SEMICONDUCTOR

todoctiHon bes Semi conducton

Classification of solids on the basis of their electrical The
properties. On the basis of their relative values of A. Intrinsic semiconductors. pure semi-
conductors (impurity less than 1 part in 10") are called
electrical conductivity (o) or resistivity (p =1/o), we intrinsic semiconductors. The presence of the mobile
can broadly classify solids into three categories charge carriers (electrons and holes) is an intrinsic
A. Metals. They have very low resistivity or high property of the material and these charges are obtained
conductivity. as a result of thermal excitation.
p 10-10 Qm
d 10-10 Sm1
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B. Insulators. They have high resistivity or low
conductivity. B. Extrinsic semiconductors. The semicomductors
P 10 Qm obtained by adding or doping the pure semiconductor with
G 1 0 Sm small amounts of certain specific impurity atoms having
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valency different from that of the host atoms are called extrinsic
C. Semiconductors. They possess resistivity orcon- semiconductors. Doping drastically changes the number
ductivity intermediate to metals and insulators. density of mobile electrons and holes. The electrical
conductivity of such semiconductors is essentially due
p 10-10°Am
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to the foreign atoms i.e., extrinsic in nature.
a 10-10 Sm
In this chapter we are mainly concerned with
semiconductors. Some of their distinguishing features
|Conduchvity in 9tninsic Scmiconductor
are as follows
1. Semiconductors have a much higher resistivity
Consider the crystal of semiconductor Ge or Si. Each
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Ge atom has four valence electrons which it shares
than metals.
with the four nearest neighbouring atoms to form four
2. Semiconductors have a temperature coefficient of covalent bonds. Thus each Ge atom is
bonded to four neighbouring Ge atoms
resistivity (a) that is both negative and high. That
is the resistivity of semiconductors decreases rapidly As the temperature increases, the thermal energy of
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with temperature the valence electrons increases.
3. Semiconductors have a considerable lower an electron may break away from the covalent bond
and becomes free to conduct electricity. This electron
number density n of charge carriers (charge
leaves behind a vacancy in the covalent bond (at site 1).
carriers per unit volume) than metals. This vacancy of an electron with an effective positive
electronic charge is called a hole.
Classification of semiconductors on the basis of
their chemical composition. Thisscheme divides semi-
conductors broadly into elemental and compound
semiconductors. *

A. Elemental semiconductors: Si and Ge.

B. Compound semiconductors: Examples are :

() Inorganic: CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP, etc.

(ii) Organic polymers Polypyrrole, polyaniline,

polythiophene, etc.
 Thermally generated Two types of dopants. There are two types of
free electron dopants used in doping the tetravalent Si or Ge:
(Pentavalent dopants. They have 5 valence
electrons. For example, arsenic (As), antimony
Hole at -
(Sb) and phosphorous (P).
site 1 (in Trivalent dopants. They have 3 valence
(electron electrons. For example, indium (ln), boron (B)
Cancy)
and aluminium (A).
Site
On doping Si or Ge with pentavalent and trivalent
ite impurity atoms, we get two entirely different types of
semiconductors, called n-type and p-type semicon-
ductors respectively

Extninsic Semicmdocton
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Fig. 14.2 Generation of a hole at site 1 and liberation of a free
electron due to thermal energy at moderate temperature.
Extrinsic semiconductors. A semiconductor doped
with some suitable impurity atoms so as to increase its number
As each free electron creates one hole, so in an
of charge carriers is called an extrinsic semiconductor.
intrinsic semiconductor, the number density of free
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electrons (n,) is equal to the number density of holes Extrinsic semiconductors are of tuo types:
(n,) and each is equal to the intrinsic charge carrier 1. n-type semiconductors.
concentration (n,). 2.p-type semiconductors.

