Values-defines goals sentiments
Adaptive means
Evaluation
Integration of Self Standards M oral Style
Into Social Frames Norms, Ends, & Ego Initiative
Love seems to work Means of goal Attainment System Initiative
“Our love is better! Love& marriage, sex One lover at a time
than theirs activity, number of smooches honesty in a relationships.
Beginning with the Cultural System, which provides for us three basic necessities for social living: beliefs,
expressions of those beliefs, and norms to help us realize our beliefs. Using the “love” example one more time, love is
part of our overall belief system. We believe, we have faith, it is a social value we hold that love is a good thing and we
all should have some of it in our lives. Otherwise, why would so many of us want love above anything else we could have
in life? The culture provides us with countless Expressive Symbols to use in consuming and delivering love to ourselves
and others.
For example, what would you think of someone who wrote a love letter every day to his sweetie, and filled each
one with rich language such as, until I met you, I was merely trudging through life without direction. But you came into
my life and suddenly my purpose is so very clear. Honey, I want to make you happy, and care for you, and have you love
me just as much. You are so right for what’s wrong in my life. I will love you forever. I promise. Culture also provides us

with normative structure which defines and limits acceptable behavior surrounding our employ of our belief in love.
People who are in love should marry each other as soon as they can. And marriage should last for as long as possible.
Society wants every single person born into it to have the same belief system, the same expressions of affection,
and to abide by the same norms, rules, and avenues for its expression. To accomplish this, the culture provides for a
socialization process through which Personality is developed, and Motivation for Action is felt. Society is so good at
infusing the same belief system in us all that we sometimes feel as though our emotions are not socially mandated at all
they come from deep within us. Thus, we can fall in love, be swept off our feet, and succumb to the conclusion that our
love is destiny. The transmission of cultural values to individuals begins with well-meaning folk our parents and
attendant others (socialization agents) who will guide us through the first few years of life, all the time throwing
concepts in our path to cognate about.
True personality development begins with Cognition. Concepts are learned one at a time, in repetitions, until
we come to fully understand what they mean. We form the concept of love first by associating the feelings we have at
the time the concept is pointed out. Hugs and kisses are followed by ”I love you”s”, presents for birthdays have a card
signed ”1 love you, honey”, a new litter of puppies is experienced with a parent who says ”She cares so much for her
babies. That’s novel”.
True cognition can only occur with the introduction of language on which to base the concept. Cathexis is the
process by which we receive and give elements of the culture. In the case of love, we attempt to employ the concept by
getting a handle on its use and trying it out (expressive system here, too).
We ourselves must give it a try and see if we are gratified by the results. Here, the Evaluation part of Personality
begins. If we give a kiss to our first love, and he or she responds in a way we desire, then love seems to work. If the
response is not what we wanted, we will alter our approach, modify our actions, until it does work. We learn to love
because we believe we’ll like what it gets for us. This evaluation process is connected to Role Performance. What we are
doing when we initiate social action (such as stealing a kiss from a potential sweetie), is attempting to behave in socially
appropriate ways and still achieve gratification of our needs. Role performance and social structure are the rules by
which we are gratified, and we have to learn them well.
The first rule, for love, is to define exactly who in the population is lovable (Cognitive Style). When we say that
we don’t find short persons attractive, this is individual variation and not social. When we say we don’t find persons
attractive who have no job, or are morally deficient, or have less education than us, or even are the same gender as US,
We are expressing appropriate cognitive style for our culture. Once we isolate our personal pool of eligible, we may
employ expressions in the Appreciative Style by digging up 'our learned principles of romance and going to it. Only one
more thing has to be kept in mind the Moral Style. While society is all for love, it wants us to love only one person at a
time. It has rules about this sort of thing. And if one is unlucky enough to love more than one and is found out,
punishment is imminent.
Criticisms of Structural-Functionalism
With these notions, Parsons attempted to explain how we behave as individuals, and how society uses its vast
power to move us all in similar fashion through life. He is not without his critics. One of the criticisms has to do with
deviance and social injustice. In other words, why is there so much departure from normal, socially appropriate
behavior, and why doesn’t everyone participate equally in the fruits of social life_ Parsons would agree that both charges
are true, and that society is a dynamic and ever changing phenomenon. He met the criticism of deviance by outlining
what society does to prevent it.
Parson’s five lines of defense against deviance are:

