THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

PRESIDENT’S OFFICE
PUBLIC SERVICE MANAGEMENT AND GOOD GOVERNANCE

TANZANIA PUBLIC SERVICE COLLEGE

MTWARA CAMPUS
Phone: +255 23 2333300 P. O. Box 1051, Mtwara, Tanzania
Fax: +255 23 2333300 Email: info@tpscmtwara.ac.tz
Website: www.tpscmtwara.ac.tz

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND LEADERSHIP

MANAGEMENT
TRAINING MANUAL OCTOBER 2024-FEBRUARY
2025
Elementary Business English-PAT 04104
NOTES

TOPIC ONE: PARTS OF SPEECH

There are Seven parts of speech that are fundamental in English
which are; Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Adjectives, adverbs,
Prepositions, Conjunctions and Interjections. But we are going to
stress to some of them specifically starting with the word class.
1. NOUNS
Noun is a word that we can use at a certain point in a structure of a
sentence. A noun is a word that names a person, a place, a thing or
an idea.
Examples:
Person/ people: sister, Mayor, Player, Coach, Pianist, Children, etc.
Places: Park, Zoo, lake, school, playground, desert, city, etc.
Things: magazine, boots, rose, pencils, peach, car, etc.
Ideas: honesty, truth, democracy, pride, maturity, etc.
 KINDS OF NOUNS
There are three kinds of nouns namely; Proper nouns, Common
nouns and Collective Nouns.
Proper nouns- these are nouns which name a particular
person, place, things or idea. The first word and all others
important words in proper nouns are CAPITALIZED. Examples are;
John, Tuzza, Tanzania, Statue of Liberty, etc.
Common nouns- these are nouns which names any person,
place, thing, or idea. Common nouns can be either Concrete or
abstract. i.e
Concrete nouns name things you can see or touch, example;
document, actor, school, snow, ship, museum, friends, etc.
Abstract nouns name ideas, qualities, and feelings that can’t be
seen or touched. Examples are; truth, courage, time, tragedy,
entertainment, education, comedy, etc.
Collective nouns- these are nouns which name a group of
people, animals, or things. A collective noun, subject may be
followed by a singular verb, or plural verb, depending on the
meaning. The subject is singular when the members of the group
act as a single unit. The subject is plural when each of the group
acts separately. Other words in a sentence can sometimes help you
decide whether a collective noun is singular or plural.
Examples;
The team shares the field with its opponent (shares, its-
singular)
The team share their jokes with one another (share, their)
Singular and Plural nouns
A Singular noun- names one person, place, things, or idea
A Plural noun-names more than one noun
To form the plural, most of the nouns, you simply add-“s’. Other
plural nouns are formed in different ways.
 Forming Plural nouns
Nouns ending with; to form plural
Examples;
S,z, ch, sh, x add- es bus-
buses, buzz-buzzes
“o” proceeded by a Vowel add- s rodeo-
rodeos,studio-studios
“o” proceeded by consonant usually add- es
hero-heroes, echo-echoes
“y” proceeded by a vowel add- s day-
days, toy-toys
“y” proceeded by a consonant usually “y” change to “I”
city-cities, penny-pennies
And the add- es
F or fe usually change “f” to “v” wife-
wives, leaf-leaves
and then add- s or es
Compound Nouns
These are nouns which are made by two or more words. A
compound noun can be one, like; storybook, or more than one
word like ice cream. A compound noun can also be joined by one or
more hyphens like; runner-up.
Examples; one word- doorbells, necklaces, rosebushes
More than word- post offices, dining rooms, maids of
honor
Hyphenated- brother-in- law, push-ups, great-aunts,
eight-graders
Countable and Uncountable nouns
Countable nouns such as friend, desk, can be proceeded by one
and may have separate plural form which can be proceeded by
“How many” or by a numeral higher the one
Uncountable nouns (Mass noun) like bread, milk, cannot be
preceded by one; they cannot have a separate plural form but can
be preceded by “How much”. Just like “work’ can act as either a
noun or a verb, so as “count” according to the speaker’s exact
meaning, “light” is a mass noun in a light travels much faster than
sound; it is a count noun in “I have a light by my bed”.

Possessive nouns
A noun can show ownership or possession or possession of
things or qualities, this kind of nouns is called a possessive noun. A
possessive noun- tells who or what owns or has something.
Possessive noun can common nouns or proper nouns. They may
also be singular or plural.
Note the possessive nouns in the following sentence;
Singular noun: Katabaro has a book about baseball
Singular Possessive noun: Katabaro’s book is about baseball
Plural noun: several cities have baseball team
Plural Possessive noun: these cities’ teams attract fans.
Appositives
An appositive- is a noun that is placed next to another noun to
identify it or add information about it. Example; James Madison’s
wife, Dolley, was a famous first lady. Note: the noun “ Dolley”
identifies the noun next to it, wife, an appositive phrase.
An appositive phrase-is a group of words that includes an appositive
and other words that modify the appositive. Example; Madison, our
fourth president, held many other offices. Therefore, the word
“our” and “fourth” modify appositive “president”. The phrase-our
fourth president is an appositive phrase. It identifies the phrase.
Note:- an appositive or an appositive phrase can appear anywhere
in a sentence as long as it appears next to the noun it identifies.
 Therefore, the word Noun can be summarized
diagrammatically as follow below;
Nouns

Proper noun common noun

Collective Noun

Countable noun Uncountable

noun

Concrete Noun Abstract noun Concrete

noun Abstract noun

Table Trouble Sugar

Happiness

2. PRONOUNS
A pronoun is word that takes the place of one or more nouns.
Example; max likes books. He particularly enjoys novels, or Max and
Irma like books. They particularly enjoy novels. If the pronoun He,
replaces the noun Max as the subject of the sentence. In the second
example, They, replaces Max and Irma.
TYPES OF PRONOUNS
1. PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Pronouns that refer to people or things are called Personal
Pronouns. Some personal pronouns are used as the subjects of the
sentences. Others are used as the objects of verbs.
A subject pronoun is used as the subject of a sentence. It may
also be used like a predicate noun, in which case it is called a
predicate pronoun.
Examples;
I enjoy a good book in spare time (subject)
We belong to a book club (subject)
She gave a good book report (subject)
It was about Andrew Jackson (subject)
They especially like adventures stories (subject)
The most popular author was he (predicate pronoun)
An Object noun may be a direct object or indirect object
Examples;
The instructor praised us (direct object)
Tell me a story (indirect object)
The movies frightened them (direct object)
The class wrote her a letter (indirect object)
The story amuses you (direct object)
The plot gives him an idea (indirect object)
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
SINGULAR PLURAL
Subject Pronouns I We
You you
He, she, it they
Object Pronouns Me Us
You you
Him, her, it them
Pronouns and antecedents:-the word antecedent means going
before, the word a pronoun refers to it is called antecedent.
Example JO March is the main character in Little Women. She
writes stories. (Jo March is the antecedent of the pronoun she).
2. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
A Possessive pronouns is a pronoun that shows who or what has
something. A possessive pronoun may take the place of a
possessive noun. Examples; Lisa’s class put on a play. Her class put
on a play, The idea was Lisa’s. the idea was hers. Possessive
pronouns have two forms. One form is used before a noun and the
other is used alone.
Possessive Pronouns
Singular Plural
Used Before Nouns my our
Your your
Her, his, its their
Used alone mine ours
Yours yours
Hers, his, its theirs
3. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
An Indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that does not refer to a
particular person, place or thing. Example; Everybody thinks about
the plot. Some indefinite pronouns are always singular. Others are
always plural. A few may be either singular or plural.
Always Singular:- another, everybody, no one, anybody, everyone,
nothing, anyone, everything, one, someone, somebody, anything,
each, neither, nobody, either, much,.
Always Plural:- both, few, many, other, several.
4. REFLEXIVE AND INTENSIVE PRONOUNS
A reflexive pronoun ends with-self or selves and refers to the
subject of a sentence. In a sentence with reflexive pronoun, the
action of the verb returns to the subject.
Example:- Yolanda bought herself a book on engine repair
An intensive pronoun ends with- self or selves and is used to draw
special attention to a noun or a pronoun already named.
Examples:- Yolanda herself repaired the engine
Yolanda repaired the engine herself
Reflexive and intensive pronouns are formed by adding –self or –
selves to certain personal and possessive pronoun
Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns
 Singular Plural
Myself ourselves
Yourself yourselves
Himself, herself, itself themselves
5. INTERROGATIVE AND DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used to introduce an
interrogative sentence.The interrogative pronouns who and whom,
refer to people. Who is used when the interrogative pronoun is the
subject of the sentence. Whom is used when the interrogative
pronoun is an object
Example:- who borrowed the book (subject)
Whom did the librarian call? (direct object)
Which and what refer to thing and ideas. Examples; which is
it?, What interests you?
Whose shows possession. Example; I found a copy of the play.
whose is it?
A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that points out something,
such as this, that, these, and those
Examples:-
This is an interesting book. (Singular, nearby)
These are interesting books. (Plural, nearby)
That was a good movie. (Singular, at a distance)
Those were good movies. (Plural, at a distance)

3. PREPOSITION
A preposition is word that relates a noun or pronoun to another
word in a sentence. Example; the boy near the window is French.
The word “near” is a preposition, it shows the relationship between
the noun “window” and the word “boy”. Some examples of
common preposition are; at, aboard, down, off, to, about, before,
during, on, toward, above. Outside, over, near, throughout, up,
inside, along, among, beyond, through, upon, underneath, in,
against, from, below, for, opposite, until, across, during, since,
within, but, except, to mention but few.
Some prepositions more than one word
Examples; according to, aside from, in front of, instead of, across
from, because of, in place of, an account of, along with, except for,
in spite of and on top of.
A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a
preposition and ends with a noun or a pronoun, which is called the
object of the preposition.
Example:- Hang the painting outside the new auditorium
A preposition may have a compound object.
Example:- Between the chair and the table was a window.

4. VERB
You may have heard the move director’s call for “light, Camera,
action!” the actions in movies and plays can be expressed by verbs.
If a word expresses action and tells what a subject does, it’s an
action verb.
An Action Verb is a word that expresses action. An action verb
May be made up of more than one word. Notice the action verbs in
the following sentences.
Examples:- the director shouts at the members of the cast
The lights are flashing above the stage
The audience arrived in time for the performance
Several singers have memorized the lyrics of a song
Action verbs can express physical actions and mental activities, such
as;
Physical Actions: shout, flash, arrive, talk, applaud, act, sing, dance
Mental Actions: remember, forget, think, memorize, read, dream,
appreciate.
 TYPES OF VERBS
There are two types of verbs which are main verbs and helping
(auxiliary verbs) verbs.
` Verbs have principal parts that are used to form all tenses.
Notice how the principal parts of a verb are formed.
BASE FORM PRESENT PARTICIPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE
Act acting acted acted
You can use the base form and the past alone to form the
present and past tenses. The present participle and the past
participle can be combined with helping verbs to form other tenses.
A Helping Verb helps the main verb express action or makes a
statement
A Verb Phrase consists of one or more helping verbs followed by a
main verb.
Example; John is acting in another play today.
The word “is” is the helping verb, and the present participle
“acting” is the main verb. Together they form a Verb phrase.
The most common helping verbs are be, have and do. Forms of the
helping verb be are am, is, and are, in the present and was and
were in the past. These helping verbs often combine with the
present participle of the main verb.
Singular Plural Singular Plural
I am learning we are learning I was learning
we were learning
You are learning You are learning You were learning You
were learning
She is learning They are learning He was learning
They were learning
The helping verb have combines with past participle of the main
verb. Forms of the helping verb have are have and has in the
present and had in the past.
 HAVE AND THE PAST PARTICIPLE
Singular Plural Singular
Plural
I have learned we have learned I had learned
We had learned
You have learned you have learned You had learned
You had learned
She has learned They have learned He had learned
They had learned
Types of Main Verb
Regular Verbs are verbs that follow the rule of; Past form of
the verb= present form of the verb adding ed/d.
Examples; past form of walk + ed = walked
Past form of touch + ed = touched
Irregular Verbs are verbs which go contrary or do not follow
the above rule of regular verbs. Some examples of Irregular verbs
are;
Base `Past Past Participle
One vowel changes to form the past and participle
Drink drank drunk

Begin began begun

Shrink shrank/shrunk shrunk

The Past and the past participle are the same
have had had

Make made made

Buy bought bought

Get got got/
gotten
 Lay laid laid
The past and the past participle are the same seek
sought sought
Win won won
Think thought
thought
Stand stood
stood
The base form and the past participle are the same become
became became
Come came
came
Run ran ran
The past ends in ew, and the past participle end in wn blow
blew blown
Fly flew flown
Throw threw
thrown
The past participle ends in en bite bit
bitten or bit
Drive drove
driven
Freeze froze
frozen
Eat ate eaten
Write wrote
written
The past and the past participle don’t follow any pattern be
was, were been
Do did done
Go went gone
 Lie lay lain
Wear wore worn
The base form, the past, and the past participle are the
Same burst burst burst
Cut cut cut
` hit hit hit
Read read read
5. CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, clauses or
sentence. Examples; and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so, since, unless,
when, where, if, etc. Example:- I want to come, but I can’t.
Types of conjunctions
1. A coordinating Conjunction is a word used to connect
compound parts of a sentence. And, but, or, nor, and for are
coordinating conjunctions. So and yet are also sometimes
used as coordinating conjunctions.
Using coordinating conjunctions to form compounds
Compound subject: Allison and Rosita have lived in Arusha City
Compound Object: Give your suitcase and packages to Ben or Bill.
Compound Predicate: tourists shop or on the beaches
Compound Sentence: Magile shopped every day, but we toured the
city
2. Correlative Conjunctions are pairs of words used to connect
compound parts of a sentence. Correlative conjunctions
include both.....and, either....or, neither.....nor, and not
only.....but also.
Examples; Neither Mikindani nor Magomeni I have visited
those streets
Examples of great architecture exist in both New
York and Paris
Other functions of conjunctions are;
 i. To express time, example; when, since, for- we have here
since 2020
ii. To show manners, example; as......as, like.........like, - she is
as sharp as her father
iii. To show conditions, example; if – if he comes, I will show
him the letter.
iv. To show result/purpose, example; so.......that, in order
that- I saved some in order to buy a house
v. To show consequences, examples; as a result,
consequently, eventually.
Example:- Huruma did not work had as the
result/consequently she failed the exam.