This semiconductor is
1. n-type semiconductor.
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The total current is obtained by doping the tetravalent semiconductor Si
(or Ge) with pentavalent impurities such as As, P or Sb
1=Electron current+holecurrent-Z+ of group V of the periodic table.
when a pentavalent impurity atom substitutes the
dinita Hons Stinsíc Semiconduton tetravalent Si atom, it uses four of its five valence
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Limitations of intrinsic semiconductors. When
intrinsic semiconductors are used for developing
semiconductor devices, they have many limitations as
discussed below: Unbonded 'free
1. Intrinsic semiconductors have low intrinsic dharge *

electron
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donated by
carrier concentration (of hole and electrons) pentavalent
10 m.So they have low electrical aconductivity. (+5 valency)
2. As intrinsic charge carriers are always ther- atom

mally generated, so flexibility is not available to

control their number.

Fig. 14.4 Formation of n-typesemiconductor by doping9

tetravelent Si with pentavalent impurity.

electrons in forming four covalent bonds with

neighbouring Si atoms while the fifth electron is
Doping loosely bound to the impurity atom. A very small
amount of ionisation energy (=0.01 eV for Ge and
The process of deliberate addition of a desirable 0.05 eV for Si)
is to detach this electron. At
required
impurity to a puresemiconductor so as to increase its room temperature, the thermal energy is enough to set
conductivity is called doping. The impurity atoms free this electron.
added are called dopants and the semiconductors
doped with the impurity atoms are called extrinsic or
doped semiconductors
 As each pentavalent impurity
atom donates one extra electron for conduction, it is
called a donor. These semiconductors have free
Band tno
electrons contributed by donors and generated by the
thermal process while the holes are only due to
Valence Band
thermal generation. Hence, the electrons are the
majority charge carriers and holes are the minority
The electrons in the outermost shell are known
charge carriers. As most of the current is carried by the
negatively charged electrons, so the semiconductors as valence electrons. These valence electrons
doped withdunor type impurities are Anuwn as n-typ contain a series of energy levels and form an
semiconductors.
For such semiconductors,
energy band known as the valence band. The
valence band has the highest occupied energy.
or n>p
2.p-type semiconductor. Such a semiconductor is Conduction Band
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obtained by doping the tetravalent semiconductor Si
(or Ge) with trivalent impurities such as In, B, Al or Ga.
the impurity atom uses its three The valence electrons are not tightly held to
valence electrons forming covalent bonds with three
in the nucleus due to which a few of these
neighbouring Si atoms and one covalent bond with a
valence electrons leave the outermost orbit
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even at room temperature and become free
electrons. The free electrons conduct current
in conductors and are therefore known as
hole
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conduction electrons. The conduction band is
one that contains conduction electrons and
has the lowest occupied energy levels.

Forbidden Energy Gap

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Fig.
14.6 Formation of p-type semiconductor by doping The gap between the valence band and the
tetravelent Si with trivalent impurity. conduction band is referred to as the forbidden
neighbouring Si atom is left incomplete due to the
gap. As the name suggests, the forbidden gap
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deficiency of one electron. An electron from the doesn't have any energy and no electrons stay
neighbouring Si-Si covalent bond can slide into this in this band. If the forbidden energy gap is
vacant bond, creating a vacancy or hole in that bond.
This hole is now available for conduction. greater, then the valence band electrons are
The trivalent impurity utom is called an acceptor because it tightly bound or firmly attached to the nucleus.
Creates a hole which can acoept an electron trum the We require some amount of external energy
neighbouring bond. Obviously, there are holes created
by the acceptor atoms in addition to the thermally
that is equal to the forbidden energy gap.
generated holes while the free electrons are only due to
thermal generation. Henc, holes are the majority charge
carriers and electrons are the minority charye carriens. The
semiconductors doped with acceptor type impurities
are called p-type semiconductors, because most of the Conduction B a n d
current in these semiconductors is carried by holes e
which have effective positive charge. For such BandGap
semiconductors, Valence Band
o r p>>n
 1. Metals. Here the last occupied band, called
3. Semiconductors. At 0 K the conduction band is
cunduction band is partially filled with electrons. Two
types of band structures are found in metals: empty and the valence band is filled. So the material is
() Either the is energy gap between the essentially insulator at low temperatures. However,
completely the energy gap between conduction and valence bands
flled valence band and the partially filled conduction band.
As shown in Fig. 14.10ja(OL this band structure is met is small (E, <3 eV). For example, E, =1.17 eV for Si
and E, =0.74 eV for Ge. At room temperature,
in metals (Li, Na, K, etc), noble metals (Cu, Ag
alkali some
valence electrons acquire enough thermal energy
Au) and third group elements like Al, Ga, In and T.
jump to the conduction band where they are free to
and
Partially filled conduct electricity (according to Boltzmann law,
conduction band number of thermally excited electrons n e t s ) .
Thus the semiconductor acquires a small conductivity
at room temperature.
Filled valenoe
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bad