1. Rigid socialization -primarily from family.
2. Mechanisms that forestall strain, such as:
a. Segregation by space, time, role partners.
b. Insulation symbolic segregation, such as modes of address (i.e, Dr., Mr., Boss)
c. Status priority role conflicts avoided by social structure some are more important than others.
3. Mechanisms of tension management channel stress into socially acceptable means
a. Compensatory behavior which is scaled from preferred behavior to permitted then tolerated and finally
tabooed ranges from acceptable to unacceptable.
b. Movement to alternative status with less stress.
4. Mechanisms of blockage:
a. Small group increases cost of deviance.
5. Removal of advantage gained by deviance. 5, Removal from 'society for rehabilitation or Death.
Any member of society may opt for unconventional modes of behavior which run against social needs. Not all
of us enjoy rigid socialization. Each of the lines of defense is more stringent and oppressive than the previous one. If
more subtle approaches fail to rehabilitate the deviant, more blatant and forceful ones are used, including removal and
death. As we will see with the next theory to be discussed (Conflict Theory), one of the major difficulties that social
thinkers have with SF theory has to do with the incongruence between the picture drawn by the functionalism and
obvious inequities that are present in real American social life. Functionalists paint a pretty rosy picture of social
cooperation, needs being met with speed and efficiency, and have faith that the best and brightest leadership will rise
to the top of the community milk bottle. One must keep in mind that the social environment in which SF theory was
born was highly conservative in moral, political, and religious terms. Bad things were happening in 1950 (8.3., racism,
poverty, homelessness, substance abuse, child abuse, and so on). This was sure enough, but we were relatively unaware
of them as a culture.
As we approached the mid-196OS, our society had already seen the beginnings of the civil rights movement
and was about to enter yet another age of dissent. This would entail anti-war sentiments which would grow to a fever
pitch, and the resurgence of the feminist movement that would come in the early 1970s.
On strictly theoretical grounds, however, functionalism offered an imprecise set of propositions, too broad for
empirical testing. Its assumptions were considered dangerously close to ideology and dogma. Critics felt the theory too
tightly built to allow an explanation of desperately needed social change to remedy a pathological society. However,
social science’s reaction was not to jettison the entire paradigm of functionalism, only the name Functionalism.
For example, that little story about the businessman and the workman is really an explanation of role
interaction which includes a description of the fundamental structural item for a social system rights & obligations. This
point has become the basis for role theory in psychology, and symbolic-interaction theory in social psychology. The
norm of reciprocity, a key concept to both exchange theory and symbolic-interaction, can be seen early on in the work
of functionalists in their discussion of the interrelatedness of institutions, as. well as individuals. Albeit on a macro-
scale, the reciprocity between institutions such as the family and the economy cannot be denied. Taken in historical
perspective, and placed in the larger picture of events occurring during the twentieth century, functionalism’s statistical
explanatory power was minimal. While professors in classrooms throughout the world were expounding the functional
nature of society, rocks and bottles were zipping through the air as angry students protested the injustices they
perceived. Campus authority was overridden in favor of some other, more important morality. The status quo, which
was the standard of measurement of the 19403 and 19505, became a symbol of all that was wrong with our society.
1.1
I.Directions: Read and analyze the following statements. Write STRUCTURAL if the statement
is correct and FUNCTIONALISM if the statement is incorrect. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper. ( ¼ sheet
of paper)
______________1. Structural functionalism divides society into functional units such as family, government, education,
economy, religion and science.
______________2. The first rule, for love is to define exactly who is the population is lovable (Cognitive Style)
______________3. The norm of reciprocity, a key concept to both exchange theory and symbolic-interaction.
______________4. Culture is the reasoning behind every behavior we perceive, and it even guides our very perception.
______________5. Structural functionalism divides all social interaction into two groups.
______________6. For sociology, many of these functional anthropological notions were drawn together by Talcott Parsons,
a young professor at Harvard University around 1950.
_____________7. The early functionalist were anthropologist.
_____________8. Conflict-based social theories tend to view differences in values and unequal access to resources as
inevitably leading to conflict between societal groups and institutions.
_____________9. Love is also ADAPTIVE to the social systems in that it allows the system to procure behaviors from its
members that are functional.
_____________10. The status quo, which was the standard of measurement of the 1940s and 1950s, became a symbol of all
that was wrong with our society.
II.Directions: Read and analyze the following statements. Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answer
on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Reasons for deviant behavior:

a. Rigid socialization
b. Segregation

c. Status priority
d. All of the above
2. True personality development begins with____________.
a. Cognition
b. Interrelationship
c. Development
d. All of the above
3. It refers to the search for arrangements that allow the system to cope with the internal environment- maintains
cooperation between subsystems.
a. Integration
b. Cultural system
c. Hierarchy of need
d. All of the above
4. In any social situation, there are always (need to be met , uncertain conditions to be waded through, troubles,
strife, accidents, and so on), while simultaneously the social system has to be maintained.
a. Solutions
b. Problems
c. Conflict
d. All of the above
5. The whole system consists of as many institutions as are necessary for the social system, to continue in
existence.
a. System of conscience
b. Government system
c. Cultural system
LESSON 2:
Marxism
A young reporter asked a leading capitalist how he made his fortune. ”It was really quite simple”, the capitalist
answered. I bought an apple for 5 cents, spent the evening polishing it, and sold it the next day for 10 cents. With ' this
I bought two apples, spent the evening polishing them and sold them for 20. And so it went until I amassed 80. It was at
this point that my wife’s father died and left us a million dollars”. Is this true? Is it fair? What does it all mean? There are
no more hotly contested questions in society than why some are rich and others poor and whether things have to be
this way.
Karl Marx sought the answers to these questions by trying to understand how our capitalist society works (for
whom it works better, for whom worse), how it arose out of feudalism and where it is likely to lead. Concentrating on
the social and economic relations in which people earn their livings, Marx saw behind capitalism’s law and order

