Contents

Sociology of Sports......................................................................................................................................2
The media....................................................................................................................................................5
Politics in sports.........................................................................................................................................13
Gender and sports.....................................................................................................................................16
violence and sports....................................................................................................................................21
Drugs and sports........................................................................................................................................25
Special Populations....................................................................................................................................31
Cultural influences.....................................................................................................................................39
Guideline and Overview of the Domain Social Issues................................................................................41

1
Sociology of Sports
Sport has a universal appeal. All societies participate in one or more forms of sporting activities. Just as
family, religion and other social institution play an important part in our lives, we also attach great
significance to sport for the value it plays in our lives.

Socialization:

Is the active process of learning and social development Which occurs as we interact with one another
and become acquainted with the social world in which we live.

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Agents of socialization:

are people or groups that contribute to the socialization process and include family, schools,
community, religion, and media.

Sports have a major impact on the lives of individuals all around the world. There are many worlds
sporting events that grab international attention. Events such as Olympics, FIFA World Cup, ICC cricket
World Cup, Commonwealth Games, Tour de France, Wimbledon, and Super Bowl, to name a few all
draw millions of viewers. People of all ages connect with sports. From infancy, children are exposed to
sporting events through the television or by parents taking them to sporting events. With today's
technology, video games with their sporting heroes are interactive and commonly found in arcades or in
play stations at homes. The Internet has provided opportunities for games to be played online. Children
today may be able to give you more information about sports person than a politician, as greater
interest is often given to sports. Most of the global public does not know where Trinidad and Tobago is
but just to mention of Brian Lara’s home and instantly a connection is made. Such is the impact that
sports can have.

character logic of sports

This states that participating in sports builds character. If we assume that this statement is true, then it
supports the ideas of having organized sporting activities at school and sports programs for our youths.

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Benefits of sports:
 emotional release - It is a way to express emotions and release tensions. It asks as a safety valve
to relieve aggressive tendencies. An individual who had a bad day at work may release the built-
up tensions by participating in a game.
 Health benefits - Provides personal health benefits to individuals, thus reducing the risk of
lifestyle diseases and contributing to a healthier longer life.
 Success sports - Provides a feeling of success for both the participant and spectator when a
player or team with whom one identifies achieves success.
 Socialization - Sports act as a means of socializing those individuals who identify with it. Sport
brings people together as players and supporters, and creates an environment that is unique
 change agent- It allows for the interaction of all kinds of people and the upward mobility of
individuals based on ability. Individuals with talents are recognized and can move closer to
professional status through performance.
 Social control - Sport provides a means of control of people in a society where deviant behaviors
are prevalent. It stresses a positive diversion from the negative aspects of life by providing
people with avenues to escape from the painful elements of personal and social life, such as
crime and depression
 collective conscience - Sport creates a communal spirit that brings people together in a cohesive
manner in search of common goals. An example of this is a community fully backing the efforts
of their home team through sponsorship and fan support.
 Enjoyment - Sports act as a form of relaxation and enjoyment of leisure time for some
individuals. Playing cricket on weekends or participating in a basketball or netball League is an
example of this.
 Personal meaning - Sport can provide personal meaning to an individual's life. It adds value and
quality to the life of the individual.
 Places significant role in the culture of a society - It does this by allowing for allegiance (loyalty,
commitment) to team over lifetime. For example, the West Indies cricket team, which we
support whenever they play in countries in the Caribbean, provides a massive cultural event
steeped in tradition.

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The media

types of media:
Sport uses all the different forms of media to bring itself to the widest audience. In each newspaper
there are sports columns; there are programs and channels on TV and radio devoted to sports; and new
information technology provides access to many websites and instant messaging to carry information.
The different forms of the media include TV, radio, press (magazines) and the Internet.

Newspapers

major sporting events are featured on the front page of newspapers. Usain bolt's achievement at the
Olympics or West Indies winning a test series are examples of front-page headlines. All newspapers have
a designated section reserved for sports.

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Television technology has provided us with opportunities to view sporting events at home and around
the world as they unfold. The under 20 World Cup football in Egypt is seen live at home in the
Caribbean. Talk shows on radio and television also promote sporting events. A number of these talk
shows encourage listeners and the viewing public to call in and to express their views.

Types of television broadcast

terrestrial television (Terrestrial television channels are broadcast from stations on the ground and do
not use satellites) includes those channels that can be picked up from all televisions providing they have
an aerial to pick up the signal these television stations pay for the licenses by way of the advertisements
shown during and between the programs they broadcast . Certain programs may be sponsored by a
company or particular product and these are seen any advertisements during the program set the light
television is provided by companies that offer programs to households that pay a monthly or annual
subscription. There is fierce competition between terrestrial television and satellite television since the
latter loses income when popular sporting events are provided by terrestrial real television. However, it
should be noted that these important events should be provided to the widest audience and the
terrorist real television stations acquired the rights to broadcast them at high costs.

Pay-per-view

if a person or television station subscribes to this type of television broadcast, they are eligible to watch
a single sporting event that is not aired on terrestrial or satellite stations. These are pay-per-view events.
The customer pays a certain amount of money to receive the event. The companies involved in this
broadcast feel that there will be such a demand to see the event that they can make money by selling it
in this way. Boxing is one of the main sports that are broadcast in this way.

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Internet

The Internet has opened a whole new world of communication. Apart from being able to stream live
feeds of sporting events, various sites such as Facebook and Twitter have all enhance comments and
remarks on major sporting events amongst the users.

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Magazines

magazines such as runners, sports illustrated, and Wisden Cricketers have all promoted the sporting
events. these magazines, and others like them inform us of coming events, comment on players,
personalities, teams, and games.

Movies

many sports related movies have been made. The list includes Bend it like Beckham (2002), White man
can’t jump (1992), Raging Bull (1980), and Rocky (1976). They have all glorified sportsmen and
sportswomen and the challenges they encounter in their journey. These movies portray the human
aspects of their rise that we all can identify with.

