Lesson 6: MATHEMATICAL OBJECTS

Mathematical objects mean mathematical stands/domains. Effective mathematics teaching

requires; understanding what students know and need to learn, then challenging them to learn it
well, knowing and understanding mathematics, knowing and understanding students as learners
and knowing pedagogical strategies. All these requires challenging and supportive classroom
learning environment.

Mathematical objects are grouped into two categories:

The content category – Mathematical objects include; number and operations, algebra,
geometry, measurement and data analysis and probability
The process category – These are classroom activities that support understanding of
mathematical content. They include; problem solving, reasoning and proof, communication,
connections, representations using mathematical tools

CONTENT CATEGORY
This describes the content the students should have an opportunity to learn. It is hoped that
students will have an opportunity to reach a certain depth of understanding of the concepts and
acquire a certain level of fluency with the procedures described in the curriculum. Mathematics
is a highly inter-connected discipline and hence the content may overlap or integrate. For
example some topics in date analysis can be categorised as part of measurement. Patterns and
functions appear throughout in geometry. Mathematical object in the content category are
discussed as;

1. Number and operations

Historically numbers has been a cornerstone of mathematics curriculum internationally

including Kenya. Number operations include the concept and algorithms of elementary
arithmetic. Characteristics of classes of numbers form the beginning of number theory. Content
of number and operation provides the ability to:

 decompose numbers naturally

 use particular numbers as referents

 use arithmetic relationships among operations to solve problems

 estimate and make sense of numbers

 recognise the absolute and relative value of the numbers

Principles for problem solving in algebra are the same as the structural properties of systems of
numbers e.g. 2a +5a=2+5. Numbers are also used in geometry and measurement where
attributes are described as numbers. Through problem solving students can explore and increase
their understanding of numbers
Research has shown that learning about numbers is a complex process for children. To them
formal lessons in numbers have no use unless they have had a sound of varied experience of
numbers and have acquired a sufficient vocabulary in the language of numbers.

The child should have a ‘number sense’- that is something innate within the human being e.g. a
child of 2yrs is able to distinguish between a big/small, more/less things. Since the sense of
numbers is something natural, the primary school teacher has to develop it and not to create it. At
secondary school level, the students should attain a rich understanding of numbers i.e. what they
are, how they are represented with objects, number lines, how they are related to one another,
how numbers are embedded into systems that have structures and properties and how to use
numbers and operations to solve problems

Students should develop computational fluency i.e. students should use efficient and accurate
methods of computing. Regardless of the method they use they should be able to explain their
method, estimate and judge the reasonableness of results.

The ability to make sensible approximations need to be enhanced e.g. treating 28×137 as 30×140
(increasing both factors) is not as good approximation as 30×135 (increasing one factor,
decreasing the other). Although for many purposes 30×40 may be good enough.

Also 15.63÷3.2~15÷3

15.63÷3.2~16÷3

Students should know why 15/3 is better approximation than 16/3. They need to develop the
ability to reason about numbers without use of algorithms and known when obvious calculations
are useless. For example, how many 3cm by 4cm block can be packed into a rectangular block
11cm by 11cm? The student may arrange the blocks as follows

In each case the blocks are 5. Using of area formula: Area of rectangular/area of one block

As (11×7)/(3×4)= 6(5/12)

Will not be relevant to the actual problem

Such a problem can stimulate a general investigation into the largest number of rectangular
blocks that can be packed into a rectangular container. Such investigations greatly strengthen
numeracy and enhance pupils attitudes in mathematics

The students also need to develop ability to interpret answers sensibly e.g if a student calculates
the height of a tree from the length of its shadow and the angle of elevation of the sun and
obtains an answer of 3275 m, he should know immediately that a mistake has been made.