appearance a struggle of two main classes: the capitalists, who own the productive resources, and the workers or
proletariat, who must work in order to survive. "Marxism” is essentially Marx’s analysis of the complex and developing
relations between these two classes.
Origins
The main theories that make up this analysis-the theory of alienation, the labor theory of value, and the
materialist conception of history-must all be understood with this focus in mind. Even Marx’s vision of socialism
emerges from his study of capitalism, for socialism is the unrealized potential inherent in capitalism itself (something
our great material wealth and advanced forms of organization makes possible) for a more just and democratic society
in which everyone can develop his/ her distinctively human qualities.
Some socialist ideas can be traced as far back as the Bible, but Marxism has its main intellectual origins in
German philosophy, English political economy, and French utopian socialism. It is from the German philosopher, Hegel,
that Marx learned a way of thinking about the world, in all its fluid complexity that is called”dialectics.” The British
political economists, Adam Smith and David Ricardo, provided Marx with a first approximation of his labor theory of
value. From the French utopians, especially Charles Fourier and the Comte de Saint Simon, Marx caught a glimpse of a
happier future that lay beyond capitalism. Along with the paradox of an Industrial Revolution which produced as much
poverty as it did wealth, these are the main ingredients that went into the formation of Marsixm.
Marxist Philosophy
Marx’s study of capitalism was grounded in a philosophy that both dialectal and materialist. With dialects,
changes and interaction are brought into focus and emphasized by being viewed as essential parts of whatever
institutions and processes are undergoing change and interaction. In this way, the system of capitalism, the wider
context, is never lost sight of when studying any event within it, an election or an economic crisis for example; nor are
its real past and future possibilities, the historical context, ever neglected when dealing with how something appears
in the present. Whatever Marx’s subject of the moment, his dialectal approach to it ensures that his fuller subject is
always capitalist society as it developed and is still developed. The actual changes that occur in history are seen here as
the outcome of opposing tendencies, or “contradictions”, which evolved in the ordinary functioning of society. Unlike
Hegel’s dialectic, which operates solely on ideas, Marx’s dialectic is materialist. Marx was primarily concerned with
capitalism with capitalism as lived rather than as thought about, but people live also involve consciousness. Whereas
Hegel examined ideas part from the people who held them, Marx’s materialism puts ideas back into the heads of living
people and treats both as parts of a world that is being forever remade through human activities, particularly in
production. In this interaction social conditions and behavior are found to have a greater affect on the character and
development of people’s ideas than these ideas do on social conditions and behavior.
Alienation
Marx’s specific theories are best understood as answers to his pointed questions about the nature and
development of capitalism. How do the ways in which people earn their living affect their bodies, minds and daily lives?
In the theory of alienation, Marx gives us his answer to this question. Workers in capitalist society do not own the