On site supporter
when we physically support our team, we develop a bond with them and others who do the same. The
environment that sporting activities create provides opportunities for socialization, including forging
friendships and loyalty to teams.

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How the media helps the understanding of sport
television
the various methods of the media help improve people's understanding of sport and current affairs and
popularize personalities and provide sports’ entertainment. Each form of media employs a series of
experts (past players, fans presenters and journalists) to give their judgments, opinions, and views on
the sport in question.

Types of coverage
there are several types of sporting broadcasts, each with a different way of presenting the subject.
Television programs can be classified as informative, educational, instructive, and entertaining. This
reflects the general content and aim of the program. Many programs contain more than one of these
elements.

Informative programs
Sports News, news bulletins and sports update programs, together with Internet and telephone services
make up the informative program group. They are based on facts, intending to give the viewer more
information about the sport, event, club, or performer. They are designed to give the public updates on
results, future events and current issues regarding sport or activity.

Educational programs
education, schools and skills programs are productions dealing with coaching and helping people learn
about the skills, tactics and strategies of game or activity sometimes, school programs will suggest ways
for further development and give information on where to take up an activity in the area. Some
broadcasts are documentary based and are concerned with the facts about an event or activity, for
example the history of a sport. For some people knowing more about the sport, increases their
understanding of the game and can increase its popularity.

instructive programs
this type of coverage is closely linked with educational programs but is mainly interested in teaching the
viewer about the specific sport. They appeal to specialist market interested in a particular activity. Some
programs mixed type of coverage shown. For example, during the broadcast of a cricket Test match
largely under the heading of entertaining programs) there may be a section where experts and coaches
relay coaching points, instructing young players on how to improve their technique. Depending on the
way it is portrayed, this part would fall under the educational or maybe the informative heading.

Entertaining programs
these are the most popular programs and are designed for enjoyment. They can include coverage of life
matches and special events, highlight programs and celebrity quiz shows. The coverage of life matches,
for some, can be entertaining enough, but the addition of the commentary gives greater information
and insight and can enhance the appeal even more. To add to the entertainment, a series of presenters
may be employed to give their opinion on the event. Expert commentators, who have often competed

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in the sport, give in-depth views that are accurate and factual. Highlight programs, showing the events
of the day, pick out the best of the action in the time they have available. Here the audience see exactly
what the director wants them to see. This is usually the best of the action and any contentious moments
too.

Positive and negative effects of media coverage

positive effects
 keeps people informed of current trends and players.
 Creates spectator appreciation for sport by disseminating (spreading) information publicly.
 Encourages participation from persons as a leisure activity.
 attracts supporters to the sport which will increase the revenue from the sale of tickets and
sports.
 Attracts sponsors and donors.
 Creates sports personalities and positive role models in sport.
 Creates revenue for the sport (money from broadcast bids).
 sporting events can be viewed in ‘real-time’ from anywhere around the world.

Negative effects
 major sports have majority coverage and minor sports have little coverage,
 decreases attendance at matches people watch from their homes.
 the man to see personalities invade their privacy.
 small incidents can be exaggerated sensationalized.
 commentators, directors, and writers influence the media coverage.
 Games are played at different times to suit the viewing public.
 Rule changes are made to sport so that there is greater appeal for the TV spectators.
 Replay technology may undermine the official’s decisions through the commentator’s analysis.
This disregards the fact that the referee only has a split second to assess an applied ruling.

Models of sports participation:

 power and performance model

this is characterized by the use of strength, power and speed executed by skilled athlete in athletic
performance, where winning is important, and excellence is equated with success. Hard work is necessary to
achieve this success. Opponents are viewed as enemies that must be conquered.

 pleasure and participation model

individuals are engaged in sports for the pleasure that they can gain from it. Performers can be either skilled or
unskilled, and opponents are not viewed as enemies but facilitators in the sporting event. 10
Creation of a sports fan
a sports fan is an enthusiastic supporter of a sporting personality or team. That individual is loyal,
devoted and committed in his /her support.

There are many reasons why individuals become sports fans. These include:
 Sports act as an illusion for some people. They believe that sports matter and would follow
sporting events whenever they occur and spend a substantial amount of time and money to
support their sporting events. (There are also those who view sports as a no big deal and that
life can exist without it.)
 sports offer performance under pressure. It is a real-life drama where individuals are constantly
under pressure to Excel in this way, they offer excitement.
 Sporting activities are uncertain events. It is difficult to predict winners and losers. There is
always the possibility that the underdog team can be victorious. This adds to the drama and
excitement.
 Sports act as an Ave for fans to escape reality for a brief moment. During a sporting event, there
is a narrow focus on what is happening in the sporting event and the sporting environment.
There is singing, clapping, booing, eating, drinking, and even the Mexican wave. Momentarily,
one can escape daily problems and challenges.
 Sports allow for social integration. It is a common ground where interaction takes place
regardless of social class, gender, religion, and race
 sports provide beauty through the actions of athletes in their performance. The bicycle kicking
football, a slam dunk in basketball or the flawless baton exchange and really are all examples of
these.

Sponsorship
whenever we hear the word sponsorship immediately an image of sports comes to mind. Sports
sponsorship has become one of the most important marketing tools around the world for large
corporations to market themselves. Sport as an entity as a member of global audience that make makes
it extremely visible. Companies attempt to cash in onto this feasibility through sponsorship deals with
clubs and individuals. It is an appealing investment to firms because it can be used to connect their
product or surface with current in new consumers. The matches in the 2010 FIFA World Cup held in
South Africa, were said to have had go to viewing audience of 26 billion people from around the world.
Such a huge viewing audience appeals to corporations because it gives them the opportunity to connect
consumers to:

 their sponsoring brand (Nike, Adidas, Puma, Toyota, Gatorade, and Coca Cola)
 positive brand images
 have positive feelings towards their brands

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  make purchases from their corporations

Through sponsorship, funds, resources, or services are expended to an individual or club in return for
some form of rights and/ or associations with the individual or club that may be used to help the
business commercially.