6. INTEJECTIONS
An interjection is a word or group of words that expresses emotion.
It has no grammatical connection to other words in a sentence. It is
expressed in exclamations proceeded by “!”. Interjections used to
express emotion, such as surprise or disbelief. They are used to
attract attention.
Some common interjections are; aha, great, my, ouch, alas, ha, no,
well, gee, hey, oh, wow, good grief, hooray, oops, yes.
Examples; Good grief! My favorite restaurant has closed
Wow! You are so pretty.
7. ADVERBS
An adverb is word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another,
adverb. Examples;
Verbs: people handle old violins carefully
Adjectives: Very old violins are valuable
Adverbs: Orchestras almost always include violins
Ways adverbs modify verbs
Adverbs tell Examples
How: grandly, easily, completely, neatly, grateful, sadly
When: soon, now, immediately, often, never, usually,
early
Where: here, there, everywhere, inside, downstairs, above,
far
Position of Adverbs modifying verbs
Before the Verb Guests often dine at the white house
After the Verb Guests dine often at the White House
At the Beginning Often guests dine at the White House
At the End Guests dine at the White House Often
Types of Adverbs
i. Adverbs of time- it shows us the time of the action or state.
They answer of “when”, examples; now, soon, later,
yesterday, tomorrow, early, before, lately, recently,
example:- I will do it later.
ii. Adverbs of frequency-show us the frequency of the action
or state. They answer the question of “how often?”,
examples; always, never, sometimes, often, rarely, usually,
occasionally, example:- he is usually here on time
iii. Adverbs of duration- show us the length of the action or
state. They answer the question of “for how long?”,
examples; forever, constantly, temporarily, briefly,
examples:- he works there temporarily.
iv. Adverbs of Probability show us the chances for action of
state to happen. They answer the question of “how
likely?”, examples; may be, probably, surely, possibly,
example:- it will probably not work
v. Superlative adverbs, Superlative means of the highest
degree, superlative adverbs show us which action or state
is the best, the strongest and so forth. Examples; best,
 most, least, strongest, fastest, slowest, example:- it was
most boring experience.
8. ADJECTIVES
An Adjective is a word that describes, or modifies, a noun or a
pronoun.
Adjectives modify noun in three ways.
What kind ?- We studied ancient history
How many ?- I read four chapters
Which One? – That invention changed history
Most adjectives come before the nouns they modify. Some
adjectives follow linking verbs and modify the noun or pronoun that
is subject of the sentence. Example: some architects are skillful and
imaginative. The adjective skillful and imaginative follow the
linking verb, are, and modify the subject, architects. They are called
predicate adjective.
A predicate adjective follows a linking verb and modifies the
subject of a sentence. Example; visitors seem impressed.
Some adjectives are formed from proper nouns and begin
with a capital letter. They are called proper adjectives.
Proper adjectives are adjectives formed from proper nouns.
Some proper adjectives have the same form as the noun. Others
are formed by adding an ending to the noun form.
Forming Proper Adjectives
Proper Noun Proper Adjective
Oranges from Masasi Masasi oranges
The history of Tanzania Tanzanian History
Types of Adjectives
1. Demonstrative adjectives
These are adjectives which point out something and modify nouns
by answering the question which one? And which ones?. Examples;
Singular Plural
Near this- this is mine these- these are his
Far that – that is hers those-those
are yours
2. Determiners adjectives
It is a word that comes before a noun to show which person or
thing you are talking about. The words A and An are called
indefinite articles because they refer to one of a general group of
people, places, things, or ideas. A is used before words beginning
with consonant sound. An is used before word beginning with a
vowel sound. Examples; an union, a picture, an hour, an easel. The
is called definite article because it identifies specific people, places,
things, or ideas.
Example:-The picture beside the fireplace is the best one
3. Descriptive adjectives
These describe noun. They give details on how a noun looks like.
Example:- a big Cat, a round nose.
4. Quantitative adjectives
They talk about quantity and can be expressed in numbers.
Examples; 40 litres Kerosine oil, I bought 30 kilogram of flour.
SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
The subject and the verb are the most important element of
the sentence. The basic idea of subject-verb agreement is a simple
one, a singular subject requires a singular verb, and a plural subject
requires a plural verb. The subject and its verb are said to agree in
number.
Subject-Verb Agreement with Nouns as Subjects
Singular Plural
A botanist studies plant life Botanists study plant
life
A Plant requires care Plants require care
A verb must also agree with a subject that is pronoun. In the
present tense, s-ending is used with the subject pronouns he, she,
and it.
Subject-Verb Agreement with Pronouns as subjects
Singular Plural
I work we work
You work You work
He, she, or it works They work
The irregular verbs be, have and do can be main verbs or helping
verbs. These verbs must agree with the subject whether they are
main verbs or helping verbs.
Examples;
I am a botanist. He is a botanist. They are botanists. [Main verbs]
She is working. You are studying. [Helping verbs]
I have job. She has a career. [Main verbs]
He has planted a tree. They have planted trees. [Helping verbs]
He does well. They do the job. [Main verbs]
It does sound good. We do work hard. [Helping verbs]
Therefore, the of subject and verb agreement their relationship
depends on two aspects, i.e Persons and Numbers. Hence the verb
of a sentence must be in agreement with the subject in regard to
person and number.
Number-the number of the subject can be singular or plural. Hence
the verb must be singular if the subject is singular and the verb
must be plural if the subject is plural.
Persons- person of the subject can be first, second and third. The
verb changes according to the number and person of the subject.
Rules of the Subject and Verb Agreement
1. Rule No.1
Singular subject needs singular Verb, plural subjects requires plural
verbs “Be Verbs” change the most according to the number to the
numbers and person of the subject. Other verbs do not change
depending on the subject except the verb of the simple present
tense.
In Simple Present Tense:- verbs are used with s, es, ies, if the
subject is on the 3rd person. Singular (He, she, it). Hence the verb
that ends with “ies, es and “s” are singular verbs.
Be verbs. According to number and persons:
1st Singular Plural
1st Person I=I am reading We=We are reading
2nd
2nd Person You= You are running so fast You= You two are
running so fast
3rd
3rd Person He They=They are reading a
book
She= She is reading a book
It
2. Rule No. 2
When preposition phrase separates the subject from the verb, it
has no effect on the verb.
Example;
A study on African Countries shows that 80% of the people of this
Continent lives below poverty line
Subject Prep. Phrase Prep. Phrase
3. Rule No.3
Noun connected by the conjunction “And” in the subject works as
plural subject and takes plural verbs.
Example; (a) Alex and James are coming (b) James and his
friends want to go on a tour
Plural verb
4. Rule No. 4
If the conjunction ‘and’ is replaced by together with, along with,
accompanied by, as well as, the verb will have no effect to the later
parts of these expressions. The word prior to these expressions are
considered to be the subjects.
Notably; if the above expression are replaced by “and” the subject
will be plural as well as the verb. Example; (i) Alex accompanied
by Murphy is coming
(ii) Alex along with Marry cooks delicious food.
5. Rule No. 5
Some nouns are always singular and indefinite when these nouns
become the subject they always take singular verbs.
Any + Singular No + Singular Some+ Every+
Each + Singular
Noun Noun singular (noun) singular noun noun
Anybody nobody somebody everybody each
student
Anyone no one someone every one either
Anything nothing something everything neither
Note:- either and neither are singular when they are not used with
or and nor.
Example;
(a)Everybody wants to live happily.
(b) Something is bothering him
(c)No human being lives in that house
6. Rule No.6
A number of + noun is a plural subject and it takes plural verb. The
number of + a noun is a singular subject and it takes singular verb.
Example;
(i) A number of dancers are coming to the party- plural
(ii) The number of dancers coming to the party is twelve-
Singular
SENTENCES
A Sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense or
group of words that express a sense or a thought. It is the group of
words with complete meaning. Example; Man is a social animal by
nature.
Types of Sentence
The sentence can be categorized according to;
1. Purpose/Function
2. Structure/Grammar.
I. According to Purpose/Function
Sentences are divided into five kinds, namely:
(a)Declarative Sentence
(b) Interrogative Sentence
(c)Imperative Sentence
(d) Exclamatory Sentence
(e)Optative Sentence
DECLARATIVE SENTENCE
A sentence that states or declares something is called an
Assertive or Declarative sentence.
Example: The Taj Mahal is built by Shajahan.
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE
A sentence that asks a question. Example: what do you want?
Did you post the letter?
IMPERATIVE SENTENCE
A Sentence that express a command, a request, an entreaty or
suggestion. Example:
(a)Request- please post the letter, can you lend me forty
thousand?
(b) Command: don’t smoke in the room. stop there
 (c) Suggestion: what about seeing a film this evening? You had
better consult a physician.
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE
A sentence that expresses some strong or sudden feelings.
Example: what a shame! How beautiful madhavi is! What a great
success!
OPTATIVE SENTENCE
A sentence that expresses a wish, probability or supposition.
Example: I wish you were my wife. If I had wings, I would fly.

II. STRUCTURAL CLASSFICATION OF SENTENCES

It may be pointed out here that sentences can be divided into
four classes from structural point of view/grammatical point of
view. They are:
1. Simple Sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence
4. Compound-Complex Sentence or Double sentence
SIMPLE SENTENCE
A sentence which has only one subject and one predicate.
Example: The Sun rises in the east, A thing of beauty is a joy
forever.
COMPOUND SENTENCE
A sentence which consists of two or more co-ordinate clauses.
Example: I went to Agra and visited the Taj Mahal. The Doctor
examined the patient and cured him. He tried had but failed in his
attempt.
COMPLEX SENTENCE
A sentence which consists of one main clause and one or
more subordinate clauses. Example:
I saw Juma when he was talking to his brother. She got a job after
she had completed her studies.
COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE
A sentence which consists of two or more main clauses and at
least one subordinate clause. Example: while the chief guest went
on his speech, the audience laughed at him and threw stones at
him. My friends believe that he can do anything if he has a lot of
money, but I cannot agree with him.

CONSTRUCTION OF ENGLISH SENTENCES

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
Every sentence has two main parts namely subject and
predicate. A Subject contains a noun or a pronoun and the
Predicate contains a verb. So it can be said that the naming part is
the subject and the telling part is predicate.
A sentence is divided into:
1. Subject
2. Predicate
SUBJECT
The name of the person or thing we speak about is called the
Subject
PREDICATE
What is said about the subject is called the Predicate
Examples:
Subject Predicate
Salome is very beautiful
Man is a social animal
He went to Lindi
The Sun rises in the east
Mtwara Mikindani is my birth place
Notably: The Subject is omitted in an Imperative Sentence.
Example: write your name (You is omitted, thank you (I is omitted).
A. SUBJECT
We have already noted that a sentence is a group of words which
gives complete meaning and sentence contains a subject and
predicate
The subject in a sentence may consist of one word or several words.
But the subject must have a noun or a pronoun. The chief word in
the subject is called the subject word or simple subject.
Subject Word or Simple Subject: is a noun or a word or a group of
words that does the work of a noun.
1. Words use as Subjects
(a)Noun: man is a social animal
(b) Pronoun: we returned home in the evening
(c)An adjective used as a noun: the old should be respected
(d) To infinitive: to write letters is very difficult
(e)Gerund: teaching is a noble profession
(f) Phrase: a friend in need is a friend indeed
The subject word must be qualified by an adjective or an equivalent
word and we call it an attribute or enlargement.

B. ENLARGEMENT OR ATTRIBUTE
1. Word used as attribute
(a)Article: a girl stood at the gate
(b) Adjective: foolish persons can believe everything
(c)A noun in possessive case or possessive adjective:
Halima’s face is pretty, My book is on the table
(d) A noun or phrase in apposition: Mother Teresa, a great
social worker, is a kind woman.
(e)An emphatic pronoun: she herself invited me to dinner
(f) A participle used as an adjective: Barking dogs seldom bite
 (g)A prepositional phrase: Birds of the same feather flock
together
(h) To infinitive: my desire to Marry Namvulayambo is a
strong one
(i) An adjective phrase: The Manager, considerate as ever,
granted me leave.