means-machines, raw materials, factories which they use in their work. These are owned by the capitalists to whom the
workers must sell their ”labor power”, or ability to do work, in return for a wage.
This system of labor displays four relations that lie at the core of Marx’s theory of alienation:
1. The worker is alienated (or cut off) from his or her productive activity, playing no part in deciding what to do or how
to do it. Someone else, the capitalist, also sets the conditions and Speed of work and even decides if the worker is to be
allowed to work or not, i.e. hires and fires him.
2. The worker is alienated from the product of that activity, having no control over what is made or what happens to it,
often not even knowing what happens to it once it has left his hands.
3. The worker is alienated from other human beings, with competition and mutual indifference replacing most forms of
‘cooperation. This applies not only to relation with the capitalists, who use their control over the worker’s activity and
product to further their own profit maximizing interests, but also to relations between individuals inside each class as
everyone tries to survive as best he can.
4. Finally, the worker is alienated from the distinctive potential for creativity and community we all share just because
we are human beings. Through labor which alienates them from their activity, product and other people, workers
gradually lose their ability to develop the finer qualities which belong to them as members of the human species.
The cutting of these relationships in half leaves on one side a seriously diminished individual physically weakened,
mentally confused and mystified, isolated and virtually powerless. On the other side of this separation are the products
and ties with other people, outside the control and lost to the understanding of the worker. Submitted to the
mystification of the marketplace, the worker’ 3 products pass from one hand to another, changing form and names along
the way-"value", ”commodity”, ”capital”, ”interest, rent ”wage”--depending chiefly on who has them and how they are
used. Eventually, these same products-though no longer seen as such-re-enter the worker’s daily life as the landlord’s
house, the grocer’s food, the banker’s loan, the boss’s factory, and the various laws and customs that prescribe his
relations with other people.
Unknowingly, the worker has constructed the necessary conditions for reproducing his own alienation. The
world that the worker has made and lost in alienated labor reappears as someone else's private property which he only
has access to by selling his labor power and engaging in more alienated labor. Though Marx’s main examples of
alienation are drawn from the life of workers, other classes are also alienated to the degree that they share or are
directly affected by these relations, and that includes the capitalists.
Theory of Value
Smith and Ricardo used the labor theory of value to explain the cost of commodities. For them, the value of any
commodity is the result of the amount of labor time that went into its production. Marx took this explanation more or
less for granted. His labor theory of value, however, is primarily concerned with the more basic problem of why goods
have prices of any kind. Only in capitalism does the distribution of what is produced take place through the medium of
markets and prices. In slave society, the slave owner takes by force what his slaves produce, returning to them only
what he wishes. While in feudalism, the lord claims as a feudal right some part of what is produced by his serfs. With
the serfs consuming the rest of their output directly. In both societies, most of what is produced cannot be bought or
sold, and therefore, does not have any price. In accounting for the extraordinary fact that everything produced in
capitalist society has a price, Marx emphasizes the separation of the worker from the means of production (whereas
slaves and serfs are tied to their means of production) and the sale of his or her labor power that this separation makes
necessary. To survive, the workers, who lack all means to produce, must sell their labor power. In selling their labor
power, they give up all claims to the products of their labor. Hence, these products become available for exchange in the
market, indeed are produced with this exchange in mind, while workers are able to consume only that portion of their
products which they can buy back in the market with the wages they are paid for their labor power.
”Value", then, is the most general effect of the worker’s alienated labor on all its products; exchange-which is
embodied in the fact that they all have a price is what these products do and what can be done with them. Rather than
a particular price, value stands for the whole set of conditions which are necessary for a commodity to have any price
at all. It is in this sense that Marx calls value a product of capitalism. The ideal price (”exchange value”) of a commodity
and the ways in which it is meant to he used (”use value”) likewise exhibit in their different ways the distinctive
relationships Marx uncovered between workers and their activities, products and other people in capitalist society.
”Exchange value” reflects a situation where the distinct human quality and variety of work has ceased to count.
Through alienation, the relations between workers has been reduced to the quantity of labor that goes into their
respective products. Only then can these products exchange for each other at a ratio which reflects these quantities. It
is this which explains Smith’s and Ricardo’s finding that the value of a commodity is equal to the amount of labor time
which has gone into its production. While in use value, the physical characteristics of commodities-planned
obsolescence, the attention given to style over durability, the manufacture of individual and family as opposed to larger
group units, etc.-give unmistakable evidence of the isolating and degraded quality of human relations found throughout
capitalist society.
Surplus-value, the third aspect of value, is the difference between the amount of exchange and use value
created by workers and the amount returned to them as wages. The capitalist buys the worker’s labor power, as any
other commodity, and of exchange and use value created by workers and the amount returned to them as wages. The
capitalist buys the worker’s labor power, as any other commodity, and puts it to work for eight or more hours a day.
However, workers can make in, say, five hours products which are the equivalent of their wages. In the remaining three
or more hours an amount of wealth is produced which remains in the hands of the Capitalist. The capitalists’ control
over this surplus is the basis of their power over the workers and the rest of society. Marx’s labor theory of value also
provides a detailed account of the struggle between capitalists and workers over the size of the surplus value, with the
capitalists trying to extend the length of the working day, speed up the pace of work, etc., while the workers organize to
protect themselves. Because of the competition among capitalists, workers are constantly being replaced by machinery,
enabling and requiring capitalists to extract ever greater amounts of surplus value from the workers who remain.
Paradoxically, the amount of surplus value is also the source of capitalism’s greatest weakness. Because only
part of their product is returned to them as wages, the workers cannot buy a large portion of the consumables that they
produce. Under pressure from the constant growth of the total product, the capitalists periodically fail to-find new