The benefits to the sponsor

 increase sales of the product or service
 raises their brand's image
 heightens their brand awareness such as the display of signage at event site. Display of the
brand name on kits banners around venue, advertisements in programs, and on other
merchandise.
 naming rights to event, series competition or team
 improves their corporate image
 development of new markets
 broadens customer base
 develops customer loyalty
 use of the club, event, team or individual in advertisements and other promotions undertaken
by the brand
 personal endorsement of the sponsors products by teams or individuals through the use of their
products, kits, or equipment
 tax deductions
 launch new brands
 develop community relations
 change or revitalize brand image

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Politics in sports
politics is most often associated with the administration of governments. Politics can be viewed as the
process and method of gaining or maintaining support for public or common action to preserve and
amend the general rules under which we live. Politicians are accountable to the people, and even
though they hold enormous power, their actions and decisions are supposed to be in the interest of the
general public. All aspects of our daily lives are affected in one way or another by the decisions of the
government. The amount of taxes we pay, the quality of services provided for us and the growth of the
economy are just a few examples. Political involvement in sports is no different. Historically,
governments have always had interaction with sports and have contributed and supported its
development and the socialization of the citizenry. they achieve this objective through numerous ways.

Provision of facilities
competitive sports require quality facilities. In today's world, where regional and international sporting
competitions surround us, and the availability of these facilities is a necessity for the growth and
development of people in society.

Construction of such facilities requires the outlay of huge capital expenditure. Individuals on their own
cannot fund such mega projects. Added to this is the fact that in small economies such as in the
Caribbean, the rate of return on such investment is minimal. Many individuals and sporting
organizations therefore depend on the government to provide these facilities as they have the means
and capital injection to undertake such a huge task. The nature and extent of the government's
involvement will vary from country to country and will depend to a large extent on their philosophy of
sport. In larger first world economies, where there is an established history of sports spectators and
merchandising market, individuals, or groups of individuals within necessary resources can undertake
such a project knowing that a return on their investment would be high.

Regulation of the use of facilities

when sporting facilities have been constructed by governments, they ultimately have the final say on
who uses the facilities and at what times period regulation of these facilities is important to avoid
conflict among groups, especially when quality facilities are limited, as in most Caribbean countries
come out and there are numerous sporting organizations all wanting to use this limited resource.
Regulation is also important to ensure that there is equity of access for all sporting organizations. Add to
this, regulation will ensure that only appropriate sporting activities in line with what the facility was built
for, what they place. For example, in a stadium common normal to cycle races will take place, ask it will
damage the track and field.

Public safety
many large-scale sporting events require by legislation the inclusion of public personnel such as the
police and fire officials to ensure safety and safety standards are met. For example, in World Cup
qualifying matches for football and T20 and 50 over cricket matches, it is mandated that police fire
officials are present to ensure public safety. If other sporting activities such as a marathon event,
Republic roadways will be blocked or made one way, permission is needed from the authorities.

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Personnel are also needed in the form of policemen to direct traffic and to ensure the safety of the
runners. The involvement of the governments come up more, so the relevant ministry is essential in
ensuring that the necessary approval is granted for the use of the public roadways and personnel for the
successful staging of such events.

Change agent
in an attempt to assist at risk individuals from falling into a life of crime, governments implement
sporting programs in the deprived communities. The thought behind such a move is that it will provide
these at-risk individuals with the opportunity to become involved in a constructive activity, thus
preventing them from getting involved in lawless activities and a life of crime. Governments sponsor
competitions, provide equipment and also prices, even going as far to provide media coverage. It is
hoped that such programs would add as a change agent for individuals in the community. Many
individuals however see such moves as a stopgap measure as it does not address the deeper issue facing
the community, such as poverty, deprivation of services and community This integration.

Promoting unity as a group/nation

Sports can have a unifying effect poor people that even politicians cannot match. Governments support
sporting events through funding of teams for training and competition. They also provide funding for
individual athletes to assist with their training programs. In 2009, in Trinidad the ministry of sports and
youth affairs, under the elite athlete assistance program, disperse 2.4 million dollars to 20 athletes in six
disciplines. The money what's two assist athletes to prepare for major international competitions such
as The Olympic Games come on Commonwealth Games and World Championships. In sports, especially
at the national level, support transcendence all values of race, cultural, color, religion, political
affiliation, and social class. The dysphoria of national team winning a major sporting event or even
qualifying for one brings unity among the citizens. In the Caribbean common in 1998, Jamaica
experienced qualifying for World Cup football for the first time period 2006 Trinidad experienced the
same. Such an achievement had people dancing in the street, literally. In the 2008 Beijing Olympics,
using Bolt broke three world records and gave the Jamaicans and, by extension, the entire Caribbean
reason to Unite and celebrate. The government threw ITS support for sports, promotes unity among the
citizens.

World stage exposure

governments assist with sports generally through contributions to athletes come on sponsorship in the
hosting of international competitions. Success in sports highlights the country and gives legacy to the
government, nation, and people. It exposes the country on the international stage. For example, in the
2008 100-M Olympic finals, six of the athletes were from the Caribbean 2 from Trinidad, three from
Jamaica, and one from the Netherlands Antilles. Could you imagine the joy that must have been felt by
the people from the tiny Netherlands Antilles to see their hometown hero Churandy Martina in the
finals?

sports and economic development

sports are big business, and many governments try to cash in on this by bidding to host major
international tournaments. They know that mega sporting events can give the economy a boost.

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stadiums have to be constructed, roadways expanded, hotels built, facilities upgraded, and services
improved together with other areas for improvement. This creates economic activity. At present, many
governments bid to host major sporting events years ahead as they are aware of the huge benefits to be
gained. For the FIFA 2018 World Cup bid come on already nine countries have submitted bids to host
the competition. They are Australia, England, Indonesia, Japan, Qatar, Mexico, Russia, the United States,
and South Korea.

Support for government leaders

politicians believe that promoting sports, being seen as a friend of sport, attending sporting events, and
being seen with sporting heroes at legitimacy to their governance. They are individuals who won major
competitions to advance their cause. They welcome these individuals personally at the airport. They
make a media event out of the athletes’ or teams’ success by being seen with these individuals as well
as by entertaining them officially. In effect, they use sports to promote themselves as their leadership.