Empty
Overlapping
conduction band
conduction
band
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Filled valeno ! E, <3eV Filled
bund
valence
(i) band

Fig.14.10 (a) Energy band diagram for a metal.

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Fig. 14.10 (0) Energy band diagram for a semiconductor.

(i) Or the conduction and valence bands partly overlap.

As shown in Fig. 14.10o(in], this band structure is seen
Fermi Level
The highest energy level in the conduction band filled up
in metals like Be (Z=4:1s2s), Mg(Z=12:
with electrons at absolute zero is called Fermi level and the
energy corresponding to the Fermi level is called Fermi
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2. Insulators. In insulators, the valence band is Energy.
completely filled while the conduction band is empty.
As shown in Fig. 14.10(b), there is a large energy gapP
Enehy band Semi tomductOns
(E,3 eV) between the valence and conduction bands.
For example, in case of diamond, E, =6 eV. Even an
Energy band diagram of n-type semiconductor. In
electric field cannot give this much energy to an
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-type semiconductors, the extra (fifth) electron is very
electron to make it jump from the valence band into the
weakly attracted by the donor impurity. A very small
conduction band. Hence due to the lack of free
energy (=0.01 eV) is required to free this electron
electrons in the conduction band, the insulators are
When freed, this electron
poor conductors of electricity. will occupy the lowest possible energy level in the
conduction band ie., the energy of the donor electron
Empty is
slightly less than E
conduction Thus the donor energy
band
level E, lies just below
E, >3ev *Ep
the bottom of the conduc 0.01 eV
tion band as shown in
Filled
valence Fig. 14.11(b). At room
band temperature this small
energy gap is easily
Fig. 14.10 (b) Energy band diagram for an insulator. covered by the ther-
mally excited elec-
trons. The conduction Fig. 14.11 (b) Energy band diagram
band has more of n-type semiconductor at f >0K
electrons (than holes in valence band) as they have
been contributed both by thermal excitation and donor
impurities.
Dffcence
Energy band diagram of ptype semiconductors. In
Intrinsic Extrinsic
ptype semiconductors, each acceptor impurity creates
a hole which can be easily filled by an electron of Si-Si Semiconductors Semiconductors
covalent bond i.e", a very small energy (=0.01 -0.05 eV) 1. These are pure
semi- These are semi-conduc-
is required by an electron of the valence band to move conducting tetravalent ting tetravalent crystals
into this hole. Hence the acceptor energy level E, lies crystals. doped with impurity
atoms of group l l or V,
slightly above the top of
the valence band, as 2. Their electrical conduc- Their electrical conduc
tivity is high.
shown in Fig. 14.11(«). At tivity is low.
room temperature, many 3. There is no permitted | There is permitted
electrons of the valence 0.01 0.05 eV energy state between energy state of the
band get excited to these valence and conduction impurity atom between
acceptor energy levels, - -

bands. valence and conduction

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leaving behind equal bands.
number of holes in the 4. The number of free elec- The electrons are
valence band. These holes trons in the conduc-| majority chargecarriers
can conduct current. Thus tion band is equal to
in n-type semicon
the valence band has more Fig. 14.11 (¢) Energy band the number of holes in ductors while holes are
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diagram of p-type valence band. majority charge carries
holes than electrons in the
semiconductor at T >0 K. in p-type semi
conduction band.
conductors.