markets to take up the slack. This leads to crises of ”overproduction”, capitalism’s classic contradiction, in which people
are forced to live on too little because they produce too much. '
Historical Tendencies
Marx’s materialist conception of history answers the first part of this question with an account of the
transformation of feudalism into capitalism. He stresses the contradictions that arose through the growth of towns,
population, technology and trade, which at a certain point burst asunder the feudal social and political forms in which
production had been organized. Relations of lord to serf based on feudal rights and obligations had become a hindrance
to the further development of these productive forces; over an extended period and after a series of political battles,
they were replaced by the contractual relation of capitalists to workers. With capitalists free to pursue profits wherever
they might take them and workers equally ”free” to sell their labor power to the capitalists however they might use it,
the productive potential inherent in the new forces of production, especially in technology and science, grew to
unmeasured proportions.
However, if maximizing profits leads to rapid growth when rapid growth results in large profits, then growth
is restricted as soon as it becomes unprofitable. The periodic crises which have plagued capitalism from about 1830 on
are clear evidence of this. Since that time, the new forces of production which have come into being in capitalism, their
growth and potential for producing wealth, have come increasingly into contradiction with the capitalist social relations
in which production is organized. The capitalists put the factories, machines, raw materials, and labor power all of which
they own into motion to produce goods only if they feel they can make a profit, no matter what the availability of these
”factors of production”, and no matter what the need of consumers for their products. The cost to society in wealth that
is never produced (and in wealth which is produced but in forms that are anti-social in their
However, if maximizing profits leads to rapid growth when rapid growth results in large profits, then growth
is restricted as soon as it becomes unprofitable. The periodic crises which have plagued capitalism from about 1830 on
are clear evidence of this. Since that time, the new forces of production which have come into being in capitalism, their
growth and potential for producing wealth, have come increasingly into contradiction with the capitalist social relations
in which production is organized. The capitalists put the factories, machines, raw materials, and labor power all of which
they own into motion to produce goods only if they feel they can make a profit, no matter what the availability of these
”factors of production”, and no matter what the need of consumers for their products. The cost to society in wealth that
is never produced (and in wealth which is produced but in forms that are anti-social in their character) continues to
grow and with it the need for another, more efficient, mot. humane way of organizing production.
Within this framework the actual course of history is determined by class struggle. Awarding to Marx, each class is
defined chiefly by its relation to the productive process and has objective interests rooted in that relation. The capitalists’
interests lie in securing their power and expanding profits. Workers, on the other hand, have interests in higher wages, safe
working conditions, shorter hours, job security, and -because it is required to realize other interests- a new distribution of
power. The class struggle involves everything that these two major classes do to promote their incompatible interests at
each other’s expense. In this battle, which rage, throughout society, the capitalists are aided by their wealth, their control
of the state, and their domination over other institutions-schools, media, churches-that guide and distort people’s
thinking. On the workers’ side are their sheer numbers, their experience of cooperation-however alienated -while at
work, trade unions, working class political parties (where they exist), and the contradictions within capitalism that
make present conditions increasingly irrational.
In capitalism, the state is an instrument in the hands of the capitalists that is used to repress dangerous dissent
and to help expand surplus value. This is done mainly by passing and enforcing anti-working class laws and by providing
the capitalists with various economic subsidies (”capitalist welfare”). Marx also views the state as a set of political
structures interlocked with the economic structures of capitalism whose requirements-chiefly for accumulating capital
(means of production used to produce value)-it must satisfy, if the whole system is not to go into a tailspin. And, finally,
the state is an arena for class struggle where class and class factions contend for political advantage in an unfair fight
that finds the capitalists holding all the most powerful weapons. An adequate understanding of the role of the capitalist
state as a complex social relation requires that it be approached from each of these three angles: as an instrument of
the capitalist class, as a structure of political offices and processes, and as an arena of class struggle.
In order to supplement the institutions of force, capitalism has given rise to an ideology, or way of thinking,
which gets people to accept the status quo or, at least, confuses them as to the possibility of replacing it with something
better. For the most part, the ideas and concepts which make up this ideology work by getting people to focus on the
observable aspects of any event or institution, neglecting its history and potential for change as well as the broader
context in which it resides. The result is a collection of partial, static, distorted, one sided notions that reveal only what
the capitalists would like everyone to think. For example, in capitalist ideology, consumers are considered sovereign, as
if consumers actually determine what gets produced through the choices they make in the supermarket; and no effort
is made to analyze how they develop their preferences (history) or who determines the range of available choices (1
arger system). Placing an event in its real historical and social context, which is to. say-studying it ”dialectically,” often
leads (as in the case of "consumer sovereignty”) to conclusions that are the direct opposite of those based on the narrow
observations favored by ideological thinking. As the attempted separation of what cannot be separated without
distortion, capitalist ideology reflects in thought the fractured lives of alienated people, while at the same time making
it increasingly difficult for them to grasp their alienation.
As the contradictions of capitalism become greater, more intense, and less amenable to disguise: neither the
state nor ideology can restrain the mass of the workers, white and blue collar, from recognizing their interests
(becoming”class conscious”) and acting upon them. The overthrow of capitalism, when it comes, Marx believed, would
proceed as quickly and democratically as the nature of capitalist opposition allowed. Out of the revolution would
emerge a socialist society which would fully utilize and develop much further the productive potential inherited from
capitalism. Through democratic planning, production would now be directed to serving social needs instead of
maximizing private profit. The final goal, toward which socialist society would constantly build, is the human one of
abolishing alienation. Marx called the attainment of this goal ”communism”.
Marxism Today
Capitalism has obviously changed a lot in the hundred years since Marx wrote. In the basic relations and
structures which distinguish capitalism from feudalism and socialism, however, it has changed very little, and these are
the main features of capitalism addressed in Marx’s theories. Workers, for example, may earn more money now than
they did in the last century, but so do the 'capitalists. Consequently, the wealth and income gaps between the two classes
is as great or greater than ever. The workers’ relations to their labor, products and capitalists (which are traced in the
theory of alienation and the labor theory of value) are basically unchanged from Marx’s day. Probably the greatest
difference between our capitalism and Marx’s has to do with the more direct involvement of the state in the capitalist
economy (primarily to bolster flagging profits) and, as a consequence of this, the expanded role of ideology to disguise
the increasingly obvious ties between the agencies of the state and the capitalist class.
From its beginnings, Marxism has been under attack from all sides, but the major criticisms have been directed
against claims that Marx never made. For example, some have mistakenly viewed Marx’s materialism as evidence that
he ignored the role of ideas in history and in people’s lives. Viewed as an ”economic determinism”, Marxism has also
been criticized for presenting politics, culture, religion, etc. as simple effects of a one-way economic cause. (This would
be undialectical.) Viewed as a claim that labor is the only factor in determining prices (equated here with ”value”), the
labor theory of value has been wrongly attacked for ignoring the effect of competition on prices. And viewing what are
projections of capitalism’s tendencies into the future as inviolable predictions, Marx has been accused of making false
predictions.
Some, finally, point to the anti-democratic practices of many Communist countries and claim that
authoritarianism is inherent in Marxist doctrine. In fact, Marx’s theories concentrate on advanced industrial capitalism
with its imperfect but still functioning democratic institutions and he never thought that socialism could achieve its full
Promise in relatively poor, politically underdeveloped nations.
Marxism, as defined here, has had its main influence among workers and intellectuals in capitalist countries,
especially in Europe, who have used it as a ma10r tool in defining their problems and constructing political strategies.
In the Western countries, even non-Marxist intellectuals, particularly sociologists and historians, have drawn
considerable insights from Marx’s writings. In the Third World, Marxism-considerably modified to deal with their
special mixture of primitive and advanced capitalist conditions-has clarified the nature of the enemy for many liberation
movements. In the Communist countries, selected doctrines of Marx have been frozen into abstract principles to serve
as the official ideology of the regimes. The influence of these varieties of Marxism is as different as their content.
1.2
I.Directions: Read and analyze the following statements. Choose the letter of the correct
answer. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper. (1/4)
1. The main theories that make up Marxist analysis are