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Gender and sports
historically come on sports have always been associated with masculinity. Sporting activities were
considered as being appropriate for males only. Women were not always taught of as being able to
withstand the rigors of intensive training needed for competing. Added to this was the belief that
women were considered as mothers and homemakers. If they did participate, they were channeled into
gender- appropriate sports or those that reflected images of femininity. characteristics of such sports
include grace, coordination, and beauty.

What is gender
gender is a social construct that defines roles, behaviors, activities and attributes that the society
believes are appropriate for men and women.

what is gender equality

this is the term used to describe the practice of distributing equally the allocated resources and
opportunities for men and women. It is aimed at eliminating discrimination in favor of full participation
opportunities for both the sexes.

What is gender inequality

gender in quality is the disproportionate allocation of resources and opportunities in favor of one of the
sexes.

Gender inequality exists throughout the world and varies significantly from country to country. It is
more prevalent in some countries where religion and culture of the people debar women from
participating in sporting activities. It has always been in favor of men at the expense of women. In some
countries, however, this trend has been changing due to a number of reasons. Today, females
around the world participate in a number of sporting activities for their schools,
clubs, and country. This increased participation by women can be attributed to
the following:
1. Government legislation and policies
for example , title X of the educational amendment of 1972 in the United States stated that “no person
in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits
of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving federal financial
assistance.”

2. New opportunities
programs for women in education, Sports Studies, athletic scholarships, and coaching have expanded
the opportunities for women in the field of sports leading to more women getting involved.

3. Global women's rights movement

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movements such as these stress the development of the women's intellectual and physical abilities. This
new awareness has promoted the interest in sport participation women of all ages and has led to the
creation of new interest by women who would never have thought of participating years ago.

4. health and fitness benefits

research in the field of physical education has made women more responsive to the health benefits of
participating in physical activities. They are now more informed and involved in exercise and sports for
health reasons.

5. increased media coverage of women in sports

due to media coverage and sports, women who Excel are showcased, highlighting the huge sums of
money they earn and the luxury lifestyle that they can enjoy. This has made heroines and role models of
some sports women and has encouraged young women to become involved in sport.

6. education
in 2005, students in Caribbean countries Rd the Caribbean examination council examination in physical
education for the first time period the formal adoption of this new subject will increase the knowledge
in sports for both sexes, and it is hoped that it will propel more women into sports related fields.

What prevents women from participating in sports?

1. Poverty
lack of financial resources to purchase equipment, pay membership fees to clubs and for traveling
expenses.

2. Heavy domestic demand

many women, even though they may be interested in participating in sporting events, cannot commit
themselves due to the demands of work and looking after family. Some women may even have to hold
down more than one job, leaving little time for other activities.

3. Safety concerns
there is a general fear in women of being injured while participating in sports period although being
injured is a real possibility, safety concerns can be addressed in advance (knowledge and training) ,
thereby minimizing the risk of injury.

4. Family structure
in the Caribbean, there is a large incidence of single parent households, with women at the helm. This
has the effect of reducing the support structure available for women and their participation in sporting
events. Who will look after my young ones? Will they be safe? These are some general concerns that
women may have, and which can impact on their involvement.

5. Concerns for transport

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women who live in rural areas and participate in sporting events may encounter great difficulties with
transportation. This can be due to the fact that events may end late night, and they will not be able to
access transportation to get to their home. This is also a safety concern for women, as traveling alone at
nights they run the risk being robbed or raped.

6. Lack of facilities
Men can and usually make do with whatever facilities that are available. However, when it comes to
women, specialized facilities are needed and clothing proper changing rooms and toilet facilities. Lack of
these serves as a deterrent for women wanting to enter into the field of sports.

7. lack of development programs

Although some progress has been made concerning women's involvement in sports, it is felt that more
can be done to encourage them. Development programs are usually done only in major urban centers,
which makes it difficult for women from rural areas to access them.

8. concern about what people would say

Women who participate in sports are labeled by many as being masculine and manly. They fear that
through training and competing, masculinizing of the body would take place and make them look less
attractive. Examples of these sports include boxing and weightlifting. When some women get involved in
certain sports such as figure skating and synchronized swimming, they may be branded as lesbians.
Women also have to spend a lot of time defending their personal lives and sexuality

9. little value placed on sporting activities by girls and their families

Participation in sports by young girls need support and involvement of parents. If parents do not view
sports as important, then there is a strong possibility that they will not encourage the doctors to take
part.

10.male- dominated sporting structure

female sports participation is, to a very large extent, under the control of meals. the positions held by
coaches, trainers, administrators, and officials are male dominated. There is the risk of females being
sexually harassed in their quest for excellence. Some women prefer not to expose themselves to such
risks

11.religious and cultural reasons

Some religions and cultures do not allow their women to take part in or view women's participation in
sports as unimportant. Because of this, there is a lack of participation by women. This in no way means
that the women are not interested, but due to restrictions placed on them in their society they cannot
take part. The cultural practice in terms of attire of women do not allow for some to participate in sports
period some Muslim women are not allowed to be seen by men outside of the family circle. Coupled

18
with this, the attired use for sporting events exposes the woman's body to a large extent. This will not be
accepted in these cultures, and women therefore are prevented from participating.

Why promote gender equality

 it is a social right of women
 what speaking in sports can contribute to the social, physical, mental, and emotional well -being
of women. It can instill discipline and self- respect.
 It can reduce the risk of chronic lifestyle diseases women, such as high blood pressure, stroke,
heart diseases and diabetes.
 It will empower women in the decision- making process in sports governing bodies.
 it promotes women's sense of ownership of their bodies, increasing their self- esteem and giving
women the opportunity to make informed choices about their lives.
 Increased participation by women would diversify the pool of coaches, trainers, administrators,
officials, and athletes.