5. Their electrical conduc- Their electrical

tivity depends on conductivity depends
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Energy band diagram of intrinsic semiconductors.
of a semiconductor temperature. on temperature as well
At T=0 K the valence ban
as on dopant
completelyfilled with electrons while the conduction
band is empty, as shown in Fig. 14.11[a(i)]. Hence an concentration.
intrinsic semiconductor behaves like an insulator at
T =0 K At higher temperatures (T>0 K), some
electrons of the valence band gain sufficient thermal
n-type semiconductors p-type semiconductors
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1. These are extrinsic These are extrinsic
semiconductors semiconductors
obtained by doping obtained by doping
impurity atoms of
impurity atoms of
group V to Ge or Si group ! to Ge or Si
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crystal. crystal.
2. The impurity atoms The impurity atoms
added provide free added create vacancies
of electrons (or holes)
(17) at T>OK
electrons and are called and are called
() at T-0OK donors.
(behaves like insulator) acceptors
of intrinsic semiconductor 3. The donor impurity The acceptor impurity
Fig. 14.11 (a) Energy band diagrams level lies just below the level lies just above the
conduction band. valence band.
energy and jump the conduction band, creating an
to

equal number of holes in the valence band. These 4. The electrons are majo- The holes are majority
thermally excited electrons occupy the lowest possible rity charge carrierss charge carriers while

energy levels in the conduction band. Therefore,

the while holes minority electrons
are
are minority
energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor at charge carriers. charge carriers.
T>0Kis of the type shown in Fig. 14.11(a(i)]. Clearly,
the number of electrons in conduction band is equal to
5. The freeiselectron The hole density is
much than free
density much greater greater
the number of holes in valence band. than hole density, i.e., | electron density, i.e.,
 Hole
Conduchviy Gd Aesistivit
Holes. The vacancy or absence ofan electron in the bond
of a covalently bonded crystal is called a hole. In terms of
electron is removed from Electrical conductivity of a semiconducto.
band theory, whenever an
the completely filled valence band of a semiconductor,
Consider a block of semiconductor of lengthl, area of
cross- section A, and having free electron
density ne
avacancy is left behind in the valence band. This vacancy
serves as a positive charge carrier and is called a hole.

Semiconductor

Characteristics of holes
1. A hole is just a vacancy created by the removal
of an electron from a covalent bond of Fig. 14.12 Drifting of electrons and holes in a
semiconductor on application of voltage V.
semiconductor.
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and hole density n. Supposc a potential difference V is
2. It has the same mass as the (removed) electron.
applied across its ends. The electric field set up inside
3. It is associated with a positive charge of
it will be
magnitude e.
.(1)
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Electrons begin to drift with velocity ve in the
opposite direction of E while the holes drift in the
direction of E with velocity v
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. Total current = Electron current + Hole current
Mobility or ..(2)
Electrical mobility. The drift velocity acquired by a As electrons in the conduction band and holes in
the valence band move randomly like free electrons in
charge carrier in a unit electric field is called its electrical
mobility and is denoted by u. In a semiconductor, metals, therefore we can write
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Drift velocity of Applied eA" and =e A
a charge carrier electric field . I=en A + e A V

=eMnt (3)
or 7xE or 7=uE
IfR is the resistance of the semiconductor block and
Hence, the electrical mobility u is the drift velocity per p its resistivity, then
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unit electric field.
The mobility of an electron in the conduction band R-A .(4)

of a semiconductor is greater than the mobility of a If the applied electric field E is low, the semicon
hole in the valence band. The electrons in ductors obey Ohm's law so that
conduction band are almost free. They get
the
easily
I=_El [By using (1) and (4)]
accelerated by an electric field. But the electrons in the
R pl/A
valence band are bound between the atoms of a
semiconductor. They are less accelerated by an electric or IEA 5)
field and so acquire drift velocity smaller than that of
electrons in the conduction band. The mobility of From equations (3) and (5), we get
electrons in the valence band is less than the mobility
of electrons in the conduction band. As the motion of 6)
an electron in the valence band is equivalent to the
motion of a hole in the opposite direction, hence the

mobilityof hole in the valence band is smaller than the

mobility of an electron in conduction band.