C. PREDICATE
The essential word in the predicate is a verb and it is often modified
by an adverb or an adverb equivalent which is called the extension
of the verb or adverbial Qualification.
1. Extension of the Verb or Adverbial Qualification
(a)Adverb: He spoke very clearly
(b) Adverbial Phrase: he ate the biscuits one by one
(c)Present and past participle used as adverbs: Salima went away
smiling
(d) “To” infinitive: he began to work
(e)An adverbial object: they returned home
(f) An absolute phrase: the rain, having stopped, we continued
our work.
D. OBJECT
When a verb in the predicate is a transitive verb, it must have an
object to give complete meaning.
Object: a word or a group of words which is used after a transitive
verb is called an object.
1. Word used as objects
(a)Noun: I wrote a letter
(b) Pronoun: I liked him
(c)An adjective used as a noun: we must love the helpless
(d) To infinitive: I wanted to go
(e)Gerund: I love teaching
 (f) A phrase: I requested him to look after the child
2. Kinds of Objects
There are two types of objects, namely: Direct object and Indirect
Object
(a)Direct Object: the thing is the direct object: example: I wrote
a letter.
(b) Indirect Object: the person to whom something is given
or for whom something is done is called the indirect object.
Example: I gave him a book, I wrote her a letter
E. COMPLEMENT
When the predicate contains verbs of incomplete prediction, it
requires a word to complete the meaning. So the word which
completes the meaning of the verb is called complement.
The main verb of incomplete prediction are be, seem, appear, look,
become, grow, feel.
Complement: a word required to complete the meaning of an
intransitive verb is called a complement.
1. Words used as Complement
(a)Noun: Padma is a teacher
(b) Adjective: Mariam looks attractive
(c)Pronoun: the problem is this
(d) Present participle: the book appears interesting
(e)‘To’ infinitive: the train is to start
(f) Adverb: water is everywhere
(g)Phrase: my father is in the room.
2. Kinds of Complement: there are two types of complements
namely:
(a)Subject Compliment: a complement which is used to refer
to or describe the subject is called a Subject Complement:
he looked tired, Kalubandika is my friend.
 (b) Object Complement: A complement which is used to
refer to or describe the object is called object compliment.
Example: They named the boy Hamisi, we elected him our
President,
I considered Rahma a beauty queen.
Functions/Uses of Compound, Complex and Compound Complex
Sentences
1. To combine similar ideas
Examples: (a) Compound sentence: Recycling is an effective way of
helping the environment and everyone should recycle at home.
(b) Complex sentence: Even though I play football, I also
love playing baseball
2. To compare or contrast ideas
Examples: (a) Complex sentence: Even though they won the game,
they were lucky in regard to their opponent
(b) Compound sentence: Juma is the cleverest student in
the class while Amos is the slowest student in our class.
3. To convey cause and effect or chain of events
Examples: (a) Compound Sentence: Reseacher’s did not come to
the conclusion so they restructured their hypothesis.
(b) Complex Sentence: Because I was sick, I failed to attend
classes, so I failed the exam.
4. To elaborate or extend reasoning
Example: Because I was sick, I failed to attend classes, so I failed the
exam.

MEANING OF THE CLAUSE

A Clause: a group of words which forms a part of the sentence and
contains a subject and a predicate.
Example: When I was walking in the street
That honesty is the best policy
 Who speak the truth
How to speak English correctly
Where she was born
Why she left her parents
When I saw her
How to answer the question
TYPES OF THE CLAUSES
1. Principle Clause/Independent Clause
2. Subordinate Clause/Dependent clause
1. INDEPENDENT CALUSE
A clause which makes complete sense independently and
stands by itself is called a Main, Principal or Independent clause. It
is a clause which can stand by itself as a full sentence and when it is
spoken or written it sounds complete.
Examples: I received a letter and replied to it
I tried my best but I failed in my attempt
2. DEPENDENT CLAUSE
A clause which depends on some other clause for its meaning,
or is a clause which has to be supported by another clause so as to
be clear and meaningful. Thus, as the word “ dependent” suggests,
this is a clause which cannot stay by itself.
Examples: when I was walking in the street.........
If you are a post graduate.........
Before I saw her..............
Till you are understand better.............
Unless you show me your identity............
After she had left home ...............
Note: Subordinate clauses can be turned into meaningful sentences
Example: I saw John when I was walking in the street,
Aristotle believed that man is a social animal
KINDS OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES
 It can be divided into three, namely;
1. Noun Clause
2. Adjective Clause
3. Adverb Clause
NOUN CLAUSE
It is a group of words which contains a subject and predicate
of its own and does the work of a noun.
Example: I know that she is a teacher in the school
What I like most in her is her modesty
I know when to apply for bank loan
That she left her husband is known to all her friends
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
It is a group of words which contains a subject and a predicate
of its own and does the work of an adjective. It is introduced by
relative pronouns like who/which/that/but/as and relative adverbs
like where/when/why.
Example: The girl whom you saw in the park is my sister
The man who invited you to dinner is my uncle
There is no one but loves Halima
This is the place where I met John
I believe there must be a time when my talent is properly
recognized.
ADVERB CLAUSE
It is a group of words which contains a subject and a predicate
of its own and does the work of an adverb.
Example: I shall wait here till you return
If you know her name, please tell me
I stopped the work because I was very tired
Notably, as you might have noticed, Dependent Clauses are
preceded by words such as if, when, since, because, till, whose,
that’s..... These words are called Coordinators (Subordinate
coordinators) when dependent clauses are joined together they
form Complex Sentence.
Example: Since you came late, you will not write the exam.

TENSES
Tense is a term used in grammar to indicate the time of the
action or event. It is a form taken by a verb to show the time when
a certain action or an event happened. The tense is a way that
shows us the time of various actions. Consequently in any language,
a tense is divided into three classes namely:
1. Present Tense
2. Past Tense
3. Future Tense
Present Tense
When a verb is used to show that an action takes place at
present, it is known as the Present Tense. Example: He speaks
English well

We are fond of music

They are afraid of snakes
I like Tanzanians
Past Tense
When a verb is used to show that an action was completed, it
is known as the Past Tense. Example: She went to Mtwara
yesterday
Hon. Magufuli died one year ago
We were in Mtwara last year
It was hot yesterday
I spoke to her for three hours
Future Tense
 When a verb is used to show that an action will take place in
future =, it is known as the Future Tense. Example: He will go to
Morogoro tomorrow
We shall marry this year
They will send us a telegram
I shall teach you Swahili
It will rain tomorrow
Notably each of the above tenses are divided into four classes,
namely.
Present Tense
(a)Simple Present Tense
(b) Present Continuous Tense
(c)Present Perfect Tense
(d) Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Past Tense
(a)Simple Past Tense
(b) Past Continuous Tense
(c)Past Perfect Tense
(d) Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Future Tense
(a)Simple Future Tense
(b) Future Continuous Tense
(c)Future Perfect Tense
(d) Future Perfect Continuous Tense
CONSTRUCTION/FORMATION OF VARIOUS TENSES
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
When a tense is used to show the present tense is known as
The Simple Present Tense.
Formation of the tense: this tense is formed with the base form the
Verb. i.e
Subject + Verb Base Form (first form of the verb): Question Form:
Do/Does + subject + Verb Base Form
Examples:
A sentence: He speaks English well Question Form: Does he
speak English well?
We like talking Do we like talking?
They believe God Do they believe God?
Present Continuous Tense
When a tense is used to show what is really happening now is
known as The Present Continuous Tense.
Formation of the Tense
Subject + Am/Is/Are + Present Participle (Verb +ING) Question
Form: Am/Is/Are + Subject + Present Participle
Examples:
A Sentence: I am writing Question Form: Am I writing a
letter?
She/he is watching a T.V Is she/he watching T.V?
We are sitting in the garden Are we sitting in the garden?
They are learning music Are they learning Music?
Present Perfect Tense
When a tense is used to show that an action has just been
completed or an action has finished at the moment of speaking, it is
known as The Present Perfect Tense
Formation of the Tense
Subject + Have/Has+ Past Participle Verb 3RD Form
Examples:
A Sentence: You have built the house Question Form: Have you
built the house?
He/she has written a letter Has she/he written a letter?
We have waited for her Have we waited for her?
Present Perfect Continuous Tense
When a tense is used to show that an action has been taking place
since a point of time in the past and in progress up to now. It is
known as Present Perfect Continuous Tense.
Formation of the Tense
Subject + Have been/Has been+ Present Participle (Verb+ING)
Question Form: Have/Has +Subject +Been + Present participle
Examples:
A Sentence: I have been reading a novel Question Form: Have I
been reading a novel?
She/he has been learning English Has she/he been
learning English?
We have been waiting for her Have we been waiting
for her?
They have been building the house Have they been
building the house?

Simple Past Tense

When a verb shows that an action was completed in the past, it is
known as Simple Past Tense.
Formation of a Tense
Subject + Verb Second Form (Past Tense Verb) Question Form: Did
+ Subject + Verb Base Form (Present
Examples:
A Sentence: I read a novel Question Form: Did I read a Novel?
He/she wrote a letter Did he/she write a letter?
They built the house Did they build the house?
You sang a song Did you sing a song?
Past Continuous Tense
When a tense is used to show that an action was in progress or
incomplete in the past, it is known as Past Continuous Tense.
Formation of a Tense
Subject + was/were + Present Participle Verb’ + ING FORM
Question Form: Was/were + subject + Present participle
Examples:
A Sentence: I was reading a novel Question Form: was I
reading a novel?
We were waiting for her were we waiting for her?
He/she was writing a letter Was she/he writing a letter?
It was raining heavily was it raining heavily?
Past Perfect Tense
When a tense is used to show that an action had completed earlier
before another action began, it is known as Past Perfect Tense.
Formation of a Tense
Subject + Had + Past Participle Question Form: Had +
Subject + Past Participle
Examples:
A Sentence: I had read a novel Question Form: Had I
read a novel?
You had sung a song Had you sung a song?
They had built the house had they built the house?
It had rained heavily Had it rained heavily?
Past Perfect Continuous Tense
When a tense is used to show that an action had been in progress
up to another action began.
Formation of a Tense
Subject + Had Been +Present Participle (Verb’ +ING FORM).
Question Form: Had + Subject + Been + Present Participle
Example:
A Sentence: I had been reading a novel Question Form: had I been
reading a novel?
He/she had been writing a letter Had she/he been writing a letter?
They had been building the house had they been building the
house?
We had been waiting for her had we been waiting for her?
Simple Future
When a tense is used to show that some action will take place in
future, It is known as Simple Future Tense.
Formation of a Tense
Subject + shall/will + Base Form of the Verb (Verb First Form).
Question Form: Shall/will + subject + Verb Base Form
Examples:
A Sentence: I shall read a novel Question Form: shall I read e
novel?
We shall wait for her shall we wait for her?
He/she will learn English will she/he learn English?
You will sing a song will you sing a song?
It will rain heavily will it rain heavily?
Future Continuous Tense
When a tense is used to show that some action will be in progress
in future, It is known as Future Continuous Tense
Formation of a Tense
Subject + shall/will be + Present Participle Question Form:
Shall/will + Subject + be + present Participle
Examples:
A Sentence: I shall be reading the novel Question Form: Shall I
be reading a novel?
We shall be waiting for her shall we be waiting for her?
He/she will be learning English will he/she be learning English?
They will be building the house will they be building the house?
Future Perfect Tense
When a tense is used to show that some action will be finished in
future, It is known as Future Perfect Tense
Formation of the Tense
Subject + shall/will have + Past Participle Question Form:
Shall/will + Subject + Have + Past Participle
Examples:
A Sentence: I shall have read the novel Question Form:
Shall I have read the novel?
We shall have seen the film shall we have seen the film?
He/she will have written the letter will he/she have written the
letter?
It will have rained heavily will it have rained heavily?
Future Perfect Continuous Tense
When a tense is used to show that some action will have been in
progress in future, It is known as Future Perfect Continuous Tense.
Formation of a Tense
Subject + shall/will Have Been + Present Participle. Question Form:
3Shall/will + Subject + Have been + Present Participle
Examples:
A Sentence: I shall have been reading the novel. Question Form:
Shall I have been reading the novel?
We shall have been seeing the film shall we have been seeing
the film?
He/she will have been learning English will he/she have been
learning English?
They will have been building the house will they have been
building the house?

THE USE OF VARIOUS TENSES

THE USE OF SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
1. To express a habitual action, e.g. John gets up early in the
morning
2. To express general truths, e.g. the earth moves around the
sun
 3. In exclamatory sentences beginning with here and there, e.g.
here the Padma stops!, there the bus stops!
4. To express planned activities, e.g. my Uncle arrives tomorrow
5. To introduce quotations, e.g. Shakespears says “love is not a
time’s fool”

THE USE OF PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

1. For an action going on at the time of speaking, e.g.Janaki is
writing a letter at present
2. For a temporary action, e.g. Ramya is acting in the film
3. For future planned action, e.g. we are visiting Lindi this week

THE USE OF PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

1. For just completed actions, e.g. I have already spent the
money on books
2. To express past actions whose time is not specific, e.g. I have
never seen her before
3. For past events whose result is still felt, e.g.They have built a
new house. ( So they don’t need to stay in a rented house).
4. For an action started in the past and continued up to now, e.g.
I have not seen John for a long time

THE USE OF PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

1. For an action which began at sometime in the past and is still
going on
e.g. She has been learning English since last year. (She is still
learning)

THE USE OF SIMPLE PAST TENSE

1. For a past action with past time adverbs, e.g. My sister died
last year
 2. For a past discontinued habit, e.g. He visited temples
frequently. (He is not in the habit of visiting temples now)

THE USE OF PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

1. For an action going on at sometime in the past, e.g. My Uncle
came when I was reading the novel
2. For a persistent habit in the past, e.g. he was always talking
about greatness

THE USE OF PAST PERFECT

1. To express on of the two past actions which had completed
earlier
e.g. when I went to airport, the plane had taken off.