Challenges in entering non-traditional sports

Can you imagine a robust male individual wanting to engage in cheerleading activities or synchronized
swimming? What would be your first thoughts about these individuals? Many people would think that
they are “different” in terms of sexual orientation. Even women who are involved in boxing and
weightlifting may be viewed differently. When a person of a specific gender enters a non-traditional
sport for their gender/ sex, many social and moral issues will arise. Society will view them with
suspicion, but this should not mean that they lose their masculinity/ femininity because they chose to
participate in a particular sport.

Negative Aspects of Entering Non-Traditional Sports

 Discrimination from society, peers, and media for challenging what is deemed as not acceptable
in society. In other words, doing something that has traditionally been considered it's not proper
for the gender is not acceptable.
 Spectators will oppose their efforts and not support them.
 their sexual orientation might be questioned.

Positive aspects of entering non-traditional sports

 Some people will think of the athlete as being courageous, hero, and respect his/ her dreams
and aspirations and also lend support
 the athlete can earn a place in history. By challenging the present gender status as it relates to
sports, the athlete will find opposition. This may continue throughout the life of the athlete.
However, new generations will reflect on the courage of the athlete and appreciate the
opportunities open for them because of the efforts of those who were willing to challenge the
system. They would now be able to play a sport they love without any discrimination.

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 Many children today look up to athletes as role models. An athlete is someone home day can
emulate and someone to follow and dream of being like when they grow up. For a long time,
young girls had only males to look up to, but today they have female athletes as role models,
someone to admire from their own gender.
 these athletes receive heightened media attention and sometimes instant fame.

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violence and sports
in the history of sports, violence has always been extremely common at sporting events. The Romans
and Greeks participated in various forms of blood sports such as gladiator fights and chariot races. The
charioteers competed against others’ teams in races, where winning could mean more gold than a
champion charioteer could ever spend and more women than he could ever want. In this sport, violent
acts were committed against opposing teams in the name of winning. Bullhide whips were used against
each other throughout the race, and ducking and dodging from opponents were common while driving
their team around the course at maximum speed. Violent and bloody deaths were common. Gladiators
Were slaves who participated in gladiatorial games. That was an important part of the public spectacles
staged by politicians and emperors. The gladiator was an armed combatant who entertained audiences
in the Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals and condemned
criminals. Such a confrontation resulted in the violent death of one party.

What is violence?
Violence is the use of excessive physical force which causes or has the potential to cause harm or
destruction (Coakley, 2004).

What is aggression?
Aggression is any behavior that aims to dominate, control or harm another individual through physical
actions that are hostile, destructive and /or violent.

what is intimidation?
Intimidation is the use of words, gestures and actions that threaten the fear of injury or harm through
acts of violence or aggression.

Reactive intentional violence

reactive violence
this is an instantaneous violent act brought about as a result of an accident or intentional act of violence
by an opponent. It is commonly found in contact sports.

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Intentional violence
this is a deliberate act of violence against an opponent that is planned and calculated. In a game of
football, for example, and member of the opposing team may be targeted for acts of violence.

Trash talk
trash talk is the practice of boasting and insulting one’s foes on and off the field. This is done in an
attempt to intimidate other players by getting into their heads. Sports psychologists sometimes feel that
athletes are putting time and energy into something that distracts them from playing at your best, when
playing well is the most intimidating factor.

Types of violent behavior in sports

brutal body contact

this type of aggressive behavior is it expected part of the game by team members, coaches and officials.
Example of brutal body contact include collision with opposing players, body checks and sliding tackles.
Some sports glorify brutal body contact. These sports include boxing, American football and wrestling.

Borderline violence

these are violent practices that breach the official rules of the games but are considered as normal and
accepted as a legitimate part of the game by players and fans. It is frequently used as a strategy in
competitive sports. Examples include elbowing a player in basketball an intentional foul in football. Such
violence is usually penalized by officials, referees and umpires.

Quasi violence

These are violent acts that contravene the former rules of the sport and acceptable behavior by players.
They also violate public laws. Late challenges in football, elbow hits to the head and eye gouging are all
examples of quasi violence. These acts can endanger the safety of the players. Athletes who perform
these acts are severely penalized through suspension and payment of fines.

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Criminal violence

these violent acts go beyond the laws of society. They are extremely violent and can result in severely
disabling an athlete or even death. They are so dangerous that athletes have no problem in condemning
them without question. They are crimes that can be prosecuted by law. Examples of these can be found
in ice hockey.

Media and violence in sports

the commercialization of sports Through television rights, sponsorship and advertisements has left to
fast sums of money being injected into sports, including the payments of enormous songs of money to
athletes. International sporting events have attracted media attention like never before. These
showcase the sporting event to millions around the world and at the same time glorify the violent acts
being formed. Power and performance sports, will winning is the ultimate goal, have promoted the
attitude of aggression, violence, hostilities, hate and revenge. Example of these can be found in
wrestling, the weighing- in ceremony of boxers as well as in interviews with some athletes. Some media
houses, in their promotion of sporting events, edit their videos to the extent that they glorify violence in
sports. they use close-up pictures and slow motion to showcase violent acts, including collisions among
athletes, painful facial expressions, the sound of body crashes and the cries of pain. They know that
violence sells, and that brutal body contact is what fans want to see.

Violence and masculinity

males cherish the thought of being considered as manly by peers, coaches and fans. To achieve this
status, many are willing to engage in violent acts to prove their masculinity. Having the ability to with
stand physical acts of brutal body contact, borderline violence and also produce such acts onto an
opponent is sometimes viewed as a hallmark for proving one's masculinity. Also, such acts will disprove
of a male individual being considered a “fag”. Acts of violence can also endorse an athlete’s position in a
team or within a group.

causes of spectator violence

spectator violence may occur when one or more of the following are present:
 alcohol is present - consumption of large amounts of alcohol can negatively affect the behavior
pattern of individuals.