b/TH
 As mobility p is defined as drift velocity per unit and
electric field, therefore Unbiased p-n junction
potential barrier in a p-n junction.
Depletion region
Two important
Electron mobility, processes involved during the formation of p-n
or NE junction are diffusion and drift. When a p-n junction is
formed, the pside of the junction has a higher
Hole mobility, concentration of holes while the i-side has a higher
concentration of electrons. Due to the concentration
E gradient at the junction, holes begin to diffuse from
Hence pside to rside (p-> n) and electrons begin to diffuse
from n-side to p-side (n > p). As holes diffuse from
-ennE+n4,E)
P r n side, they leave behind -ve acceptor ions which
or - etne+) set up a layer of negative charge or negativee
P space-charge region on the p-side of the junction.
The conductivity, which is reciprocal of resistivity. Similarly, as the electrons diffuse from n> pside, they
is given by leave behind +ve donor ions which set up a layer of
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positive charge or positive space-charge region on th
..(7)
side of the junction. This sets up an electric field ne
Also, the resistivity of the semiconductor is given by
thejunction from n-> pside.
The small region in the vicinityofthe junction
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.(8) which is depleted of free charge carriers and has only
elaMe+ immobile ions is called depletion region.

The accumulation of negative charges in

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the p-region and positive charges in the n-region sets up a
Variation of conductivity of a semiconductor with potential difference across the junetion. This acts as a barrier
temperature. The conductivity of a semiconductor is and is called barrier potential Vg which
given by opposes the further diffusion of electrons and holes
G=
e(", H, +" P») across the junction.
This diffusion ofmajority
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As the temperature increases, the mobilities
H, and , of electrons and holes decrease due to the charge carriers across the junction gives rise to an electric
increase in their collision frequency. But due to the current from p-> u side and is called diffusion current.
small energy gap of semiconductors, more and more
electrons [n«e "**"] from the valence band cross Fictitious battery
over to the conduction band. The increase in carrier
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concentrations, n, and n, is so large that thedecrease Donor ion
Electron
Acceptor ion Junction
in the values of 4, and 4, has no influence. The overall
effect is that the conductivity increases or the
resistivity decreases with the increase of temperature.

P-N TOnchion
Pjunction. It is a single crystal of Ge or Si doped in
such a manner that one half portion of it acts as ptype semi-
conductor and the other half as n-type semiconductor.
p-type n-type
Depletion layer

GO|
n

IJunchm-
 Electron diffusion Ciasing in Semicondueton
Electron drift
1. Forward biasing. If the positive terminal of a battery
is connected to the p-side and the negative terminal to the
n-side, then the p-n junction is said to be forward biased.
As shown in Fig. the applied voltage
Depletion region V opposes the barrier voltage Vg. As a result of this
Hole diffusion t h e effective barrier potential decreases to
Hole drift (V-V)and hence the energy barrier across the
(b) junction decreases
(i) the majority charge carries ie., holes from pside
and electrons from +side begin to flow towards
the junction,
(ii) the diffusion of electrons and holes into the
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depletion layer decreases its width, and
(iv) the effective resistance across the p-n junction
X decreases.
X
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(c)
(a)
In the depletion region, electron-hole pairs are
continuously produced due to thermal or electric field
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conditions. The electric field
E immediately pushes
the electrons towards the -side and holes towards the
pside. This current set up by the barrier fielá from n >p (V-V)
side is called drift current.
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p-

Anode Cathode
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Fig. 14.14 Symbol for a
p-n junction diode. Fig. 14.15 (a) Reduced depletion layer, (b) Reduced energy
barrier, (c) Symbolic representation. for a forward biased
p-n junction.
When V exceeds Vg the majority charge carriers
start flowing easily across the junction and set up a large
current( mA) called forward current, in the circuit. The
current increases with the increase in
applied voltage.