If he gets the height of a building as 35.3628m from calculator, he should know that 4 least
significant digits are meaningless in this concept and that a reasonable accuracy is 35 1/2m or at
most 35.36m

If asked how many 40 seater buses will be required to transport 373 people, the pupil should
divide 373 by 40 to get 9 13/40 or 9.325 which means 10 buses

For students to achieve all these abilities in the use of numbers and operations, the teacher should
enable the students to:

1. Understand numbers, ways of representing numbers, relationships along numbers and

number systems such as understanding of very large and very small numbers and various
representations of them

2. Understand meanings of operations and how they relate to one another e.g student should
be able to judge effects of such operations as multiplications, division and computing
powers and roots on magnitudes of quantities

3. Compute fluently and make reasonable estimates. To develop fluency requires a balance
and connection between conceptual understanding and conceptual proficiency. Part of
being able to compute fluently means making smart choices about which tool to use and
when.

4. Teaching model: (Fraction)

Research shows that students have different conceptual understanding of a mathematical

problem that result in different solution procedures. This means that mathematics education must
consider how a given child is thinking about a given problem. Teachers need to clarify various
representation of the same operation/symbol to assist their thinking. Teaching the concept of
fractions is usually under represented leading learning difficulties. Various concepts are
represented in the secondary syllabus at application level and students should be aware of them.

There are five models of teaching fractions to enhance its conceptual understanding

1) Regional model- Fraction is taught as a part of a whole region. However difficulties emerge
when varying sizes of a region may share the same fraction. Regional model need to emphasis
that fraction are named in the context of the given region.
2) Discrete model- Fractions are presented as a subset or part of a set.

3) Rational model or position on a number line- Fraction is taught as an extension of the

number system and can be represented as numbers between two integers

4) Quotient model- Fractions are represented as quotients. The result of division operation on
two whole numbers. The quotient of 3÷4 can be written as ¾ which is recognised as 3 units
portioned into 4 parts or 3(1÷4)

5) The ratio model- When comparing number of objects into two sets or two measurements,
ratio is used to describe their relationship i.e. 2:3 is represented as 2/5 stated as for every two
units of the first object, the second object measures 3.

Activity: For each model develops an activity that can be used to explain the concept. What is
the meaning of ½ in probability? Complexity of teaching in number lines in the interpretation
of concepts which use same number in different context such as fractions; using 3/5, state the
different instructional models.

2. ALGEBRA

Algebra is an Arabic word in origin which refers to the operation of transferring a quantity from
one side of an equation to the other after performing a change in its sign. It is the process of
subtracting similar quantities from both sides of an equation.

Algebra therefore has its own historical roots in the study of general methods for solving
equations. With the introduction of algebra, the students learn to expand the number system of
mathematics so that the four basic operations can be performed in all cases. Algebra emphasises
on ways of representing mathematical relationships, relationships among mathematical quantities
including functions and analysis of change.

It is thought to be the most difficult and abstract of all branches of mathematics. It is taught for
multipurpose skills, solutions of problems by equations, a power of generalisation and use of
formulae and idea of function ability

Algebra has been called generalised arithmetic, hence it is closely related to geometry and data
analysis in that algebra is written geometry and algebra is pictured algebra.

Why teach algebra?

1. It is useful in other branches of mathematics for example problems of arithmetic are

simplified to the learner through it.
 2. It gives compact formulae or generalisation to be used in all cases e.g. solution of a
problem using equations and factorisation

3. Provides an effective for expressing complicated for expressing relations

4. It gives new good approach to the study of abstract mathematical relationships through
the use of new language and symbolism

5. It inculcates the power of analysis

6. Verification of results is more satisfactory and simpler in algebra than in any other branch
of mathematics. It develops confidence in students

7. It helps in generalisation of scientific truths into simple and compact formulae relations

8. It is a good instrument for mental training

9. It has a practical value in many of the trades and industries i.e. it can support
mathematical areas such as: Distribution and communication networks and Laws of
physics, Population models and statistical results such as in stock market. All these can
be represented in the symbolic language of algebra.

10. Algebraic competency is important in adult life both on job and preparation for post
secondary education, so all students should learn algebra.