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 Types of event - some sports have a higher likelihood of the incidents of violence, for example
football. In comparison, gymnastics will have very little incidence of spectator violence
occurring.
 Performance quality - supporters may act out their aggressiveness if the team performance
was substandard.
 the meaning and importance of the event and what spectators want apply to any event. Any
deviation from what is expected (for example, using match) may lead to violence.
 there is believe that the officials are cheating. This assumption gives the opposing team an
unfair advantage. This is seen as unfair and intolerable.
 Historical rivalries between the teams and spectators.
 high racial and ethnic tensions - celebration by any of these group can provide an opportunity to
demonstrate superiority which can easily trigger violence by the other group.
 celebration of achievement - it is common to see spectators celebrating their team's success
with destruction of property and looting.
 crowd size and standing or seating arrangements - individual seating arrangements are related
to lower levels of violence. When seats are not assigned, enthusiastic fans will try to push their
way towards the stage and crush those ahead of them. Empty spaces without seats can
encourage “moshing” (the aggressive pushing or slamming into each other).

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Drugs and sports

Athletes today continue to push the boundaries of excellence in performance. Records are continuously
being broken and new ones established. One just has to reflect on the 2008 Beijing Olympics where
Usain Bolt of Jamaica broke three world records, including the 4 X 100-meter relay with his countrymen.
With international media attention, instant fame, hefty paychecks, and enormous financial rewards from
product endorsements and the lure of a high standard of living, attaining winning performances are
extremely attractive. With incentives so great, many athletes, in order to maximize their performance,
are willing to risk the use of performance- enhancing drugs.

What are drugs?

Drugs any substances that occur naturally (for example, marijuana) or are man-made (for example,
cocaine) that when used can alter the normal functioning of the body.

why do athletes use drugs?

There are a number of reasons why athletes use drugs. These include:

 to gain a performance advantage over their opponents.

 Obtain the fame and fortune associated with winning.
 They believe that they will not get caught.
 They believe that other athletes are using drugs.

Drugs that are used upon the recommendation of a doctor can have positive life-saving benefits.
However, drugs when abused, or used without consulting a doctor, can have harmful effects on the
body and can be fatal. The use of performance- enhancing drugs is known as doping and is banned by
sports governing bodies. Performance- enhancing drugs can be subdivided into five
classes they are:
1. anabolic steroids
2. human growth hormone (HGH)
3. erythropoietin (EPO)
4. relaxants
5. stimulants

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 1. Anabolic steroids
these are drugs used to build body mass and strength. They resemble testosterone hormones produced
in the testes in males and Estrogen and progesterone In females. increased levels of anabolic steroids
can affect muscular and bone mass by increasing their size and strength. Some athletes have claimed
that the use of anabolic steroids reduces body fat and the recovery time after injury. Steroids use allows
athletes to train harder and longer. Steroids can be injected or taken orally.

side effects of steroids use

general side effects of steroid use include liver damage, depression, mood swings and aggression.
Specific side effects in males include baldness, infertility and development of breasts. In females, side
effects include hair growth on the face and body, disruption of the menstruation cycle and the
deepening of the voice.

2. Human growth hormone (HGH)

human growth hormone is a naturally occurring protein hormone produced in the pituitary gland and
plays a vital role in human growth and development. As it is a protein, it can be manufactured in large
quantities in laboratories. Increase in HGH above normal body levels through drugs use has the effect of
increasing muscle mass, stimulating body growth, increasing the number of red blood cells, boosting
heart function and making more energy available. This occurs by stimulating the breakdown of fat, all of
which can enhance athletic performance.

Side effect of human growth hormone

 overgrown hands, feet and facial features due to the increase in muscle and bone development
in these areas
 enlarged internal organs including the heart, kidney and liver
 development of heart problems

3. erythropoietin (EPO)
This is a home loan produced by the kidneys. It stimulates the production of red blood cells and
regulates the concentration of red blood cells and haemoglobin in the blood. This is extremely important
for athletes coming as it is the red blood cells that transport oxygen to all cells including muscle cells
enabling them to operate aerobically.

Side effects of erythropoietin (EPO)

 Blood clotting due to the increase in red blood cells
 increased risk of heart attack
 increased risk of stroke

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 4. Relaxants
relaxants reduce the activity in the brain and assist an athlete to relax and cope with the stresses
associated with competition. In competitions such as archery and rifle shooting events, relaxants can
assist the athlete to maintain a steady hand to assist with his performance. Relaxants come in many
forms and include alcohol, beta blockers and cannabinoids (marijuana and hashish).

Side effects of relaxants

 side effects of alcohol impaired mental function such as judgment, balance and coordination
 side effects of beta blockers low blood pressure, slow heart rate and fatigue
 side effects of cannabinoids – Hallucinations, drowsiness and impaired mental function

5. Stimulants
stimulants are used to assistant athlete to stay alert and to maintain aggressiveness. They also reduce
fatigue. They have the effect of causing faster heartbeat, and increased breathing rate and they make
the brain work faster.

Drug to mask pain

drugs that are used to mask pain, an injury or fatigue can have the effect of making these conditions
worse. If an athlete has muscle tissue damage or a joint injury and drugs are used to mask these
injuries or pain, then there is a real possibility that with continuous use, the injury will get worse and the
full effects of the injury will only be felt when the drugs have worn off.

Effects of drug use the mask pain

 it makes the injury worse
 it delays the recovery time of an athlete

blood doping
this is the procedure of removing one's blood weeks before competition and injecting the same blood
just prior to competing. This has the effect of increasing the concentration of red blood cells in the
system and the oxygen delivery capacity of the blood to muscle cells and tissues.

Side effects of blood doping (due to increase in blood volume)

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  blood clots
 high blood pressure
 heart failure
 stroke

why is doping not allowed in sports?

To protect the athletes’ health
many athletes may attempt to win at all costs because of the rewards associated with the winning. This
fact may encourage some to use performance -enhancing drugs to give them the edge over their
opponents, regardless of the health risks. By ensuring that performance- enhancing drugs are banned,
we are indirectly assisting athletes to maintain their good health.

ensure a level playing field

is an athlete uses performance enhancing drugs, it gives that individual an unfair advantage over the
opponents. The term used for such a situation is known as cheating. In sports, this should not be
encouraged, as there should be an equal chance for everyone who is competing. Athletic prowess
should be based on the athlete’s commitment to and diligence in training. The only advantage that an
athlete should have is one that is based on better preparation through training and practice.