THE USE OF PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

1. For an action which began and had been on progress before
another action started
E.g. when I went to Arusha in 2015, Miss Jamila had been
staying there for three years

THE USE OF SIMPLE FUTURE

1. For future actions, e.g. I shall meet you tomorrow, she will
stay with us for another week.

THE USE OF FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

1. For an action going on in future, e.g. when I go home she will
be waiting for me
2. For future planned actions, e.g. we will be getting married this
November.

THE USE OF FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

 1. For a future completed action, e.g. we will have been married
when you come again

THE USE OF FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

1. For an action going on in future and it will continue to a
certain time in future.
E.g. They will have been building the house for five years by
2025.
By next November, he will have been working in the bank for
five years.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

Words spoken by a person can be reported to another person in two
ways. These two ways of narration are called direct speech and
indirect speech.
Direct speech
When we use direct speech we quote the actual words said by the
speaker.
Examples are:
She said, ‘I am going to the market.’
John said, ‘I will be late today.’
Alice said, ‘Would you like to come with me?’

Indirect speech
When we use indirect speech, we do not quote the exact words said
by the speaker. Instead, we express the idea in our own words.
In order to report the words of the original speaker in our own
language, we have to make several changes in his/her sentence. The
important rules are given below:

Rules regarding the Change of Personal Pronouns

First Personal I My Me
Pronoun We Our Us
Second You Your You
Personal
Pronoun
Third Personal He His Him
Pronoun She Her Her
It Its It
They Their Them

Normally we make the following changes in the personal pronoun of

the reported speech.
 First personal pronoun of the reporting speech changes
according to the subject of the reported speech.
 Second personal pronoun of the reporting speech changes
according to the object of the reported speech.
 Third personal pronoun of the reporting speech doesn’t
undergo any change

Table for Personal Pronouns

Personal 1st 2nd 3rd
Pronouns of
Reported
Speech
Change Subject Object No Change
according to
the Subject /
Object of the
Reporting
Speech

Rules regarding the Change in Tenses

When the reporting verb is in the present or future tense…

If the reporting verb is in the present or future tense, the tense of the
verb in the direct speech does not undergo any changes in the
indirect speech.
She says, ‘I have done my duty.’ (Direct speech)
She says that she has done her duty. (Indirect speech)
Direct: He says to her, ‘I will wait for you at the railway station.’
Indirect: He tells her that he will wait for her at the railway station.
Direct: He says, ‘I am not coming.’
Indirect: He says that he is not coming.
Direct: She will say, ‘I don’t want to come.’
Indirect: She will say that she does not want to come.
Direct: He will say, ‘I cannot wait any longer.’
Indirect: He will say that he cannot wait any longer.

When the reporting verb is in the past tense…

When the reporting verb is in the past tense, all present tenses inside
the quotation marks will change to their corresponding past tenses.
The simple present tense will change into the simple past tense.
The present continuous tense will change into the past continuous
tense.
The past continuous tense will change into the past perfect
continuous tense.
The present perfect tense will change into the past perfect tense.
The present perfect continuous tense will change into the past
perfect continuous tense.
Past perfect and Past perfect continuous do not change.

1st form of the Changes into 2nd form of Changes into had + 3rd
Verb → the Verb → form of the Verb
Do/Does → Did → Had + 3rd form
Is/am/are + 1st Change into Was/were + Change into had been
form+ing → 1st form+ing → + 1st form+ing
Has/have +3rd Change into Had+3rd ‘Had’ doesn’t change
form → form → (No change)
Has/have been Change into Had been ‘Had been’ doesn’t
+1 form+ing → +1st form+ing →
st
change (No change)
Shall/Will + 1st Would + 1st form
form →

Here the reporting verb (said) is in the past tense. To change this
sentence into indirect speech, we have to change the present tense(s)
inside the quotation marks into their corresponding past tenses.

Rules for the Change of Tenses

We have seen that when the reporting verb is in the past tense, all
present tenses inside the quotation marks will change into their
corresponding past tenses in indirect speech. Study the example
sentences given below.
Direct: She said, ‘I don’t want to come with you.’
Indirect: She said that she didn’t want to come with me.
Direct: He said, ‘I am writing a letter.’
Indirect: He said that he was writing a letter.
Direct: She said, ‘I have finished the work.’
Indirect: She said that she had finished the work.
Direct: He said, ‘I want some razors.’
Indirect: He said that he wanted some razors.
Direct: John said, ‘I have been living in this city for ten years.’
Indirect: John said that he had been living in that city for ten years.
Direct: He said, ‘I have been waiting here for several hours.’
Indirect: He said that he had been waiting there for several hours.

When the reporting verb is in the past tense, past tenses inside the
quotation marks will change into their corresponding past tenses.
The simple past will change into the past perfect.
The past continuous will change into the past perfect continuous.
The past perfect and past perfect continuous tenses will remain
unchanged.
Direct: He said, ‘Burglars broke into my house last night.’
Indirect: He said that burglars had broken into his house the
previous night.
Direct: She said to me, ‘I was waiting for my sister.’
Indirect: She told me that she had been waiting for her sister.
Direct: She said, ‘I had never met such people before.’
Indirect: She said that she had never met such people before.
Direct: John said, ‘I had been gardening for two hours.’
Indirect: John said that he had been gardening for two hours.
Note that sometimes we do not change a simple past tense into past
perfect tense in the indirect speech.
Direct: He said, ‘I lived many years in the US.’
Indirect: He said that he lived many years in the US. OR He said that
he had lived many years in the US.
Note that the past perfect tense is used to lay stress on the
completion of one past action before another past action.
When the reporting verb is in the past tense, shall will change
into should in indirect speech. Similarly, will will change
into would, can into could and may into might.
Direct: She said, ‘I will work hard.’
Indirect: She said that she would work hard.
Direct: He said, ‘They will be arriving here by the next train.’
Indirect: He said that they would be arriving there by the next train.
Direct: Alice said, ‘I will have finished the work by now.’
Indirect: Alice said that she would have finished the work by then.

Rules for the Change of Adverbs in Indirect Speech

Besides the changes in the tenses and the pronouns, words
expressing nearness in direct speech are changed into words
expressing distance in indirect speech. The rules are as follows:
This will change into that.
These will change into those.
Here will change into there.
Now/just will change into then.
Today will change into that day.
Yesterday will change into the previous day or the day before.
Last night will change into the previous night or the night before.
Tomorrow will change into the next day.
Ago will change into before.
The next day/week/year will change into the following
day/week/year.
Hence will change into thence.
Thus will change into so or in that way.
EXAMPLES
Direct: He said, ‘I am too weak to work now.’
Indirect: He said that he was too weak to work then.
Direct: She said, ‘I will leave for New York tomorrow’.
Indirect: She said that she would leave for New York the next day.
Direct: He said, ‘I visited them yesterday.’
Indirect: He said that he had visited them the previous day.
Direct: She said, ‘I liked this bag.’
Indirect: She said that she liked that bag.
Direct: I said, ‘I am leaving tomorrow.’
Indirect: She said that she was leaving the next day.
Direct: She said, ‘These mangoes are rotten.’
Indirect: She said that those mangoes were rotten.
Direct: He said, ‘These are our dogs.’
Indirect: He said that those were their dogs.
Note:
Adverbs of time or place do not normally change if the reporting
verb is in the present or future tense.
Direct: She says, ‘My husband will come now.’
Indirect: She says that her husband will come now.
Direct: She will say, ‘I have to leave now.’
Indirect: She will say that she has to leave now.
If the adverbs now, this, here etc., refer to objects present at the
time of reporting the speech, or to the place in which the reporter is
at the time of the speech, they are not changed into then, that, there
etc.
John said to me, ‘I have no time to talk to you now.’
John told me that he had no time to talk to me now. (Here the report
is made immediately.)
Alice said, ‘This is my basket.’
Alice said that this was her basket. (Here the basket is right before
us.)
He said, ‘I will speak here.’
He said that he would speak here. (Here the report is made on the
same spot.)

Types of Sentences
1: Declarative Sentences
Turn the following sentences into indirect speech.
1. John said, ‘I am very busy now.’
2. He said, ‘The horse has been fed.’
3. ‘I know her name and address,’ said John.
4. ‘German is easy to learn,’ she said.
5. He said, ‘I am writing letters.’
6. ‘It is too late to go out,’ Alice said.
7. He said to me, ‘I don’t believe you.’
8. He says, ‘I am glad to be here this evening.’
9. He said to me, ‘What are you doing?’
10. ‘Where is the post office?’ asked the stranger.
11. He said, ‘Will you listen to me?’
12. John said to Peter, ‘Go away.’
13. She said to me, ‘Please wait here till I return.’
14. ‘Call the witness,’ said the judge.
15. The speaker said, ‘Be quiet and listen to my words.’
Answers
1. John said that he was very busy then.
2. He said that the horse had been fed.
3. John said that he knew/knows her name and address. (Note that
the tenses may not change if the statement is still relevant or if it is a
universal truth.)
4. She said that German is/was easy to learn.
5. He said that he was writing letters.
6. Alice said that it was too late to go out.
7. He told me that he didn’t believe me. OR He said he didn’t
believe me.
8. He says that he is glad to be here this evening. (When the
reporting verb is in the present tense, adverbs of time and place do
not normally change in indirect speech.)
9. He asked me what I was doing.
10. The stranger asked where the post office is/was.
11. He asked me if I would listen to him.
12. John ordered Peter to go away.
13. She asked me to wait there till she returned.
14. The judge commanded them to call the first witness.
15. He urged them to be quiet and listen to them.

2: Interrogative Sentences
There are two main kinds of interrogative sentences. Those which
start with an auxiliary verb and those which start with a question
word such as what, why, when, where, how etc.
The following changes occur when an interrogative sentence in the
direct speech is changed to the indirect speech.
Interrogative sentences beginning with an auxiliary verb are changed
into the indirect speech by using the connective if or whether.
The reporting verb said (or any other word used as the reporting
verb) changes to asked, queried, questioned, demanded
of or enquired of in the indirect speech. Note that of is used
after enquired and demanded only when the reporting verb has an
object.
The most common reporting verbs used to report a question
are asked and enquired of. The reporting verb queried is
somewhat investigative. Demanded of is the strongest of all
reporting verbs mentioned above. It is used when an explanation is
desired.
Note that the indirect narration is always in the assertive form. In
other words, the interrogative sentences in the direct speech will
change into assertive sentences in the indirect speech.
Study the following examples carefully to understand the rules
mentioned above.
Direct: She said to me, ‘Are you coming with us?’
Indirect: She asked me if I was going with them. OR She asked
them if I was coming with them.
Direct: She said to me, ‘Are you unwell?’
Indirect: She asked me if I was unwell.
Direct: She said to him, ‘Am I to wait for you till eternity?’
Indirect: She enquired of him if she was to wait for him till
eternity.
Direct: I said to him, ‘Were you present at the meeting yesterday?’
Indirect: I asked him whether he had been present at the meeting
the day before (or the previous day).
Direct: The woman asked the stranger, ‘Should I help you?’
Indirect: The woman asked the stranger whether she should
help him.
Note that the auxiliary verbs should, could, would, ought to and
might do not change in the indirect speech.
Direct: I said to him, ‘Who are you?’
Indirect: I asked him who he was.
Direct: The mother said to the daughter, ‘Do you know where John
is?’
Indirect: The mother asked the daughter whether she knew where
John was.
Direct: ‘Have you anything to say on behalf of the accused?,’ said
the judge to the lawyer.
Indirect: The judge enquired of the lawyer if he had anything to say
on behalf of the accused.

Interrogative Part II
Direct: The Father said, ‘Son, did I not ask you to study hard?’
Indirect: The father enquired of his son if he had not asked him to
study hard.
Direct: My father said to me, ‘Where were you last night?’
Indirect: My father demanded of me where I had been the previous
night.
Direct: She said, ‘Friend, will you wait for a moment?’
Indirect: She asked her friend if she would wait for a moment.
Interrogative sentences beginning with a question word
When a question begins with a question word such as what, who,
whom, when, where, why, how etc., the same word is used to
introduce the question in the indirect speech. In other words, the
question word becomes the joining word instead of that, if or
whether.
Direct: Viola said to Rosalind, ‘Where are you going ’
Indirect: Viola asked Rosalind where she was going.
Direct: The teacher asked the new comer, ‘What is your name?’
Indirect: The teacher asked the new comer what his name was.
Direct: The wolf said to the lamps, ‘Why are you all so sad?’
Indirect: The wolf asked the lamps why they were all so sad.
Direct: The mother said to her daughter, ‘Dear, how have you fared
in the examination?’
Indirect: The mother asked her daughter lovingly how she had
fared in the examination.
Direct: The shopkeeper said to me, ‘Which bag do you want?’
Indirect: The shopkeeper asked me which bag I wanted.
Direct: She said to him, ‘Why are you disturbing me?’
Indirect: She asked him why he was disturbing her.
Direct: I said to the boys, ‘Who teaches you English?’
Indirect: I asked the boys who taught them English.
Direct: John said to Mary, ‘What are you doing?’
Indirect: John asked Mary what she was doing.
Direct: The old man said to himself, ‘Why did I come here?’
Indirect: The old man asked himself why he had come there.