Students should be able to:

1. Understand pattern ,relations and functions (eg linear relationship ,relationship among
tables ,graph etc)to judge the advantage and disadvantage of each way of representing the
relationship for particular purposes

2. To represent and analyse mathematical situation and structures using algebraic symbol
such us meaning of equivalent forms of expression, equations inequalities and relations

3. Use mathematical models to represent and understand quantitative relationships i.e. the
ability to decide whether a situation can be modelled /represented by linear or quadratic
functions and be able to draw conclusion about the situation by analysing the model.

4. Give new and good approach to the study of abstract mathematical relationships through
the use of new language and new symbolism.
 Models of teaching algebra:
There are two approaches of teaching algebra;
Procedural algebra – requires the student to assign numerical value to solve algebraic
equations. For example
Solve for X given that y = 7 in 3x²-4y = 20
Or for X given that y = 4 in 3x + y = 8
Structural algebra-Where letters are used as objects to manipulate algebraic expressions. For
example when analysing algebraic expressions as: f(x) =x²-2x-3 or g(x)=2x²+3/x to determine
the shape of a graph, type of function and roots.
Procedural/algorithmic teaching is very common in algebra classes. However it should be
minimised so as to support meaningful manipulations for abstract thinking expected in algebraic
classes. Example of algorithmic approach:
Solve by completing the square:
2x²- 6x+7=0
Divide every term by the coefficient of x²
Take the constant term on the other side
Divide the coefficient of x by two and square it and then add on both sides of the equation
x²-3x+(3/2)²=-7/2+(3/2)² Simplify and factorise then get the square roots. Students use various
methods in algebra and are generally classified as
1. Use of number facts
2. Use of counting techniques
3. Cover-up
4. Undoing (or working backwards)
5. Trial and error substitution
6. Transposing (that is change sides-change signs)
7. Performing the same operation on both sides

The first two are not usually taught but students come with them from primary school. the last
two are referred to as formal methods.

Algebra is a procedural-structural cycle.

Students need to be helped to reach the structural part of the cycle. Memorizing & pseudo
(already given) structural content should be discouraged and discouraged and dependence on
procedural conceptual should be reduced as reduced as students continue to mature in algebra.

Following are some topics in algebra: Linear equations, Graphs, Factorising and formulae,
dividing by zero, Indices, Quadratic equations-methods of solving.

Activity:
 Define algebra as a key concept in mathematics. Identify algebraic expectations for secondary
students. Describe the relationships between algebra and geometry in teaching. Enlist and
explain the aims of teaching algebra at schools. By referring to two important topics in
algebra, explain the procedures you would adopt for teaching this topic. Analyse the function
f(x) =x²-2x-3
Given the sum and difference of any two numbers, show that you can always find out what the
numbers are.

GEOMETRY
Geometry is the science of space and extent. Deals with position, shape and size of bodies but
has nothing to do with the material or physical properties. It can be categorised into two:
1. Demonstrative geometry- deals with shape, size and position of figures by pure reasoning
based on definitions, self evident truths and assumptions. Euclid, a Greek mathematician
was the father of demonstrative geometry. His methods of handling problems included
intuitional, observational, invention, constructive, informal creative experiments etc.
2. Practical geometry- Covers constructional work on the subject. Work is based
directly/indirectly on the in demonstrative geometry.
Why teach geometry?
 Spatial understanding is necessary for interpreting, understanding and appreciating our
inherently geometric world (NCTM 1989). Through this, students learn about geometric
shapes and structures and how they analyse this characteristic and relationships
 Help in manipulating mental representation of 2-D and 3-Dimensional objects, perceiving
an object from different perceptions
 Helps in spatial visualization e.g. a building ability to draw accurate plans
 Geometric modelling and spatial reasoning offer ways to interpret and describe physical
environments and this can be an important tool in problem solving
 Geometry can be used to help students make sense of area and fractions, histograms
scatter plots (diagrams)
 Spatial reasoning is useful in using maps, planning routes, designing floor plans and
creating art, landscape, interior decoration, engineering etc.