Respect for medical and sports ethics

to protect the integrity of the sport, no world governing body for sport would like to know that their
sport is riddled with drug use. Such a situation would mean a huge loss in public support. Athletes are
supposed to be role models for young people. The use of performance- enhancing drugs can be viewed
as an endorsement for drug use and turn people away from the sport. Athletes who are found using
banned substances are faced with punishment which includes the payment of fines and suspension or
banishment from the sport. Athletes found using performance- enhancing drugs have their records
stripped.

Drug testing
sports governing bodies have a legitimate interest in establishing guidelines to maintain the sports’
image and integrity, to ensure competitive balance and to protect the athletes’ health. To sustain such
high standards, drug testing on athletes is done.

Drug testing procedures.

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  The athlete is notified of the test.
 The athlete chooses chaperone (of the same sex) for the test that stays with them at all times
(the chaperone is usually their coach or manager)
 The athlete selects a collection vessel
 The athlete provides a urine sample, under the supervision of the testing officer.
 the samples are divided into two pre- sealed bottles label A and B
 these samples are re- sealed by the athlete, and the testing officer records the bottle codes and
seal numbers
 the athlete checks all this, signs to certify that everything is in order, and receives a copy of the
form
 the samples are then sent to an authorized laboratory for testing
 sample A is tested
 any competitor who refuses to be tested is treated as though they gave a positive sample

Procedure for positive results

 the governing body of the sport and the competitor are informed
 the governing body investigates the matter. At this stage, the competitor is asked for the
account and sample B may be tested.
 Official hearing is arranged by the governing body at which a legal team made defend the
competitor.
 If guilty, penalty is imposed, which varies depending on the type of drug and sport. Generally,
first offense leads toward two- year ban and a second offense has a life ban imposed.
 Any medals or awards achieved at the time of the sample, or after are taken away from the
competitor.
 one problem facing athletes is that certain banned substances are found in common foods and
medicines. Tea and coffee contain caffeine; flu, headache and asthma tablets all contain some
banned substances. It is important that the coach checks anything taken by the competitor, as
any illegal substance in the athlete’s body, however innocently taken, is treated as a
performance enhancer.

Procedure for negative results

if no drugs are found then:

 no action is taken, and the sample B is destroyed.

 the governing body of the sport and the comparator are informed.

World anti- doping agency (WADA)

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The world anti- doping agency (WADA) was formed on November 10, 1999 in Switzerland with its main
goals being to promote, coordinate and monitor at the international level, the fight against doping in
sports in all forms. Its governing bodies are composed of representatives from the sporting movements
(including athletes) and governments of the world. The agency is involved in scientific research,
education, development of anti-doping capacities and monitoring of the world anti- doping code, which
is the document harmonizing regulations regarding anti- doping in all sports and countries. It produces
an annual list of prohibited substances and methods that sports persons are not allowed to take or use.

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Special Populations
What do we mean by the term Special Populations?
Special populations can be considered as a form of categorization associated with specific target groups.
Such groups include the elderly, children, disabled individuals, immigrants and refugees, women and
members of racial/ethnic minority groups. In the context of this book, special populations will address
the concerns of disabled individuals.

At one time, individuals with disabilities were thought of as being defective, inferior or less than a total
person. Even though some of these views may still be held by a few, society’s treatment of people with
disability has shifted to one of acceptance. Inclusion of these individuals in mainstream society is being
adopted. It is common now to see disabled individuals at schools and the workplace. With the advocacy
for special populations, individuals with disabilities are now viewed as neither good nor bad, but
different from others, unique and should be celebrated for their uniqueness.

Physical, Congenital and Acquired Disabilities

The term physical disabilities is broad and covers a range of disabilities and health issues including both
congenital and acquired disabilities. Individuals with congenital conditions are either born with physical
difficulties or develop them soon after birth. Acquired disabilities are those developed through injury or
disease while the child is developing normally. An example of an acquired disability is a spinal cord
injury. Physical disabilities interfere with an individual’s ability to attain the same developmental
milestones at his or her age-mates.

Types of Disabilities
Physical Disabilities
These disabilities are generally ones that become apparent at birth or shortly thereafter. Types of
physical disabilities include, but are not limited to:

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Cerebral Palsy – A loss of sensation or loss of ability to control movement, which is frequently
caused by trauma at birth.

Spina Bifida – A defective closure of the spinal column. Often, there is a loss of sensation below the
defect, and impairment in moving parts controlled at that level of the spinal cord and below.

Down’s Syndrome – A congenital birth defect manifesting itself in moderate-to-severe mental

retardation. Mental retardation is only one of a number of disabilities that are associated with Down’s
Syndrome.

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Mobility and Physical Impairments

There are many types of orthopedic or neuromuscular impairments that can impact mobility. These
include, but are not limited to, amputation, paralysis, cerebral palsy, stroke, multiple sclerosis, muscular
dystrophy, arthritis and spinal cord injury. Mobility impairments range from lower body impairments
(which may require use of canes, walkers or wheelchairs) to upper body impairments (which may
include limited or no use of the upper extremities and hands). Reduced functions of arms and hands
makes activities related to moving, turning or pressing objects difficult or impossible.

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Visual impairment

This is a term used to describe the degree of vision loss and can range from low vision, legally blind to
totally blind. Low vision implies an ability to utilize some aspects of visual perception, but with a greater
dependency on information received from other sources. Blindness implies a total or near total loss of
the ability to perceive form.

Hearing impairment
Hearing impairment varies from mild hearing, moderate hearing to profound deafness. With mild-to-
moderate hearing loss, individuals can benefit from devices such as a hearing aid which amplifies sound,
making conversation possible. The term deaf is used to describe people with profound hearing loss such
that they cannot benefit from amplification.

