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Control of Respiration

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Christine Ayamba
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6 views

Control of Respiration

Uploaded by

Christine Ayamba
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Control of respiration

Central Controller
Brainstem
Cortex
Other Parts of the Brain

Sensors
Central Chemoreceptors
Peripheral Chemoreceptors
Lung Receptors
Other Receptors

Effectors

Integrated Responses
Response to Carbon Dioxide
Response to Oxygen
Response to pH
Response to Exercise

Abnormal Patterns of Breathing


Respiratory centers
•Responsible for generating the rhythmic pattern of inspiration
and expiration
•Located in the medulla and pons of the brainstem
•Receive input from chemoreceptors, lung and other receptors,
and the cortex
•Major output is to the phrenic nerves, but there are also
impulses to other respiratory muscles.
• Clusters of specific neurons called respiratory centers control
breathing.
• The centers located in the medulla oblongata set the rate and
rhythm of normal breathing.
• The centers in the pons regulate the rate and depth of
breathing
Medullary Respiratory Centers
• Dorsal respiratory group (DRG), or inspiratory center:

• Ventral respiratory group (VRG) or expiratory center

• Control via phrenic (to the diaphragm) and intercostal (to the
external intercostal muscles) nerves
Pons Respiratory Centers
• Influence and modify activity of the medullary centers to
smooth out inspiration and expiration transitions
– Pneumotaxic center (upper pons)
– Apneustic center (lower pons)
– Pneumotaxic center dominates to allow expiration to occur normally.
Receptors
• Chemoreceptors i.e peripheral and central chemoreceptors
• Pulmonary irritant receptors
• Inflation reflex (Hering-Breuer)
Upon inflation, inhibitory signals are sent to the medullary inspiration center to end inhalation and
allow expiration.
• Bronchial receptors
• Juxta receptors
• Receptors in muscle and joints
• Receptors in nose and upper airways

Hypothalamic controls act through the limbic system to modify rate and depth of respiration
– Example: breath holding that occurs in anger
• A rise in body temperature acts to increase respiratory rate
Central Chemoreceptors
• Located near the ventral surface of the medulla
• Sensitive to the PCO2 but not PO2 of blood
• Respond to the change in pH of the ECF/CSF when CO2 diffuses
out of cerebral capillaries.
Peripheral Chemoreceptors
Located in the carotid and aortic bodies
• Respond to decreased arterial PO2, and increased PCO2 and H+
• Rapidly responding
The cerebral cortex
• Cortical controls are direct signals from the cerebral motor
cortex that bypass medullary controls
– Examples: voluntary breath holding, taking a deep breath
• Arterial ↑PCO2 Monitored by chemo receptors of the medulla,
and peripheral chemo receptors weakly.
• ↓pH of CSF monitored by central chemoreceptors.
• Arterial ↓PO2 monitored by peripheral chemo receptors.
• ↓Arterial pH monitored by the peripheral chemo receptors
• Though a rise in CO2 acts as the original stimulus, control of
breathing at rest is regulated by the hydrogen ion
concentration in the brain.
• Substantial drops in arterial PO2 (to 60 mm Hg) are needed
before oxygen levels become a major stimulus for increased
ventilation.
• If carbon dioxide is not removed (e.g., as in emphysema and
chronic bronchitis), chemoreceptors become unresponsive to
PCO2 chemical stimuli
• In such cases, PO2 levels become the principal respiratory
stimulus (hypoxic drive)
Ventilatory response to CO2
• Arterial PCO2 is the most important stimulus to ventilation under most conditions
and is normally tightly controlled

• Most of the stimulus comes from the central chemoreceptors, but the peripheral
chemoreceptors also contribute and their response is faster.

• The response is magnified if the arterial PO2 is lowered.


Ventilatory Response to Hypoxia
• Only the peripheral chemoreceptors are involved.
• There is negligible control during normoxic conditions.
• The control becomes important at high altitude and in long-
term hypoxemia caused by chronic lung disease.
1. The respiratory centers that are responsible for the rhythmic pattern of breathing
are located in the pons and medulla of the brainstem. The output of these centers
can be overridden by the cortex to some extent.
2. The central chemoreceptors are located near the ventral surface of the medulla
and respond to changes in pH of the CSF, which in turn are caused by diffusion of
CO2 from brain capillaries. Alterations in the bicarbonate concentration of the CSF
modulate the pH and therefore the chemoreceptor response.
3. The peripheral chemoreceptors, chiefly in the carotid bodies, respond to a
reduced PO2 and increases in PCO2 and H+ concentration. The response to O2 is
small above a PO2 of 50 mm Hg. The response to increased CO2 is less marked
than that from the central chemoreceptors but occurs more rapidly.
4. Other receptors are located in the walls of the airways and alveoli.
5. The PCO2 of the blood is the most important factor controlling ventilation under
normal conditions, and most of the control is via the central chemoreceptors.
6. The PO2 of the blood does not normally affect ventilation, but it becomes
important at high altitude and in some patients with lung disease.
7. Exercise causes a large increase in ventilation, but the cause, especially during
moderate exercise, is poorly understood
Resp. system during exercise
During moderate aerobic exercise,
• O2 consumption and CO2 production increase, but alveolar
ventilation increases in parallel. (Hyperpnea).
• Thus PaO2 and PaCO2 do not change and therefore pH is little
affected.
• Ventilation increases more than cardiac output.
• R.Q ratio increases to 1
• Lung diffusing capacity increases
During heavy exercise
• PCO2 often falls,
• PO2 rises,
• and pH falls because of lactic acidosis.
Resp. system at high altitude (acclimatization)
Low barometric pressure
Low oxygen tensions
Tolerance to hypoxia and secure O2 supply to the tissues.
• Hyperventilation (the most important feature of acclimatization)
Respiratory alkalosis
Acid-base regulation by the kidneys
Arterial H+ ion concentration remains normal
• 2,3 DPG
• Oxygen content of arterial blood increases due to polycythemia. (slow to
develop)
• The no. of capillaries per unit volume in peripheral tissues increases.
• Increases in cellular oxidative enzymes
Maladaptive responses to high altitude

High altitude illness/acute mountain sickness


• Pulmonary vasoconstriction
• Increased pulmonary artery pressure
• Right ventricular hypertrophy
• High altitude pulmonary edema
• high altitude cerebral edema
Q. Using the answer code below, indicate which chemoreceptors are being described
a. Peripheral chemoreceptors
b. Central chemoreceptors
c. Both peripheral and central chemoreceptors
d. Neither peripheral nor central chemoreceptors

1. Stimulated by an arterial P0₂ of 80 mmHg


2. Stimulated by an arterial P0₂ of 55mmHg
3. Directly depressed by an arterial P0₂ of 55mmHg
4. Weakly stimulated by an elevated arterial PC0₂
5. Strongly stimulated by an elevated brain ECF H⁺concentration induced by an elevated
arterial PC0₂
6. Stimulated by an elevated arterial H⁺ concentration
• Q. A student has a tidal volume of 350ml. While breathing at a
rate of 12breaths/min, her alveolar ventilation is 80% of her
pulmonary ventilation. What is her anatomical dead space
volume?

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