1. The main reason geometry is taught is to develop spatial skills, they include: Interpreting and
making drawings, forming mental images, Visualizing changes and generalizing about
perceptions in the environment
These abilities will in turn promote the ability to reason, predict and represent knowledge in an
appropriate ways.
 2. The spatial skills is an important way of life e.g. many problem situations require
knowledge of geometric shapes and it easily integrates with other disciplines like algebra.
Many aspects in the world can be viewed from a geometric perspective
3. The use of geometric models designs pictures or shapes helps students to analyse and
make sense of problems, illustrate and describe their mathematical thinking.
4. Area models can be used to approach multiplication decimal, fractions and percents.
5. Provides an opportunity to use hands on approach and stimulate creative visualisation of
material ideas
6. It also develops logical thinking and reasoning
7. It provides an excellent link between language and mathematics.
NB Spatial reasoning creates mental images of ones surroundings and objects in them.
These abilities must be nurtured though geometric activity. It’s clear that geometry is not just
the study of axioms, postulates, proofs of theorems, construction etc. School geometry should
include content on motion geometry (locus) solid geometry, plane geometry eucledean geometry
(lines, and 3-D)
Axioms-A mathematical facts to be accepted without proof i.e. the part is smaller than the
whole; halves of equals are equal
Postulates- self evident problem assumed without proof e.g. A straight line may be produced
(made longer) on either side –a circle may be drawn with any points as centre and any length as
the radius, a straight line has one midpoint and only one, two straight lines cannot intersect at
more than one point. Two straight lines cannot be both be parallel to the same straight line if they
intersect.

Teaching model/strategies of geometry

The instructional programme for geometry should emphasis the students’ ability to develop
thinking abilities to:
1. Analyse characteristics and properties of 2-3 dimensional geometric shapes and develop
mathematical arguments about geometric relationships.
2. Specify locations and describe spatial relationships using coordinate geometry and other
representational systems (develop spatial instructional about the real world)
3. To apply transformation and use symmetry to analyse mathematical situations.
4. Use visualisations, spatial reasoning and geometric modelling to solve problems

Geometry is an activity based instruction. The following activities should be the main focus of
instruction:
Let the students manipulate/handle materials and explore concepts in both 2 & 3 dimension
space and discover their relationships. Focus is to provide experiences that will produce
meaningful designs and properties of geometric ideas. Students will be guided to experience
symmetry, regularity and beauty of forms in nature and practical arts. They will be taught how to
keep and handle instruments of the geometric box. Work will centre on observing, drawing of
common geometric shapes i.e. stage of geometry of the classroom and environment. A period of
experimentation, observation, recognition and construction of solids, surface, plane surfaces,
curved surfaces, line, curved line, points, angles, adjacent angles, perimeter, triangles etc.

According to Pierre and Dina Van Hielle (1986) the following are the levels of geometric
thinking and phases of instruction. Students progress through levels of thought in geometry.
These levels are characterised by: Discontinuous learning, sequential and hierarchical, implicitly
understanding of the concepts and its own language.

Van Hielle levels

Level 0- Visualisation: Students reasons about basic geometric concepts such as simple shapes,
by means of visual considerations. They react to geometric figures as a whole. A square is a
square because it looks like one. Level-0 also represents absence of spatial thinking
Level 1- Descriptive/Analytic: Reasons about geometric concepts by means of an informal
analysis of the parts and attributes and the relationships among the parts of the figure. Figure is
not seen as whole but now as a collection of properties rather than visualisation. A square is a
square because it has four sides and four right angles.
Level 2- Abstraction/Relational: Student logically orders properties of concepts; forms abstract
definitions and can distinguish between the necessity and sufficiency of a set of properties in
determining a concept. They can use geometric arguments to classify figures hierarchically. A
squares definition is dependent on some properties that are related to other shapes. They can see
that a square can be both a rectangle and a parallelogram
Level 3- Formal deduction: Students reasons formally, within the context of a mathematical
system. It is a level of acquisition of mastery in reasoning. They are capable of constructing
proof that is they can provide a sequence of statements that logically justifies a conclusion. Level
is needed to perform well in high school as he/she has developed ability to prove theorems.
Level 4-Regor/Mathematical: Here students reason formally about mathematical systems.
They can compare system based on different axioms and can study various geometrics in the
absence of concrete models. Level 4 is most common at tertiary level such as analytical
geometry.