2.
Reversebiasing. If the positive terminal of a battery
is connected to the n-side and
negative terminal to the p-side
then the p-n junction is said to be reverse biased.
As shown in Fig. 14.16(a), the applied voltage V
and the barrier potential V are in the same direction.
 Sunchim
Biasing a P-

V Va)
Foxwand iasina-

Si-diodeA
(a) (b) AV
p-n 0

30
20
10
(c) Cut-in Volts
voltage Vv(Forward bias)
Fig. 14.16 (a) Increased depletion layer, (b) Increased energy
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barrier, (c) Symbolic representation for a reverse biased
p-n junction.
.14.18 Forward characteristic of ajunction diode.
Important features of the graph. () The V-I graph is
As a result of this not a straight line i.e., a junction diode does not obey
() the barrier potential increass to (Vg + V) and Ohm's law.
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hence the energy barrier across the junction (ii) Initially, the current increases very slowly
increases, almost negligibly, till the voltage across the diode
(ii) the majority charge carriers move away from the crosses a certain value, called the threshold-voltage or
junction, increasing the width of the depletion cut-in voltage. The value of the cut-in voltage is about
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layer, 0.2 V for a Ge diode and 0.7 V for a Si diode.
(ii) the resistance of the p-n junction becomes very
large, and
(iv) no current flows across the junction due to
majority charge carriers. (ii) After the cut-in voltage, the diode current
However, at room temperature there are always increases rapidly (exponentially), even for a very small
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present some minority charge carriers like holes in increase in the diode bias voltage. Here the majority
n-region and electrons in p-region. The reverse biasing charge carriers feel negligible resistance at the junction
pushes them towards junction, setting a current, called ie., the resistance across the junction is quite low.
reverse or leakage current, in the external circuit in the
opposite direction. As the minority charge carriers are
much less in number than the majority charge carriers,
Aevense Biasica
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hence the reverse current is small (=uA)
Breakdown
voltage
V (Reverse bias)
-
|V-T ChoNateaishs P-N Diocte
- 0.5

Reverse 1.0
V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode. A graph conduction
showing the variation of current flowing through a p-n - 15
junction with the voltage applied across it (both when it is Breakdown
forward and reverse biased) is called the voltage- region
Current or V-I characteristic of a p-n junction
Fig.14.20 Reverse characteristic of a junction diode.

Important features of the graph. () When the diode

is reverse biased, the reverse bias voltage produces a
very small current, about a few microamperes which
almost remains constant with bias. This small current
is called reverse saturation current. It is due to the drift
of minority charge carriers (a few holes in region and
a few electrons in pregion) across the junction.
 (i) When the reverse voltage across the p-n junction
reaches a sufficiently high value, the reverse current
Hay waue Recifie
suddenly increases to a large value. This voltage at
which breakdown of the junction diode occurs is called
Zener breakdown voltage or peak-inverse voltage of Junction diode as a half-wave rectifier. A half-wave
the diode. It ranges from as low as 1 to 2 V to several rectifier consists of a transformer, a junction diode D
hundred volts, depending on the dopant density and and a load resistance Rz. The primary coil of the
the depletion layer. transformer is connected to the a.c. mains and the
secondary coil is connected in series with the junction
diode D and load resistance R.