a. theory of alienation
b. labor theory of value
c. materialistic
d. All of the above

2. The worker is alienated from other human beings because of:
a. competition
b. mutual indifference
c. a and b
d. all of the above
3. Marx partner and editor is:
a. Hegel
b. Smith
c. Weber
d. Hobbes
4. These are the changes and interaction brought into focus and emphasized by being viewed as essential parts of
whatever institutions and processes are undergoing change and interaction.
a. dialectics
b. materialism
c. both a and b
d. none of the above
5. Some socialist ideas can be traced as far back as the ___________.
a. dictionary
b. world history
c. bible
d. all of the above
II.Directions: Read and analyze the following statements. Write KARL if the statement is correct and MARX if the
statement is incorrect. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper. ( ¼ sheet of paper)
1. Capitalism came from Feudilism.

2. Marx’s study of capitalism was grounded in a philosophy that is both dialectal.
3. Relations of lord serf based on feudal rights and obligations had become a way for the serf to improve or to the
further development of these productive forces.
4. Over an extended period and after a series of political bottles, these feudal Lord’s and served were replace by
contractual relation of capitalist to workers.
5. Marxism is anti-democratic authoritarianism is inherent in Marxist doctrine.
6. Consumers are considered sovereign, as if consumers actually determine what gets produced through the
choices they make in the supermarket.
7. Marxism has had its main influence among workers and intellectuals in capitalist countries.
8. “Value”, then, is the most general effect of the worker’s alienated labor on all its products.
9. The worker is alienated from the distinctive potential for creativity and community we all share just because
we are human beings.
10. Workers in capitalist society do not own the means- machines, raw materials, factories-which they use in their
work.

LESSON 3:
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical approach to understanding the relationship between humans and
society. The basic: notion of symbolic interactionism is that human action and interaction are understandable only
through the exchange of meaningful communication or symbols. In this approach, humans are portrayed as acting, as
opposed to being acted upon.
The main principles of symbolic interactionism are:
1. Human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings that things have for them.
2. These meanings arise out of social interaction. 3. Social action results from a fitting together of individual lines of
action.
This approach stands in contrast to the strict behaviourism of psychological theories prevalent at the time it
was first formulated (the 19203 and 19305). According to symbolic interactionism, humans are distinct from
infrahuman (lower animals) because infrahuman simply respond to their environment (i.e., a stimulus evokes a
response or stimulus response), whereas humans have the ability to interrupt that process (i.e., stimulus cognition
response). Additionally, infrahumans are unable to conceive of alternative responses to gestures. Humans, however,
can. This understanding should not be taken to indicate that humans never behave in a strict stimulus
response fashion, but rather that humans have the capability of responding in a different way, and do so much
of the time.
This perspective is also rooted in phenomenological thought. According to symbolic interactionism, the
objective world has no reality for humans; only subjectively defined objects have meaning. There is no single
objective”reality”; there are only (possibly multiple, possibly conflicting) interpretations of a situation. Meanings are
not entities that are bestowed on humans and learned by habituation; instead, meanings can be altered through the
creative capabilities of humans, and individuals may influence the many meanings that form their society. Human
society, therefore, is a social product.
The Looking Glass Self
Neurological evidence, based on EEGs, supports the idea that humans have a ”social brain,” meaning, there
are components of the human brain that govern social interaction. These parts of the brain begin developing in early
childhood (the preschool years) and aids humans in understanding how other people think. In symbolic interactionism,
this is known as “reflected appraisals” or “looking glass self”, and refers to our ability to think about how other people
will think us.