3: Imperative Sentences
Imperative sentences do not normally have an expressed subject.
This is because the subject ‘you’ is usually understood. As a result
of this, imperative sentences begin with a verb in the simple present
tense.
An imperative sentence expresses ideas such as advice, order,
request, suggestion, instruction, permission, allowance etc.
In order to change an imperative sentence into the indirect speech,
we use a to-infinitive. A –that clause is also possible in some cases.
Note that instead of ‘said’ we use one of the following reporting
verbs:
Advise, command, request, suggest, threaten, order, forbid, decree,
propose, entreat, prompt, counsel, pardon, beg, persuade, instruct
etc.
Notes:
After suggest, we use a –that clause and not an infinitive.
The verb propose is not followed by an object.
The verb forbid itself conveys a negative sense. Therefore, we do
not use not in the following clause.
Study the following examples carefully.
Direct: The old woman said to the boy, ‘Please help me.’
Indirect: The old woman requested the boy to help her.
Direct: I said to him, ‘Love and obey your parents’.
Indirect: I advised him to love and obey his parents. OR I advised
that he should love and obey his parents.
Direct: The teacher said to the boys, ‘Work hard.’
Indirect: The teacher advised the boys to work hard. OR The
teacher suggested that the boys should work hard.
Direct: The doctor said to the patient, ‘Quit smoking.’
Indirect: The doctor advised the patient to quit smoking. OR The
doctor suggested that the patient should quit smoking.
Direct: The officer said to the clerk, ‘Do it immediately.’
Indirect: The officer ordered the clerk to do it immediately.
Direct: The teacher said to the boy, ‘Come in, please.’
Indirect: The teacher allowed (or asked) the boy to come in.
Direct: He said to me, ‘Post this letter at once.’
Indirect: He ordered me to post that letter at once.
Direct: I said to the children, ‘Do not make a noise.’
Indirect: I forbade the children to make a noise. (NOT I forbade
the children not to make a noise.)
Direct: I said to her, ‘Don’t mention his name’.
Indirect: I forbade her to mention his name.
Direct: I said to the child, ‘Do not look down into the well.’
Indirect: I warned the child not to look down into the well.
Direct: He said to me, ‘Wait here till I return.’
Indirect: He asked me to wait there till he returned.
Indirect: He said that he was unwell
4: Optative Sentences
It is sentence that indicates a wish, pray or desire.
If the reported speech begins with the word “may”, we change
the reporting verb into prayed.
She said, “May my son stand first in the class!”
She prayed that her son might stand first in the class.
He said to them, “May you catch the train today!”
He prayed for them that they might catch the train that day.
They said. “May the police arrest the thieves!”
They prayed that police might arrest the thieves.
If the reported speech begins with the word “would”, we change
the reporting verb into wished.
Mother said to me, “Would that your father was here today!”
Mother wished that my father had been there that day
The teacher said to the students, “Would that I was on leave today!”
The teacher wished that he had been on leave that day.
He said, “Would that I were rich!”
He wished that he had been rich.
5: Exclamatory Sentences
In reporting exclamations the indirect speech is introduced by some
verb expressing exclamation.
He said, “Alas! My brother has met an accident.”
He exclaimed with great sorrow that his brother had met with an
accident.
He said, “Alas! I am undone.”
He exclaimed sadly that he was undone.
He said, “Bravo! You have done well.”
He applauded him, saying that he had done well.
They said to us, “Hurrah! We have defeated your team.”
They exclaimed with great joy that they had defeated our team.
We said, “How old this woman is!”
We said in great surprise that woman was very old.
Ali said, “How clever I am!”
Ali exclaimed that he was very clever

READING SKILLS

Reading -is to the mind what exercise is to the body,” said English author
Joseph Addison.
The comparison couldn’t be more fitting. Just as you need exercise to build
your physical strength, you need to read to build your mental muscles.
People read for a variety of reasons:
 To pass time, to seek answers
 To clear their heads.
Whatever their reasons for reading, it is a great way of exercising the brain
and improving your communication skills. Just as you have simple as well
as specialized exercise routines and equipment, you also have different
types of reading skills. You can choose the right one depending on your
objective.

Different types of reading

It's important to know the different types of reading skills to make the most
of what you are reading.

1. Extensive reading:
Extensive reading is one of the methods of reading that people use for
relaxation and pleasure. Adopt this method when the purpose is to enjoy
the reading experience. It places no burden upon the reader and due to
its indulgent nature; it is seldom used if the text isn’t enjoyable.
This is one of the methods of reading that occurs naturally. It’s how you’ve
read as a child and while growing up.
This method of reading helps you understand words in context and
enriches your vocabulary.

2. Intensive reading:
Among the different types of reading skills, intensive reading is used
when you want to read carefully by paying complete attention to
understand every word of the text. It is where you would examine and
decipher each unfamiliar word or expression.
As the term states, intensive means in-depth. This reading method is
especially used when reading academic texts, where the goal is to
prepare for an exam or to publish a report. This method helps retain
information for much longer periods.

3. Scanning:
Imagine if you went to the Louvre museum only to see the Mona Lisa.
You’d quickly walk through all the corridors and rooms merely glancing at
the walls until you found it. Scanning is quite similar to that.
It is one of those kinds of reading where you read to search for a
particular piece of information. Your eyes quickly skim over the sentences
until you find it.
You can use this method when you don’t need to go deep into the text
and read every word carefully. Scanning involves rapid reading and is
often used by researchers and for writing reviews.

4. Skimming:
Through this method, you try to understand the text in short. Though one
saves a lot of time through this method, one will gain only a shallow
understanding of the text.
Skimming is a great way to get a broad idea of the topic being discussed.
This method is generally used to judge whether the information is useful
or not.
A good example of this is picking up a magazine and flipping through the
pages. You take in only the headings or the pictures to get a broad idea
of what the magazine covers.

5. Critical reading:
Among the different types of reading strategies, critical reading has a
special place. Here, the facts and information are tested for accuracy.
 You take a look at the ideas mentioned and analyze them until you reach
a conclusion.
You would have to apply your critical faculties when using this method.
Critical reading is often used when reading the news on social media,
watching controversial advertisements, or reading periodicals.

Various types of reading lead to different outcomes-Choosing the right one

can be instrumental in furthering your goals. Further, diversifying your
reading habits to include different types of reading will enable you to
become a better writer and speaker.
Reading techniques
In order to read effectively, you need to use different reading techniques for
different purposes and texts. You should always read for a clearly defined
purpose.
Skimming
Skimming will help you grasp the general idea or gist of a text. You might
quickly read the table of contents, the headings or the abstract. You could
also read the first and last paragraphs and the first and last sentence of
each paragraph in a relevant section.
Scanning
Scanning allows you to locate precise information. You might identify a key
terms or expressions which will alert you to where your subject is being
addressed. You could then run your eyes over a text looking for these.
Intensive reading
Detailed reading allows you to critically consider aspects of the text. This
may involve close reading of the entire text, or of important sections of the
text.
Revision reading
This involves reading rapidly through material with which you are already
familiar, in order to confirm knowledge and understanding.
Stages in reading a text
It is important to break down the reading process into the following
stages:
Before reading get an overview of the text:
 skim the table of contents, headings and subheadings
 read the introduction and conclusion
 scan the relevant sections to locate where your topic is discussed
During reading closely follow the development of the ideas in the text:
 read actively - write in the margins, highlight phrases, take note of
important points
 don't forget to examine diagrams and figures as they are information-
dense
 read critically - ask yourself questions; for example, Is the argument
logical? Is it biased? Is there enough evidence to support the author's
conclusions
After reading
Think over what you have read. Make a brief summary of the main ideas
and concepts in the text

USES OF PUNCTUATIONS SIGNS

These are symbols or signs used during writing a sentence. They are
used to show sense, clarity, and stress in the sentence.
FULL STOP (.)
Is a symbol or dot that stops or allow a speaker to a long pause.
USES OF FULL STOP
 It uses to close a sentence in a sentence
 It closes a sentence that commands or requests
 It is used to show that the word has been abbreviated
 They also used in address
 It used to show decimals
 It is used to show shillings and cents
 They also used in writing website, emails, etc
  They are used to show something missing in a sentence or
sentence is not in complete.

CAPITALIZATION
A capital letter marks the beginning of a sentence. A capital letter
also marks the beginning of a direct quotation and the salutation
and the closing letter.
There are different rules associating with capitalization;
Rule 1- capitalize the first word of every sentence, example;
Many people worked for independent in Tanzania.
Rule 2- capitalize the first word of a direct quotation that is
complete sentence. A direct quotation gives a speaker’s exact word.
Example;
John said, “One of those men was Madam Tuzza”
Rule 3-When direct quotation is interrupted by explanatory
word such as she said, don’t begin the second part of the direct
quotation with a capital letter. Example;
“I read a famous poem”, Said John, “about Madam Tuzza”.
Rule 4- Don’t capitalize an indirect quotation. An indirect
quotation is often introduced by the word “that”. Example; The
teacher said that the poem was written by Long fellow.
Rule 5- capitalize the first word in the salutation and the
closing of a letter. Capitalize the title and the name of the person
addressed.
Example; Dear Mrs. Adamson, My dear Abigail, With lore,
Sincerely yours
CAPITALIZING NAMES AND TITLES OF PEOPLE
Rule 1: Capitalize the names of people and the initials that
stand for their names.
Example; Clark Kent, Susan B. Anthony, E.C.Stanton
 Rule 2: capitalize a title or an abbreviation of a title when it
comes before a person’s name.
Example; President Samia, Dr. Martin Luther King.
Capitalize a title when it is used instead of a name.
Example; “Has the enermy surrender, General?” asked the colonel.
-Don’t capitalize a title that follows a name, or one that is
used a common noun
Example; Samia Suluhu, president of the United Republic of
Tanzania.
Rule 3: capitalize the names and abbreviations of academic
degrees that follow a name. Capitalize Jr. and Sr. Example;
J.Nzunda, M.D, Juslina Tuzza, PhD, Lazck Ame, Sr.
Rule 4: capitalize the words that show family relationship.
When they are used as titles or as substitutes for names.
Example; Last year Father and Aunt Beth travelled to eastern states.
Don’t capitalize words that show family relationship when
they follow possessive nouns and pronouns. Example; Jo’s uncle
took photographs. My aunt Mary framed them.
Rule 5: always capitalize the pronoun I. Example; Tanzanian
history is the subject I like most.
CAPITALIZING NAMES OF PLACES
The names of specific places are proper nouns and should be
capitalized. Don’t capitalize articles and short prepositions that are
part of geographical names
Rule1: capitalize the names of cities, counties, states,
countries, and continents.
Example; San Diego, Tanzania, Mexico, Europe, North Carolina.
Rule 2: capitalize the names of bodies of water and other
geographical features
Example; Lake, Victoria, Pacific Ocean, Nile Valley.
Rule 3: capitalize the names of sections of country.
Example; The Sun Belt, New England
Rule 4: capitalize direction words when they name a particular
section of a country.
Example; The South, The West, Coast, The North East.
Rule 5: capitalize the names of particular buildings, bridges,
monuments, and other structures.
Example; The White House, Nyerere Memorial.

USING END PUNCTUATION

Rule 1: use a period at the end of a declarative sentence. A
declarative sentence. Example; Tractors perform many jobs on a
form.
Rule 2: Use a period at the end of an imperative sentence. An
imperative sentence gives a command or makes a request .
example; Turn the key. (command)
Please start the motor.(request)
Rule 3: Use a question mark at the end of an interrogative
sentence: An interrogative ssentnce ask question. example; who
built the first tractor?
Rule 4: use an exclamation point at the end of an exclamatory
sentence.an exclamatory sentence expresses strong feelings
Example: what a loud noise it makes!
Rule 5: use exclamation point after strong interjection. An
interjection word or group of words that expresses emotion.
Example: Wow!, phew!, Oop!, ouch! My God!

USING COMMAS
When you use commas to separate items, you place a comma
between items, when you use commas to set off an item, you place
a comma before, and after the item, of course, you never place a
comma at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.
 Rule 1: separate three or more words, phrases, or clause in
series.
Example; Cars, buses, and trucks clog city streets.
Rule 2: in a date, set off the year when it is used with both the
month and the day. Don’t use a comma if only the month and the
year are given.
Example; The Ship struck an ice berg on April 14, 1903, and sank
early the next morning.
Rule 3: set off the name of the state or a country when it is
used after the name of the city. Set off the name of a city when it is
used after a street address, don’t use a comma after the state if it is
followed by a zip code.
Example; the ship was sailing from the south, England, to New York
City.
You can write to Leeza at 15 College Court, Stanford, CA
94305.
Rule 4: set of an abbreviated title or degree following a
person’s name.
Example; Michelle Pondamali, Ph.D, will be the graduation speaker.
Rule 5: use a comma after the situation of a friendly letter and
after the closing of both a friendly letter and a business letter.
Example; Dear Dad, Your loving daughter, Your truly.

USING SEMI COLONS AND COLONS (; :)

Rule 1: use semicolon to join the main clauses of a compound
sentence if they are not joined by a conjunction such as and, but,
or, nor, for.
Example; the electric Car was once the most popular car in the
united states of America States; people liked electric car because
they were clean and quiet.
 Rule 2: use a colon to introduce a list of items that ends a
sentence .use a word or a phrase such as these, the following , or
as follows before the list.
Example; I will need these supplies for my project; news papers,
flour, water, string, and a paint.
Rule 3: use a colon to separate the hour and the minutes
when you use numerals to write the time of day. Example; the train
left the station at 10: 17 A.M and arrived in the city 12: 33 PM.
Rule 4: use a colon after the salutation of a business letter
Example: Dear Editor in Chief:.