Ge-diodeSi-diode
Transformer
AV

A.C
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V (Reverse bias)

0.5 Volts
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V(Forward bias) Fig. 14.22
Half-wave rectifier circuit.
L.0
Cut-in voltage
Breakdown
Microampere
Working. When a.c. is supplied to the primary, the
(uA)
secondary of the transformer supplies desired alter-
nating voltage across A and R During the positive half
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cycle of a.c., the endA is positive and the end B is
ig. 14.21 Complete I characteristic of a junction diode. negative. The diode Dis forward biased and a current I
flows through R

Rechifcen Output voltage across R is of same waveform as the

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positive half wave of the input. During the negative
Rectifier. The process of converting alternating current
into direct current is called rectification and the device
wsed for this process is called rectifier.
Input a.c.
Principle of a rectifier. When a
p-n junction diode is
forward biased, it offers less resistance and a current
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flows through it; but when it is reverse biased, it offers
high resistance and almost no current flows through it.
This unidirectional property of a diode enables it to be Output
used as a rectifier. When a.c. signal is fed to a diode, the voltage
diode is forward biased during the positive half cycle

and a current flows through it. During the negative Fig. 14.23 Waveforms of input a.c. and output voltage
half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it does not obtained from a half-wave rectifier.
conduct. Thus the signal is rectified. half cycle, the end A becomes negative and Bpositive.
The p-n junctions can be used as The diode is reverse biased and no current flows. No
voltage appears across R. In the next positive half
() a half-wawe rectifier, and
cycle, again we get output voltage.
(in) a full-wave rectifier.
Since the voltage across the load appears only during
the positive half cycle of the input a.c., this process is
called half-wave rectification and the arrangement
used is called a half-wave rectifier.
 Fott wave lechifien
Junction diode as a full waye rectifier. A full wave voltage across R, as shown in Fig. 14.25. Since output
rectifier consists of a transformer, two junction diodes voltage across the load resistance R, is obtained or
D, and D and a load resistance Rz. The input a.c. both half cycles of input a.c., this process is called full
signal is fed to the primary coilP of the transformer. wave rectification and the arrangement used is calledd
The two ends A and Bof the secondary S are connected
full-wave rectifier.
to the p-ends of diodes D, and D.
Fiten Citots
Centre-tap
transformer Fiter circuits The output obtained from junction
a
diode rectifier is unidirectional but pulsating.

We can obtain d.c. voltage by

PS filtering out the a.c. components. We describe here two
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- - - - - -
simplest filter circuits.
D 1. Series inductor tilter. Figure 14.26 shows the
Full wave rectifier circuit. circuit of a full wave rectifier with an inductor of
inductance L connected in series with its load
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resistance R
L
O00
woxki .Suppose during the positive half cycle
of a.c. input, the end A is positive and the end B is R Output
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negative with respect to the centre tap T. Then the Input
diode D, gets forward biased and conducts current
along the path AD, XYTA, as indicated by the solid
arrews. The diode D, is reverse biased and does not
conduct. During the negative half cycle, the end A
becomes negative and the end B becomes positive The inductance L offers a reactance X, =2nf L to
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with to the centre
the flow of current through it. Clearly, it blocks high
respect tap T. The diode
D, gets frequency a.c. component and allows low frequency
reverse biased and does not conduct. The diode
D,
conducts current along the path BD, XYTB as d.c. component to pass through it. A smooth d.c.
voltage appears across the load resistance.
indicated by broken arrows. As during both half cycles
of input a.c. the current through load R, flows in the
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same direction (X > Y) so we get a pulsating d.c. 2. Shunt capacitor filker. Figure 14.27 shows the
ircuit of a full wave rectifier with a capacitor of
capacitance C connected in parallel with its loaa
A.C. Input at A resistance R,.
D d.c. component

R Output
Input
:A.C. Input at B

Output voltage, Full wave rectifier with shunt capacitor filter.

Due to Due to Due to , Due to
D D D, D The capacitor has a reactance of X =1/2n fC. A
high capacitance Coffers a low impedance path to high
frequency a.c. component but high, almost infinite,
impedance to low frequency d.c. component. Hence
the a.c. component is bypassed through Cor filtered. A
3. 14.25 Waveforms of input a.c. and output voltage smooth d.c. voltage appears at the load resistance.
obtained from a full wave rectifier.