In 1902 Charles Horton Cooley developed the social psychological concept of the looking glass self. The term
was first used in his work, Human Nature and the Social Order. There are three main components of the looking glass
self:
Charles Cooley
Cooley developed the idea of the looking glass self.
1. We imagine how we must appear to others;
2. We imagine the judgment of that appearance;
3. We develop our self through the judgments of others.
Cooley clarified this concept in his writings, stating that society is an interweaving and interworking of mental
selves.
In hypothesizing the framework for the looking glass self, Cooley said, ”the mind is mental” because ”the
human mind is social. ” As children, humans begin to define themselves within the context of their socializations. The
child learns that the symbol of his/her crying will elicit a response from his/her parents, not only when they are in need
of necessities, such as food, but also as a symbol to receive their attention.
George Herbert Mead described self as ”taking the role of the other,” the premise for which the self is actualized.
Through interaction with others, we begin to develop an identify about who we are, as well as empathy for others. This
is the notion of,”Do unto others, as you would have them do unto you. ” In respect to this, Cooley said, ”The thing that
moves us to pride or shame is not the mere mechanical reflection of ourselves, but an imputed sentiment, the imagined
effect of this reflection upon another’s mind. ”
It should be noted that symbolic interactionist advocate a particular methodology. Because they see meaning
as the fundamental component of the interaction of human and society, studying human and social interaction requires
an understanding of that meaning. Symbolic interactionist tend to employ more qualitative, rather than quantitative,
methods in their research.
The most significant limitation of the symbolic interactionist perspective relates to its primary contribution: it
overlooks macro-social structures (e.g., norms, culture) as a result of focusing on micro-level interactions. Some
symbolic interactionist, however, would counter that the incorporation of role theory into symbolic interactionism
addresses this criticism.
The Looking Glass Self
1.3
I. Directions: Based on the Looking Glass Self write G if the situation is how the person appears to others, B if the person
imagines how he appears to others, and N if the person develops himself through the judgement of others.
1. I look beautiful today.
2. I think I look beautiful today.
3. I became a doctor because my Mom told me.
4. My mother looks beautiful today.
5. My mother wore a hat; she likes to think she’s an English woman.
6. My brother became a doctor because his friend told him it was what he should be doing.
7. I went out in a very short dress because I think I look sexy.
8. Janna thought she’s very good student when in fact her grades are all 3 except Math.
9. Lorraine feels like she’s a very getting courted by Rico when in fact Rico said they’re already going steady since
September 917.
10. Marjorie said her hair is too long and would like to cut it but her Mom doesn’t like it.
11. Leyah became a teacher because her sister told her it was what she should be.
12. My brother looks handsome today.
13. I cut my hair short because I think its good for me.
14. Heyle wore eyeglasses; she think she’s a genius.
15. Joey thought he’s athletic when in fact he can’t even play even basketball.
II. Directions: Read and analyze the following statements. Choose your answer from the given choices below. Write
your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Neurological evidence based on EEGs supports the idea that humans have a “ ______ brain”.
a. Social
b. Biological
c. Anthropological
d. Nine of the above
2. It described the self as “ taking the role of the other,” the premise for which the self is actualized.
a. Mead
b. Cooley
c. Marx
d. None of the above
3. The most significant limitation of the symbolic interactionist perspective relates to its primary contribution: it
overlooks macro-social structures as a result of focusing on micro-level interaction.
a. True
b. False
c. Maybe
d. I don’t know
4. The year of Charles Cooley developed the social psychological concept of the looking glass self.
a. 1901
b. 1902
c. 1903
d. 1906
5. There are components of the human brain that govern social interaction.
a. Social psychology
b. Social brain
c. Social interaction
d. All of the above

1.2
I. Directions: Elaborate the following model of structural functionalism in 5-10 sentences. Do not copy the illustrations,
write only your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. A.G.I.L Model of Social Organization
A.G.I.L Model of Social Organization

over over
Affective Neutrally Affectivity
Adaptation Goal Attainment Performance
-system must cope with -system must over
Specify situational experience achieve goals Specificity
Over
performance
Problem Solving
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
System Maintenance Latency Integration

-renew, maintaim -cooperation
cultural patterns: system must: Diffuses
Qualities -tension management regulate over
over -pattern maintenance interrelations Specificity
Diffuseness
Affective Neutralty Affectivity
Over over
2. Parson’s Structural -Functional Model of Society-Institutional Interaction
Polity
Leadership/Protection Loyalty/Compliance
Leadership/Protection
Morality/Comfort Teaching/Accumulation
Religion Family Education