USING QUOTATION MARKS AND ITALICS (“ ”)

Rule 1: use quotation marks to enclose a direct quotation.
Example: “Please return these books to the library”, Said Ms. Jamy.
Rule 2: use quotation marks to enclose each part of an
interrupted quotation. Example: “Spiders” explained sean, “have
eight legs”.
Rule 3: place a period inside closing quotation marks.
Example: Toby said, “ my aunt Susan received her degree in June”.
Rule 4: enclose in quotation marks titles of short stories essay,
poems, songs, articles, book chapters and single television show
that are part of series.
Example: “Charles” (short stories), “Jingle Bells” (song)
Rule 5: use italics or underlining for titles of books, plays,
movies, television series, magazines, newspapers, works of art,
music albums, and long musical compositions.
Also use italics or underlining for names of ships, airplanes
and space craft. Don’t italicize or underline the word “the” before
the title of a magazine or newspaper.
Example: The adventure of Tom Sawyer (book).

USING APOSTROPHES (‘)

 Rule 1: use an apostrophe and ‘s’ to form the possessive of a
singular noun.
Example; girl+’s=girl’s

Rule 2: use an apostrophe alone to form the possessive of a

plural noun that does not end in S.
Example: men+’s =men’s, gees+’s =geese’s
Rule 3: use an apostrophe alone to form the possessive of
plural noun that ends in S
Example: boys+ ‘=boys’, judges +’=Judges’
Rule 4: use an apostrophe to replace letters that are omitted
in a construction
Example: it is=it’s, you are= you’re, I will=I’ll, is not=isn’t

USING HYPHENS, DASHES AND PARANTHESES

Rule 1: us a hyphen to divide a word at the end of a line.
Divide words only between syllabuses
Example: with her husband, John, Eliya haonga, discovered radium
and polonium.
Rule 2: use a hyphen in compound numbers. Example:
twenty-two piano, sixty-five experiments.
Rule 3: use a hyphen in fractions expressed in words.
Example: one-half cup of butter or margarine.
Rule 4: use a hyphen or hyphens in certain compound nouns.
Check a dictionary for the correct way to write a compound noun.
Example: great-aunt, brother-in-law.
Rule5: use a hyphen after the prefixes all- and self
Use hyphen to separate any prefix from a word that
begins with a capital letter.
Example: all-powerful, self-educated, ex-president, trans-Atlantic.
 Rule 6: use hyphen in a compound modifier when it comes
before the word it modifies.
Example: Fido is a well-trained dog
Rule 7: use dashes to set off a sudden break or change in
thought or speech.
Example: Billy Adams-he lives next door –is our team manager.
Rule 8: use parentheses to set off words that define or explain
a word.
Example: simulators (devices that produce the conditions of space
flight) used in flight training for the space program.

USING ABBREVIATIONS
Rule 1: use the abbreviations Mr, Mrs., Ms., and Dr. before a
person’s name. Abbreviate professional or academic degrees that
follow a person’s name. Abbreviate senior as Sr. and junior as Jr.
when they follow person’s name.
Example: Mr.Ed Hall, Dr. Ann Chu, Juan Diaz, PhD, Amos Finley Sr.
Rule 2: use capital letters and no. periods of abbreviations
that are pronounced letter by letter or as words exceptions are U.S
and Washington, D.C, which should have periods.
Example: MVP-Most Valuable Player, EST-Eastern Standard Time.
Rule 3: use the abbreviations A.M (Ante Meridian, before
noon”). And P.M. (Post Meridian, after Noon), for dates use B.C
(Before Christ) and sometimes A.D (Anno Domino)in the year the
Lord after Christ.
Example: 6:22 A.M, 4: 12 P.M, 330 B.C, AD 476.
Rule 4: abbreviate days and months only in charts and lists.
Examples: Mon. Wed. Thurs. Jan. Apr. Aug. Nov.
Rule 5: scientific writing, abbreviate units of measure, use
periods with abbreviates of U.S units but not with abbreviations of
metric units.
Examples: Inch (es) in. foot (feet)-ft. gram(s)-g.
Rule 6: in addressing envelopes, abbreviations words that
refer to streets. Spell out these words everywhere else. Example: st.
(street), Ave. (Avenue), Rd. (Road)
Rule 7: in addressing envelopes, use the two- letter postal
abbreviations for states. Spell out names everywhere else.
Example: texas-TX, Florida-FL, California-CA,
Rule 8: when an abbreviation with a period falls at the end of
a sentence, don’t add another period. Add a question mark if the
sentence is interrogative; add an exclamation point if the sentence
is exclamatory. Example: I just met Francis X. Colavito Sr., Have you
met Francis X. Colavito Jr.?

TEXT SUMMARIZATION
Text summarization is the process of turning large documents into
shorter and precise paragraphs or sentences.
The process brings out information that is crucial, and also ensures
that the meaning of the paragraph stays the same. This helps
reduce the time to understand and large papers like research
articles, without skipping any vital information.
Automatic Text Summarization
Human beings are generally good at perceiving what is
important and what is not. This makes them efficient at
summarizing large texts. Machines, on the other hand, do not have
the perception of what is important or not.
They need to insert proper coding and programs into machines so
that they too can create summarized texts just like humans. And
process of text summarization done with machine or AI programs is
known Automatic Text Summarization.
However, there are challenges to automatic text summarization.
The first problem is selecting the appropriate information from the
main document. After that, the summarizer has to express the final
summary in reader-friendly manner based on the type of input.
There are two types of text summarization:
1. Single Document
This is basically self-explanatory. Single document summarizers aim
to summarize one single document.
2. Multiple Documents
Multiple documents or multiple text summarizations include
multiple documents and the final paper has to contain summarized
information from all documents.

Types of Text Summarization Based on Outcome

1. Extraction based on Text Summarization
Extraction-based summarization is a simple process. The important
words and phrases are taken out of the original text and compiled
together to make summary
There is no rephrasing or using synonyms in this summarization
process. The words are taken out as they are and slightly
rearranged to give the sentence a structure. Because there is no use
of synonyms and no rephrasing, it makes the summarization
process easier.
For example, if the original text is “Luna and Neville washed
their hands before they greeted each other”. Then an extraction-
based summary of the text would be “Luna and Neville greeted
each other”. Most machines and AI programs use this type of
summarization.

2. Abstraction based Text Summarization

Abstraction based summarization is more complex than extraction-
based summarization. It takes out the original and important
sentence from a text document and rephrases it with proper
synonyms. That way, it will look like a completely different text but
have the same meaning as the original text.
That is why it is difficult because figuring out the right synonyms
and rephrasing by keeping the meaning the same is tough.
For example: if the original text is “John was climbing down
the stairs hurriedly. He slipped and fell down and broke his ankle”,
then the abstraction summary would be “John broke his ankle after
he slipped from running down stairs”.

Summarization Based on Type of Information used

Text summarization can be categorized into three types:-
1. Domain-Specific
Domain knowledge is used in domain-specific summarization.
Domain-specific summarizers can be integrated with specific
context, knowledge, and words. For example, models can be
integrated with words used in medical science so that it can be
better understand scientific articles on medical science and
summarize them.

2. Query Based
Query based summaries mostly contain information about natural
language questions. This is similar to Google’s search results.
Sometimes we type in questions on the search bar and Google
shows us websites or articles that have answers to our questions.

3. Generic
Generic summarizations are not programmed to make any
assumptions like the domain-specific or query-based summarizers.
It just condenses or summarizes the information from the source
document.

The Benefits of Using Text Summarization

There are quite a few significant benefits of text
summarization such as-
 They make reading easier
 It saves time
 It helps memorize information easily
 It boosts the work rate efficiency.

A GOOD SUMMARY
The primary goals of text summarization are;
 Optimal topic coverage
  Optimal readability
To ensure these two factors, there are few evaluation criteria.
 One of them is salience or keeping the most important aspect.
 A summarizer has to be programmed to catch the most
important information of the source document.
 The final summary has to be of perfect length.
 It should not be too long or too short. The structure need to
be reader-friendly.
 The sentences have to coherent and make sense.
 It should not have weird pronouns in its formation
 The entire summary has to be redundant
Therefore, if a summarizer can maintain all these criteria, it will be
able to produce reader-friendly summaries that can help us in many
different ways.
 ANTONYMS AND SYNONYMS
ANTONYMS
Antonyms are words that have opposite meaning. For
example, an antonym of day is night, and an antonym of on is off.
The term antonym comes from antonym, which is the technical
grammar term for words that have contradictory meanings-but you
can think of antonyms as Opposites
Synonyms are closely related to synonyms, which are words that
have identical meanings. While antonyms have opposite meaning,
synonyms have the same meaning.
For example, the word big, the antonym of big is small. This is
because big and small are opposites; the synonym of big is large
because big and large mean the same thing.

TYPES OF ANTONYMS
When we say antonyms are opposites that is a bit general. There
are different types of opposites and so different types of antonyms.
i. Complementary antonyms
Also known as Binary antonyms or contradictory antonyms.
These are word pairs where the positive use of one means the
negative use of the other. Examples are;
On-off
Real-fake
Alive –dead
ii. Gradable antonyms
Also known as Polar antonyms, are opposite amounts of the
same quality. For example, Far and near are gradable
antonyms because they are opposite amounts of distance,
however these qualities are relative. Other example are;
New-old
Hot-cold
Long-short
iii. Relational Antonyms
Also known as Converse antonyms, play opposite roles in a
mutual relationship. For example, lecturer and student are
relational antonyms. Other examples are;
 Buy-sell
Left-right
Parent-child

ANTONYMS AND PREFIXES

In English, antonyms are often used with prefixes, small syllables of
around one to three letters that attach to the beginnings of words
to change their meanings. There are few prefixes that reverse a
word’s meaning turning it into its opposite. Some examples are;
dis-
honest- dishonest
appear- disappear
agree- disagree

i-
logical-illogical
legal- illegal
responsible- irresponsible

in-, im-
possible- impossible
decent- indecent
discreet- indiscreet

non-
believer- nonbeliever
binary- nonbinary
linear- nonlinear

mis-
lead- mislead
behave- misbahave
fortune- misfortune

mal-
function- malfunction
 nutrition- malnutrition
adaptive- maladaptive

un-
important- unimportant
necessary- unnecessary
likely- unlikely
PURPOSE OF ANTONYMS
The purpose of antonyms play an important role in writing by
making your words more effective. Placing opposites together
highlights their difference and makes the individual words together
Antonyms use power of opposites in three ways:
i. Comparisons
Antonyms are great for comparing two separate things and
drawing attention to what makes them different. For example
if you are writing a research paper that compares two topics,
using pairs of antonyms can better communicate what sets
them apart.
ii. Description
Sometimes the best way to describe something is to explain
what it isn’t. Using antonyms with a negative can new
dimensions to you descriptions and improve your writing’s
word choice. For example; you might describe someone who
is arrogant as “not modest” and ‘’humble’’ are antonyms of
arrogant.
iii. Antithesis
Antithesis is a literary device that directly harnesses the
power of opposites by placing them next to or near each
other. Example one of the most famous example of antithesis
is Neil Armstrong’s real life

IMPORTANCE/USES OF ANTONYMS
The reasonable significance of antonyms depends on;
i. Comprehension being used of ordinary life
communicational circumstances
ii. It assumes comparative part in a few field of concentrate,
for example, etymology, psychology, writing or
psycholinguistics and direct securing in kids
iii. In the field of writing, alternate extremes are dissected as
recognizing elements of emotional composition. Indeed,
even artistic figures frequently are impacted more
extensive part of antonym.
iv. In Sentence, to express contrasting ideas, for example;
although it was hot outside, the temperature inside of my
apartment was cold from running the air conditioner all
day.
v. Useful in in descriptive writing, as they allow us to express
things in powerful, impactful ways.
SYNONYM
It is a word or phrase that exactly or nearly the same as
another word or phrase in the same language, for example shut is a
synonym of close, beautiful and attractive are synonyms of each
other because they both refer to someone or something that looks
good.
TYPES OF SYNONYMS
i. Two-way synonym
It have the same meaning and return the same search
results.
Examples; jacket-coat
Pants-slacks-trouser
ii. One-way synonym
It is a subset of a key word, but with more specific
meaning. For example; capris and shorts are pants, but not
all pants are capris or shorts. A search for pants includes
capris and shorts. However, a search for shorts does not
return capris.
Sweatshirts-hoodie
Pants-capris-calf length pants-peddle-pushers
Examples of Synonyms
 Bad: awful, terrible, horrible
 Good: fine, excellent, great
 Hot: burning, fiery, boiling
 Cold: chilly, freezing, frosty
 Easy: simple, effortless, straightforward
 Hard: difficult, challenging, tough
 Big: large, huge, giant
 Small: tiny, little, mini

USES OF SYNONYMS
How to use synonyms effectively in a sentence and Communication
i. It is way to avoid plagiarism
ii. Makes text more captivating
iii. It helps avoid monotone in speaking and writing
iv. Improves communication between you and others
v. It helps readers in visualizing better
Notably, it is important to use synonyms because they help to
enhance the writing quality and provide readers with a crisp and
unique outlook of the text. And also it can improve both oral and
writing skills.
 WRITING SKILLS
A letter is a written message addressed to a person or an
organization, or a message expressed in intelligible characters on
something adopted on conveyance.

Letters may be classified according to their direct purpose. There

are various letters which suit different purpose. Basically letters can
be categorized into Formal letters and Informal letter.

Types of Letters

1. Formal (official or business) letters

2. Informal (friendly) letters

1. FORMAL LETTER

A formal letter is sometimes called an official letter or a business

letter. A business letter should always be complete, concise, logical
planned, clearly stated and politely expressed in grammatically
correct and accepted English.