NB
At high school, functions of geometric instruction are to inculcate in the pupils appreciation for
logical demonstration to acquaint with effective methods of clear impartial thinking, critical
evaluation and intelligent generalisation- deduction reasoning.

Geometry and algebra have a symbolic relationship. Algebra is the abstract representation of
geometry. Geometry representation is possible for all algebra.

Activity:1 Identify and classify the different types of geometry in the secondary school system.
What pre-requisite knowledge is required for solid geometry?
2. What geometric activities are students engaged in at the 2nd level? What mathematical
thinking is developed by this activity?
3. List activities that can be used in a geometric class-Identify the concept

4. MEASUREMENT
This is the assignment of numbered values to an attribute of an object such as length of a desk or
to a characteristic of a situation such as consumer price index.
Students need to understand different measurable attributes (length, height, weight, distance) and
become familiar with the units and process that are used in measuring attributes. Study of
measurement offers an opportunity for learning and applying other mathematics including
number and operations, geometric ideas, statistical concepts and notions and functions. It
highlights connections within between mathematics and ideas outside mathematics such as social
studies, science and art and physical education.

The instructional program should enable students to:

 Understand measurable attributes of objects and the units, systems and processes of
measurements. This should include the ability to make decisions about units and scales
that are appropriate for problem situations.
 Apply appropriate techniques, tools and formulae to determine measurements. This is the
ability to analyse precision, accuracy and approximate error in measurement situations.
To understand and use formulae for the area, surface area and volume of geometric
figures including cones, spheres and cylinders
 To understand that all measurements are approximations. Teachers should take advantage
of the opportunities available in the school environment to guide students to use and
understand measurement
What categories of units of measurement are discussed in the secondary school syllabus?
What errors do students make when dealing with measurements? What categories of units of
measurement are discussed in the syllabus for secondary schools?

5. PROBABILITY AND DATA ANALYSIS

This is the measure of occurrence or non-occurrence of an event. Measure ranges between 0 & 1.
Concept of probability would be best understood through examples based on students’
experiences from real life situations and practical’s. Games of chance should be used to enhance
the understanding of probability. Data can be misused to sway public opinion on issues or
misrepresent the quality and effectiveness of products. Students need to know about data analysis
by working directly with data. Teachers need to support students to:
 Formulate questions that can be addressed with data and collect, organise and display
relevant data to answer them. This includes understanding the meaning of measurement
 data and categorical data, histograms and parallel box plots. Scatter plots then use them to
display data.
 Select and use appropriate statistical methods to analyse data. Ability to recognise how
linear transformations of univariate data affect slope and spread.
 To develop inferences and predictions based on data.
 To understand and apply concepts of probability
 To compute basic statistics and understand the distinction between statistics and a
parameter
NB parameter- any of the established limits within which something must operate
Statistics-single number in a collection of data items

Stages in development of probability concept

How does the concept of probability develop? It is developed through 3 stages.
Stage 1: Inability to distinguish between necessary events and possible events.
There is no evidence of the concept of uncertainty. They do not understand probability as ratio
and would predict outcome through finding order in a random mixture e.g. in comparing
chances of picking a black pen from two boxes, one containing 3 black pens and 1 red pen and
another containing 6 black pens and 2 red pens –will confuse the students, most will choose its
black pen from the pack containing 6 than the one with 3
Stage 2: A student recognises the distinction between necessary and possible events but has
no systematic approach to generating a list of possibilities
Stage 3 : The students begin to develop combinational analysis and understands probability as a
limit to relative frequency.

NB Concept of ratio is crucial to the conceptual understanding of probability. Students are weak
when it comes to understanding and using the common language of probability such as the ‘at
least’ or “not more than’ or “at most or “certain or impossible”
Only an extensive systematic program of probability and statistics will help eliminate this
fallacious thinking

Activity: what is the difference between a statistics and a parameter? Give example for each.
Design a question that requires that student use a tree diagram to solve.