Faith/Conformity Socilaized children
Teaching/Accumulation
Goods Labor/Company

II. Directions: Expand the “Looking Glass Self Theory” by answering the following questions. Write your answer on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. How does my mom see me?
2. How does my dad see me?
3. How does my older sister see me? (if you don’t have an older sister skip this question)
4. How does my older brother see me? (if you don’t have an older brother skip this question)
5. How does my younger sister see me? (if you don’t have a younger sister skip this question)
6. How does my younger brother see me? (if you don’t have a younger brother skip this question)
III. Directions: Create a Venn diagram stating the similarities and differences of the following approaches. Write your
answer on a separate sheet of paper. (1 whole sheet)
1.
Structural Functionalism Marxism
2.
Structural Functionalism Symbolic Interactionism

III. Directions: Give a certain scenario that shows the application of the following social science theories in a certain
field. Write your answer on separate sheet of paper.
1. Structural functionalism – socio-cultural
2. Marxism –economic
3. Symbolic interaction – political conditions

POINTS TO REMEMBER
 Structural functionalism compares the workings of society to a living organism comprised of

various functioning organs working together in unison to keep the organism alive and healthy.
 Workers in capitalist society do not own the means-machines, raw materials, factories which they
use in their work. These are owned by the capitalists to whom the workers must sell their ”labor
power”, or ability to do work, in return for a wage.
 Charles Horton Cooley developed the social psychological concept of the looking glass self.
 Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical approach to understanding the relationship between
humans and society.
 The most significant limitation of the symbolic interactionist perspective relates to its primary
contribution: it overlooks macro-social structures (e.g., norms, culture) as a result of focusing on
micro-level interactions.
 It should be noted that symbolic interactionist advocate a particular methodology. Because they
see meaning as the fundamental component of the interaction of human and society, studying
human and social interaction requires an understanding of that meaning
 Marxism has been under attack from all sides, but the major criticisms have been directed against
claims that Marx never made.
 Paradoxically, the amount of surplus value is also the source of capitalism’s greatest weakness.
 Surplus-value, the third aspect of value, is the difference between the amount of exchange and use
value created by workers and the amount returned to them as wages.
 Marx’s specific theories are best understood as answers to his pointed questions about the nature
and development of capitalism.

Books
Siquette, Cherille V. MAT, Discipline and Ideas in the Social Sciences for Senior High School. Rm.108 Intrmuros
Corporate Plaza Building Recoletos Street, Intramuros Manila, Mindshapers Co., Inc.pg61-93
Tatel, Carlos Pena Jr. Disciplines and Ideas in the Social Sciences. First Edition 865 Nicanor Reyes, Sr. St, Sampaloc,
Manila. Rex Book Store.2016 .
Prepared by: Checked by:
CHRISTIAN P. LAZARO, LPT MARILOU C. MENDOZA, LPT

Subject Teacher SHS Module Consultant
AIMIE O. ALCANTARA, LPT

SHS Head Teacher
Recommending Approval: Approved by:
NERISSA S. DELOS REYES, MAEd, SMRIEdr Dr. RAMON E. WOO, Jr., CPA, DFRIEdr
VP, Basic Education Principal Dean of Studies
Noted by:
Dr. ROSALINA S. ANDAYA, Ed. D., DFRIEdr.

President


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MODULE 4

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

At the end of this subject, you are expected to:

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

Defensor Pacis The social contract The Prince

Montesquieu The spirit of laws

Sixfold typology Two Treaties on Civil Government.

1. A treatise originally dedicated to Florence’s ruler.

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

1. The unit act implies an actor, someone to emit behavior.

2. A unit act involves an end, or a goal.

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

Parson’s Structural -Functional Model of Society-Institutional Interaction

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

Religion Family Education

Functional Requirements of Society

The Institution of the Family

Patterned Variables of Social Interaction

Gesellschaft and Germeinscahft

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

System Maintenance Latency Integration

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

Motivational Names, values, symbols, standards, and practices , Social Structure

This is the Hierarchical System of Social control

The Concept of Cultural System

Person’s Concept of Social Integration

Cathexis Expressive symbols Appreciative Style

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

Parson’s five lines of defense against deviance are:

_____________7. The early functionalist were anthropologist.

1. Reasons for deviant behavior:

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

1. The main theories that make up Marxist analysis are

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

1. Capitalism came from Feudilism.

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

The main principles of symbolic interactionism are:

The Looking Glass Self

JOHN PAUL COLLEGE CORPORATION

Cooley developed the idea of the looking glass self.

1. We imagine how we must appear to others;

2. We imagine the judgment of that appearance;

3. We develop our self through the judgments of others.

The Looking Glass Self

1. I look beautiful today.

2. I think I look beautiful today.

3. I became a doctor because my Mom told me.