General Principal of Writing Formal Letters

I. Follow the prescribed format of writing formal letter or official

letter
II. Use simple language to enhance understanding of the
message
III. Avoid informal or outdated (archaic) words such as yeah!,
point in time, aforementioned, etc
IV. Be polite or show respect to the addressee
V. Objectively describe the purpose. Avoid vague or emotional
words that may be awful or disgusting to a person addressed
 VI. Provide all necessary information precisely- be directly to the
point.
VII. Proofread your letter before sending or posting it to the
addressee
VIII. Provide true or researched information and not hearsay.

Major Parts of formal or Official Letters

This also can be a layout of letter writing. Its major parts are:
I. Letterhead
II. Sender’s address
III. Inside address
IV. Salutation
V. Body of the letter
VI. Complimentary close
VII. Signature
Official letter can be written in either BLOCK style or INDENTED
style as shown below here;
(a)SAMPLE 1: BLOCK STYLE

Letterhead

Inside
Address

Salutation

BODY
 Complimentary Close

(b) SAMPLE 2: INDENTED STYLE

Sender’s Address

Date

Inside Address

Salutation

BODY

Complimentary Close

Signature

Name Typed

FEATURES OF OFFICIAL LETTERS

1. Sender’s address and date- it addresses address before the
reference number, it is the address of the writer that should appear
in the top right hand corner. The date should go under the address.
2. Always write the name and address of the addressee on the left,
above the salutation. Start address immediately below the previous
one.
3. Always leave a wide margin on the left, so that when filed, the
letter is still eligible
4. U.F.S (Under forwarding signature), if it has to be signed by a
certain officer/person for forwarding
5. Formal Salutation. In writing to someone who is not personally
known to the writer, begin with Dear Sir/Madam
6. A writer should be as brief as he can; but he should include as
much as relevant information as possible
7. Whenever possible, the subject of the letter can be placed as a
heading beneath the salutation
8. The introductory sentence, example; a reference to a former
announcement, letter or news papers
9. Curriculum Vitae (C.V)

10. Purpose of your application i.e. for national building

11. Referees (someone who can furnish personal information about
you)
12. Closing Remarks. Formal letters always end with yours faithfully,
though yours truly is also possible if the writer wants to be a little
less formal.
13. Signature. Formal letters always include signature
14. Full name and title should be included in formal letters.

EXAMPLE OF AN APPLICATION LETTER

JOHN KALUMANZILA,
P.O.BOX 3333,
 Mtwara
8th June, 2023
Ref. Na. 077/JK/JJK
THE MANAGER,
National Microfinance Bank
P.O.BOX 23289,
Mtwara.
Dear Sir/Madam
RE: APPLICATION FOR EMPLOYEMENT AS A BANK CLERK
With reference to you advertisement on the Nipashe
Newspaper of 7th November, 2021 for a Clerical post in your branch
of National Microfinance Bank, I would like to submit this
application.
I am 27 years old. I completed my form Six studies at Bandari
Sec.School, Mtwara in June 2021. Currently, I am undergoing
further evening studies in accountancy and commerce. I expect to
complete the studies in December 2023. I will have an ample time
to work with you as a full-time employee.
The following important referees have agreed to send you my
confidential references. The headmaster of Bandari Sec.school, Mr.
Kamanyola The Assistant Lecturer of Accountancy at TIA-Mtwara
Campus and Dr. kalumaliza, The Deputy Academic.
It is my hope that my application will be considered.
Yours faithfully,
j.j.kalumanzila
John Jumanne Kalumanzila
Phone No: 078633228

BUSINESS LETTERS
A business letter is a formal communication tool that you can
adopt to meet many specific purposes. It is a formal letter written
either to communicate information or to request action. Business
letters provide a direct and effective means of communication on a
wide range of topics
Knowing how to write a business letter is a skill one may find useful
throughout his/her life. Business letters are used when one wants
to enquire, make a request, a complain, order a product or make an
order adjustment, apply for employment, or explain views on a
subject.
STRUCTURE OF A BUSINESS LETTER
Business letters may appear in two formats, namely “Modified
Block Form” and “The Full Block Form”. In the Modified block
format, the heading, the closing and signature are aligned along the
right margin. All the other elements are aligned along the left
margin. Paragraphs are indented.
In the Full Block Format, letters should be single spaced. Leave extra
space for your signature between the closing and your typed name.
The main types of business letter are;
1. Inquiry or Order letters (office order)
2. Complaint letters
3. Opinion letters
4. A letter for acceptance
5. A Letter Declining a Job
6. Letter of Resignation
An Example of Inquiry or Order letter
Things to do when writing inquiry letters
 Be brief
 State request clearly
 Give reasons for your request
 Make your request specific and reasonable
 Include your telephone number or self address, stamped,
return envelope, etc.
EXAMPLE OF INQUIRY LETTER: THE MODIFIED BLOCK FORM

African Boutique Shop,

Mtwara Mikindani Street,
P.O.BOX 2222,
Mtwara
8th November, 2021
Ref. Na. 056/MM/GM
Hindi Whole Sale Shop
Jamatin Street, Kariakoo
P.O.BOX 23289,
Dar es-Salaam.
Dear Sir/Madam
RE: ORDER FOR 30 DOZENS OF BATIK
I shall be grateful if you will send me by Machinga High Class Bus
Service, 30 Dozens of Batik made in Tanzania particularly by China
and Tanzania Partnership Textile Industry, as early as possible.
Customers have created trust on me and I hope you shall do your
best for betterment of both sides. Sending this month will be more
appropriate and appreciable.
Yours faithfully,
j.j.kalubandika
Juma Jumanne Kalubandika
Managing Director.

EXAMPLE OF INQUIRY LETTER: THE FULL BLOCK FORM

Mtwara Mikindani Street,
P.O.BOX 222,
Mtwara
8th November, 2021

Ref. Na. 056/MM/GM

Hindi Whole Sale Shop
Jamatin Street, Kariakoo
P.O.BOX 23289,
Dar es-Salaam.
Dear Sir/Madam
RE: ORDER FOR 30 DOZENS OF BATIK
I shall be grateful if you will send me by Machinga High Class Bus
Service, 30 Dozens of Batik made in Tanzania particularly by China
and Tanzania Partnership Textile Industry, as early as possible.
Customers have created trust on me and I hope you shall do your
best for betterment of both sides. Sending this month will be more
appropriate and appreciable.
Yours faithfully,
j.j.kalubandika
Juma Jumanne Kalubandika
Managing Director.
OFFICIAL MEMORANDUM
Memos or memorandum are relatively briefly documents, generally
one or two pages.
Memos are an important form of written communication within
companies. Memos are forms of internal communication and are
sent to other people within the same organization. If you wanted
to write to someone at a different company, you would use a letter
instead. Remember, both format and content are important when
composing a memo, so pay attention to details.

It is especially important to understand how people read memos.

Unlike books or magazines, people don’t start at the beginning of
a memo and read through to the end. A reader skims headings and
subject lines then make decisions about what parts are important to
him/her.

Think of it this way: a busy professional does not have time to

read every word of every paper that comes in. He/she decides
what documents are important to read by looking at the subject
line and headings. Therefore, writers need to understand how to
put together a document that will help a reader find the necessary
information as quickly as possible.
USES OF MEMOS
 Memos are used for routine
 Memos are used as the workhouse of business
communication
 Day to day exchange of information within an organization
 Memos are used for different purposes, example: direct
requests, routine, informing good news or bad news, good
will message and persuasive messages
PARTS OF MEMOS
Headers
The first part of a memo is the header. The header gives
information about the author, the
Intended recipient, the subject, the date, and the names of other
people who may see the memo (cc). Many companies insert a
smaller version of the letterhead at the top of the page
Subject Headings
Headings break up the memo into separate sections and identify for
the reader the content of
the memo. Without them, the memo would just be boring, difficult
pages of text. Each time
there is a new subject, identify it with a new heading. Headings
also help readers understand the information by reinforcing the
ideas in that section. Keep headings simple and use a font style
that is different from the rest of the text.
Style
When it comes to style, remember that you are not writing for an
English class. You want to
Communicate in a clear, precise fashion. Don’t try to confuse your
reader in an effort to sound knowledgeable. Simplicity is key.
Avoid . . . Do . . .
Difficult words or phrasing. Use simple, clear language.
Unnecessary details. Include the important
Complicated sentences. information.
Write exactly what you mean.
Cramming everything into a Use headings and break up
single paragraph.
Relying on Spell Check to catch paragraphs.your document.
Proofread
mistakes. to ask for help.
Refusing Consult a style manual for help.
 Introductory Paragraph
Memos serve as records of important communications. Because
recipients might not always recall the occasion or significance of your
correspondences, you should include an introductory paragraph that
establishes a context by stating the following:
The subject and purpose of the memo (what prompted you to
write it);
Any necessary context details (dates, names, assignment numbers,
etc.);
A preview of the contents (not a summary—just tell the reader
what to expect).
Style and Tone
In your correspondence, use a professional but conversational style.
Slang would be inappropriate, as would overly stiff, formal prose.
Choose a courteous, accommodating tone, much as you would in
conversation with a professor in his/her office.
Closing
Some memos need no concluding comments such as you might write
for more formal, argumentative papers. Many memos, however, require
some kind of response or indicate a future action. In those cases,
conclude by providing an opportunity for response. (For example, “I
will come by your office on Tuesday at 4:00 p.m. to discuss my paper
with you.”) Make your closing statement substantial and meaningful.
Avoid clichés—if you’ve seen it written many times before, your reader
probably has, too.
Initials
Memo format does not include a signature block. You should,
however, write your initials (in pen) beside your name in the heading.

Example of Preprinted Memo Form

MEMO

DATE...................................
TO: .........................................
FROM: ...............................................................
DEPT: ........................................... TELEPHONE: .............
SUBJECT: ................................. .......
For you
APPROVAL
INFORMATION COMMENT
Message, Comment, or Reply

ESSAY/COMPOSITION
An Essay is a focused piece of writing designed to inform or persuade.
There many different types of essay, but they often defined in four
categories:
1. Argumentative Essay
2. Expository Essay
3. Narrative Essay
4. Descriptive Essay
ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY
An argumentative essay presents an extended, evidence-based
argument. It requires a strong thesis statement –a clearly defined
stance on your topic. Your aim is to convince the reader of your thesis
using evidence such as quotations and analysis

An argumentative essay tests your ability to research and present your

own position on a topic. This is the most common type of essay at
college level-most papers you write will involve some kind of
argumentation.
The essay is divided into an introduction, body and conclusion
 The introduction provides your topic and thesis statement
 The body presents your evidence and arguments
  The conclusion summarizes your argument and emphasizes its
importance

EXPOSITORY ESSAY
An Expository essay provides a clear, focused explanation of a topic. It
doesn’t require an original argument, just a balanced and well-
organizes view of the topic.

The introduction of an expository essay states your topic and provides

some general background, the body represents the details, and
conclusion summarizes the information presented.

NARRATIVE ESSAY
A narrative essay is one that tells a story. This is usually a story about a
personal experience you had, but it may also be an imaginative
exploration of something you have not experienced.

Narrative essay test you ability to build up a narrative in an engaging,

well- structured way. They are much are much more personal and
creative than other kinds of academic writing. Writing a personal
statement for an application requires the same skills as a narrative
essay.

A narrative essay is not strictly divided into introduction, body and

conclusion. But it should still begin by setting up the narrative and finish
by expressing the point of the story-what you learned from your
experience, or why it made an impression on you.
DESCRIPTIVE ESSAY
A descriptive essay provides a detailed sensory description of
something. Like narrative essays, they allow you to be more creative
than most academic writing, but they are more tightly focused than
narrative essays. You might describe a specific place or object, rather
than telling a story.
Descriptive essays test your ability to use language creatively, making
striking word choices to convey a memorable picture of you are
describing.

A descriptive essay can be quite loosely structured, though it should

usually begin by introducing the object of your description and end by
drawing an overall picture of it. The important thing is to use careful
word choices and figurative language to create an original description
of your object.
RULES FOR ESSAY WRITING
Essay writing involves writing. Writing is process done in different
stages. These stages are listed below:
 Prewriting
 Drafting
 Revising and editing
 Proofreading
 Publishing and presenting
PREWRITING
Rules to follow in prewriting are;
 Find a topic
 Establish your purpose and audience
 Research and plan your writing
Notably, during prewriting, you decide what you want to write about
by exploring ideas, feelings, and memories. It is a stage in which you
not only decide what your topic is, but
 You refine, focus and explore the topic
 You gather information about the topic
 You make notes about what you want to say about it
 You think about your audience and your purpose
DRAFTING
Rules to follow in drafting are;
 Organize your thoughts
 Get an introduction, body and conclusion on a paper in rough
form
Notably, when you write your draft, your goal is to organize the facts
and details you have accumulated into unified paragraphs. Make sure
each paragraph has a main idea and does not bring in unrelated
information. The main idea should be stated in a topic sentence and it
must be supported by details that explains and clarify it. Details can be
facts and statistics, examples or incidents, or sensory details.

REVISING/EDITING
Rules to follow in revising/editing;
 Improve paragraphs
 Use self-evaluation and peer evaluation
 Check content and structure
 Make sure the language is specific and descriptive
 Look upon flow of your writing basing on checking unity and
coherence
 Check style and tone.
Notably, the purpose of Revising are to make sure that your writing is
clear and well organized, that it accomplishes your goals and that it
reaches your audience/your targets. The word “Revision” means see
again. You need to look at your writing again, seeing it as another
person.
After you evaluate your essay work, you might want to move some
sentences around or change them completely. You might want to add
or cut information, mark these changes right on your draft and then
include them in your final copy.
PROOFREADING
Rules to follow in Proofreading
 Check for errors in spellings, grammar, and mechanics.
 Examine your essay/writing as though you were reading it for first
time
Notably, the purpose of proofreading are to make sure that you have
spelled all words correctly and that your sentences are grammatically
correct. Proofreading your writing and correct mistakes in
capitalization, punctuation, and spelling.

Publishing/Presenting
Rules to follow in Publishing;
 Prepare writing/essay for written.
Notably, this is the stage at which you share your work with others. You
might read your essay work aloud in class, submit it to the college
department or give it to college newspaper or any other newspaper to
be published.
ORAL PRESENTATION/SPEECH
Is the type of presentation that is spoken with a specific purpose in
mind before public
OR
Is the type of presentation presented through the word of mouth in front
the audience.
(a)Audience – are the people who listen to the speaker (listener)
(b) Speaker/presenter – is a person who present information
before the public or the audience
PRESENTATION TOOLS
Presentation tools are software application that enable users to visually
present ideas or share knowledge. These presentations are delivered in a
slide-show format using a combination of text, images and other graphic
elements.
Presentation software is frequently used to pitch an idea to teachers,
lecturers, tutors, investors and present proposals to clients/students,
introduce new products or services to customers, train staff on new
policies or ideas, or teach your students new or complex concepts.
Best Presentation Software
When choosing the right presentation programs for your project/topic,
there are some things to consider;
i. Does the price point fit your budgets
ii. Is it easy to use
iii.Who is the program geared at: business, educators, bloggers and
helpful
iv.Is the built-in graphic asset library extensive and varied
v. Can you embed content, add videos or GIFs
vi.Can you add audio to your presentations
 vii. Can elements be animated
viii. Is it desktop or cloud-based
ix.Can you use it to create presentations on any of your devices
x. Can finished presentations be viewed offline
xi.Can you have team accounts or business accounts for easy
xii. Can the finished presentations be shared online straight from
presentations software
xiii. Can your presentations be uploaded to the cloud privately
with password
Various Computer presentation software and its application
Looking to create a stunning presentation the keeps your audience
engaged, you need high-quality presentation software to take your slides
to the next level. Some of the best presentation software include; Visme,
Haiku Deck, Prezi, Microsoft PowerPoint, Canva and Google slides.
Others are; Ludus, Slides, Slidebean, Zoho show, Beautiful.ai, Genially,
FlowVella and Microsoft Sway.
i. Visme
It is a powerful presentation software and all-in-one content
authoring tool. It has a use-friendly interface and an extensive set
of tools that make it easy for both beginners and experienced
professionals to design and deliver impactful presentations.
Presentations made with Visme go beyond the standard slide deck
to incorporate interactive elements and easy, full-featured offline
sharing.

ii. Prezi
It offers a great alternative to the traditional presentation format
that goes slide by slide. The creative idea behind Prezi is you can
create an animated, non-sequential flow with topics and subtopics
that are hidden until you zoom in. while Prezi’s interface can be
 slightly complicated to use, it is good option for people who need
to add a creative touch to their presentations.

iii.Google Slides
It is the presentation software available via your Google account.
Just like with Google Docs and sheets. You can create
presentations with Google Slides. The setup is very similar to
PowerPoint and is free to use for anyone with a google account.
iv.Keynote
It is the native Apple Presentation software-one of the original
PowerPoint Alternatives. Anyone with an Apple ID can use the
keynote editor. It is the most similar to PowerPoint and Also
Google Slides.

v. Microsoft PowerPoint
This is the most popular software in the world. Even though there
are tons or more advanced presentations tools out there now.
PowerPoint is still a favorite of many because of its familiarity,
ease of use and availability.
vi.Ludus

It is one the best-looking presentation tools available online. The

main attractions with Ludus are the clean black screen to edit on
and the number of integrations that give important capabilities for
all sorts of content.
vii. Slides
It is the only presentation software that promotes itself as being “
pixel perfect” as the editor includes built-grid to help with
composition. Slides has a lower cost at the highest price tag which
is good for smaller businesses.
viii. Slidebean
 It is an easy to use presentation software with interesting templates
and customizable content block. It is uses Artificial I
ntellegent(AI) to help you put together the best possible slide
layouts and configurations.
ix.Zoho Show
It is a presentation software that mimics Microsoft PowerPoint in
the way it is set up, with a menu up top for all the actions.it is
much nicer and polished.
x. Beautiful.ai
It is a presentation software that helps you create great-looking
slides with the help Artificial Intelligence. That means your
presentation will look professional every single time, regardless of
who designs it. It is the only presentations software that promotes
itself as being
xi.Genially
The main idea behind the genially presentation software is
interactivity. This program is good not only for presentations and
video presentations but also for other visual graphics.
xii. Canva
it is not only a presentation software but also a full editing program for
all visual needs. Presentation creation is only one of the possibilities
with canva. It has become a favorite with bloggers and hom-based.
xiii. FlowVella
It is a downloadable presentation software that can be used offline.
The main attraction of FlowVella is the kiosk mode, in which you
can create interactive presentations like the ones used in museums
or information counters at all malls or hotels.
xiv. Haiku Deck
 it is a presentation software that is straightforward with simple
interface that makes quick and practical presentations. Presentations can
be created on the computer and on a mobile devices.
xv. Microsoft Sway
This online presentation software is completely different from
PowerPoint and introduces a new concept of building “sways” instead of
“presentations”.
Techniques /ways/ skills/things to consider/factors to consider when
doing a presentation /how to be a good presenter
(a)Be clear in term of voice/ speak loudly
(b) Be very brief with vivid example
(c)Use simple language ie; language that is clean to the audience
(d) Use presentation aids eg; pictures, real object, charts
object,hand acts,audio,audio-visual
(e)Use gestures/non-verbal communication when presenting
(f) Dress properly ie; avoid wearing jewelry as clothes that shows or
draws people attentions
(g)Avoid unnecessary movements
(h)Maintain an eye contact with the audience

Types of oral presentation /speech

A. According to purpose
i. Informative speech – serves to provide audience with the
information about certain subject matter – it aim is to make people
aware on what is going on or the certain situation in the area
ii. Demonstrative speech – serves to teach how to perform a certain
action
iii. Persuasive speech – serves to convince people to change in some
way – to convince to believe in what a presenter believe willingly
iv. Entertaining speech – serves to entertain people to make people
enjoy or serve to provide pleasure and enjoyment

According to method/ approach

i. Extemporaneous – A speaker or presenter is being informed
before the presentation time ( information is given in advance)
ii. Impromptu – A presenter is given little or no information about
the presentation
iii. Memorized – is a type of oral presentation where by speaker or
presenter is required to present freely without reading
iv. Scripted speech (oral presentation) – is a type of speech in
which a speaker or presenter read a speech that is written in
advance
Stages of preparing presentation
1. Understanding the assignment – that is what kind of information
you supposed to present
2. Choose a topic – you must choose a topic that fits you better
3. Access resource requirement – that is you need to be aware of the
budget
4. Gather information – that is your presentation must specific topic
hence you need to find necessary information to make your
presentation good and relevant
5. Analyses your audience – that is understand the level of
understanding your audience have
6. Prepare the body of the presentation
7. Prepare the introduction and conclusion
8. Determine your presentation style ; that is choose either lecturing
or group discussion
 9. Prepare Visual (presentation aids). That is picture,chart,realies and
others
10. Practice delivery the presentation
11. Prepare yourself for possible questions
13. Revise your presentation as well as filling gaps
14. Wear or dress properly
15. Prepare yourself with sign languages

Presentation Aids/Media used in Presentation

These are materials, objects or things that enhance or help in
presentation
They include:-
a) Real objects or realia
b) Audio – eg voice note
c) Audio – visual eg ;- video cassette, DVD, CD’S etc
d) Visuals
e) Diagrams
f) Pictures
g) Charts
h) Handout
i) Tables
Roles/importance/functions of oral presentation aids
1. They enhance memory ;- that is they help to remember what has
been taught
2. Helps the presenter to clarity the information ;- that is it makes a
reader understand easy the presented information
3. They bring visual impression ;- that is when audio visual is used
 4. They save time eg; a video from china can be used to teach in
Tanzania
5. Helps in presentation organization
6. They brings the world in front of the listeners ; eg; the use of
videos in presentation

NOTICE WRITING IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION OFFICIAL

DOCUMENTS COMMUNICATION
What is a Notice?
A notice is a means of formal communication that informs a targeted number of
people/individuals about an important event or conveys some important information or message,
like specific instructions or a general appeal.
You may display a notice in a public place, where it is going to be accessible to a larger number
of people, or you may even publish it on the company website or in a newspaper.
What is the Notice Writing Format?
A Notice Writing format is a guide that may help you in writing a professional notice.
As it is always formal document, so it is important that it follows a proper structure. These
formats define the basic components of notice and it is important information that these
components may contain. The format may vary from organization to organization, different
departments or teams may use different formats.

MAIN PARTS OF A NOTICE

A notice generally consists of three parts, which are;
i. Heading or title
ii. The body- containing the information
iii. The conclusion or Signature

MAJOR COMPONENTS/ELEMENTS/FEATURES OF A NOTICE

Though notice writing formats may vary, certain basic components form the core
structure of a notice. Below are few such components that may include in the notice you write:

Name of the Issuing Organization or Authority

At the top of the notice, you may write the name of the company or the company or the
person issuing the notice. This helps the readers in identifying the relevance of the notice for
them. For instance, a notice issued by a particular department may be relevant only to the
people/workers from that department. So having the name of the issuing department or authority
at the top lets workers/people know if it concerns them.
Title
In the top portion of the notice, you can mention the word “NOTICE’’-this helpful in
drawing the attention of the viewers to notice.

Date
Another important piece of information you want to include in your notice is the date of
publishing. You ay mention the date in the top left-hand corner of the notice the date helps a
reader in understanding how recent or relevant the information in the notice is.

Heading
The next component is a proper heading for the notice. The purpose of writing a heading
for notice is to make its subject clear t its audience. For example; ‘Mwanaafa leave for Female
Employees’ clearly conveys that the notice concerns female employees of that organization.

Body
The next component of a notice is the body. The body features the main content of the
notice clearly. It is important that the body of a notice covers the most important pointers that
you may aim to convey to the readers.
Here are some important aspects you may focus on when writing the body of
your notice:
i. It is important that a notice is clear about the details of any event or occasion to ensure it
is comprehensible to the audience
ii. Include the location or the venue of the event, in case the notice talks about an event or
gathering of some sort.
iii. If the notice is about a meeting, it is important to include the date and the time of the
meeting or the duration of the meeting to help others plan their schedules accordingly.
iv. If the notice is for a particular department or a group of individuals, then mentioning this
clearly may help others save time and avoid confusion.
v. Another important piece of information is the contact details of the person whom the
reader can get in touch in case they have any confusion. For example; emails or a contact
number.

Issuer’s Name
Right at the end of the notice comes the name and designation of the issuer. It is also
important that the notice also contains the signature of the writer to make it valid and reliable.
An Example of a Notice Format

Name of Organization/Office Issuing the notice

Notice
Date
Heading
Body of a Notice
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Signature
Name
Designation

An Example of a Notice

Tanzania Public Service College-Mtwara Campus

Notice
15/01/2025
Summer Vacation Begins

The College will remain closed from 17/01/2025 to 09/02/2025 for summer break. The
last attendance day will be 16/01/2025. The Supporting Staff, Tutors and Lecturers are
requested to provide sufficient assignment to students for them to complete within the
specified time and resume it soon after college resumes.

Jtsuzza
…………
Campus Director
Mtwara Campus
Tips For Writing A Notice
Below are a few tips that may be followed when writing your notice;
i. Be precise and to the point, i.e the ideal length of notices is around 50 and use precise
language when writing
ii. Use formal language-because it is a formal communication therefore use formal language
iii. Use short sentences and simple words-which is easier to understand
iv. Use proper formatting-present your notice in a proper box. It is important the presentation
is neat and appealing to the reader
v. Highlight the title-it is a helpful practice to highlight the words TITLE and NOTICE.
vi. Write in the passive voice-when writing a notice, it is advisable to use passive voice.
vii. Proofread-after drafting, proofread it for any grammatical or language errors

Common Category (Types) of Notice

It includes;
i. Public notice
ii. Legal notice
iii. Eviction notice
iv. Notice to Quit
v. Notice of Meeting
vi. Notice of Violation
vii. Notice of Default, and
viii. Notice of Intent

Types of Notice Writing

It includes;
i. Formal notice-Main one
ii. Informal notice-Main one,
Others are;
iii. Informative notice
iv. Persuasive notice

Functions of Notices
Some of them are;
i. Notices serve to inform
ii. Notices serve to instruct
iii. Notices serve alert or notify individuals
iv. Notices serve alert or notify the public about important matters, events or changes
 v. It notifies updates

Benefits of Notice
Some of them are;
i. Notices provide transparency
ii. Notices provide legal documentation
iii. It ensures that individuals are informed in order to prevent misunderstandings
iv. Others.

Notices hence, a formal mode communication used to spread information related to an

announcement, event, meeting, etc. it is important for students to learn the art of notice writing
since notices have to be written at all times and places. Notice writing is an easy task but requires
practice.

ASSIGNMEMNT
Choose two topics from below then write notices on your own basing on formal format
i. Lost and found
ii. Parents-Mtwara Campus Meeting
iii. Annual Day Program
iv. Leave Notices
v. Sports and Game Competition