Barriers to Sport Participation by Individuals with Disabilities

Stigma
This a discriminatory label that can be consciously or unconsciously assigned to an individual with a
disability resulting in “special” treatment given to that individual. Examples of stigmatization include
being left out of groups or programs being offered, being ignored and being considered as incapable of
performing tasks. One way to challenge this stigmatization process is to view individuals with disabilities
as being different, with a uniqueness of their own which is neither good nor bad. Understanding our
differences is important for our growth and development as a society.

attitude
many individuals take a hands- off approach to individuals with disabilities. They shun them and do not
have any active involvement with them. We must always remember that they too are individuals with
dreams and aspirations. Our attitude towards these individuals must change and the best way to do this
is to get involved as a spectator, fan, coach, trainer or an advocate. Advocates can assist in raising
awareness in the public and also raise funds for supporting programs that cater for people with
disabilities.

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Financial barriers
participating in sports activities today involves a heavy financial commitment period money has to be
paid for membership fees to organizations, for the purchase of equipment and for transport cost, to
name few. It is assumed that the disabled athlete would be more financially challenged due to fewer
employment opportunities or the inability to work. This in itself further restricts their participation.

Access to appropriate facilities for the disabled

individuals with disabilities requires special facilities that will allow them to participate in sporting
activities. In wheelchair basketball, for example, the ring has to be lowered and in volleyball, or smaller
courts and lower net is used. In addition to this, the staff at these facilities must be specially trained to
help and supervise individuals with disabilities. Gymnasiums and buildings must be outfitted to
accommodate these individuals. Even the toilet and changing room facilities must be adapted to meet
the needs of individuals with disabilities.

Health status
disability in individuals in compasses a wide range of conditions and can range from mild to severe . In
some cases, health problems associated with a disability can be a barrier that prevents an individual
from participating in sports.

Limited accessible transportation

even if a disabled individual is interested in participating in the sports program, most often the individual
is dependent on someone else to assist with transport to and from the venue. Public transport does not
provide access for individuals with disabilities and if it does so, it is limited access.

lack of early experiences in sport

individuals are socialized into sports from an early age at school and at home. This is not the case with
most individuals with disabilities (this varies among individuals and whether a disability is from birth or
acquired later in life).

limited opportunities
disabled individuals have limited opportunities and programs for participation, training and competition.
This can be due to limited access to information and resources including facilities and training personnel
to meet their special needs.

Adapting and modifying sporting equipment

a trip to any sporting goods store where we feel the lack of modified sporting equipment for individuals
with disabilities. This may be cause of economic reasons. However, it highlights the continuing
discrimination against individuals with special needs.

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what are disability sports?

These are sporting activities that are played by individuals with either a physical or an intellectual
disability. Most of these sporting activities are modified to meet the needs of the disabled individuals
and are commonly referred to as adapted sports. There are some sporting activities, however, to be
created in its entirety to meet the needs of disabled athletes. Sports participation can have a
rehabilitative influence on the physical body and also on rehabilitating people with a disability back into
society. Today, individuals with a disability participate in high performance as well as in competitive and
recreational sport. Sports for athletes with disabilities are divided into three main
groups:
 sports for the deaf
 sports for person with physical disabilities
 sports for persons with intellectual disabilities

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there are, however, sporting activities that a practice by persons with disability outside the formal sports
movements. Wheelchair basketball and blind cricket are examples of these sporting activities.

Organizations catering for disabled athletes

there are a few sporting organizations that cater for special populations such as individuals with
disabilities. They are listed below when their sporting events:

The Special Olympics

- this world sport governing body caters for athletes with mental retardation. Athletes may have a
second disability but the main one must be a mental retardation.

Deaflympics –

This event was known as the international games for the deaf and was sometimes referred to as the
“international silent games”. It is an International Olympic Committee sanctioned event where deaf
athletes compete elite level. The Deaflympics is held every four years.

Paralympic Games
this is a worldwide sport movement that caters for elite athletes with disabilities. This includes mobility
disabilities, amputees, visual disabilities and those with cerebral palsy. It is held in the same year and in
the same country as the Olympics.

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Disability Commonwealth Games – in the 2002 Manchester Commonwealth Games, for the
first time in the games’ history, a number of para- sports were included in a fully inclusive sports
program. Male and female elite athletes with disabilities competed in 10 events across five different
para-sports:

 athletics
 lawn bowls
 swimming
 table tennis
 weight- lifting

the inclusion of events for disabled athletes in future Commonwealth Games programs will continue to
take place.

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Cultural influences
culture can be defined as a way of life of a people which includes their food, dress, social groups,
language, religion, values, beliefs, general lifestyle and philosophy.

Cultural influences
cultural influences continue to have a profound effect on participation in sports, especially for women.
Historically, they have been culturally embedded concepts on what is deemed acceptable for women's
involvement in sports and recreation. Even though notable strides have been made, including greater
participation by women in sports, cultural barriers continue to hinder their participation.

Cultural barriers to participation

woman’s body and attire

some religious faiths view a woman's body as inherently sexual and therefore feel that they should not
be exposed except within the family circle. The body is considered a sacred and private. The dress
requirements of sporting organizations with respect to swimming, netball and sprinting, for example,
clash with the values attached to these faiths making it difficult for devotees them to participate.
Although modifying the sports attire can be an option to allow for participation, for example, wearing
trousers and long sleeve shirts, it can be uncomfortable to participate in, as it can reduce the quality of
performance and can lead to stigmatization.

Beauty and body image

some cultures do a woman’s beauty and body image as essential elements in their culture. For example,
the Japanese women believe that activities involving profound sweating and building of muscles would
be considered as unattractive. Their concept of a woman's beauty maybe that of being thin and
participating in sports does not necessarily contribute to maintaining this physical feature.

religion

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religion and religious beliefs can have an overwhelming influence on persons participating in sports. For
example, all actions performed by Muslims are to please Allah (God). Although participating in sports
may occur in such religions, there is the possibility that it may not be in line with the teaching of Islam
and not be pleasing to Allah, and as such, participation can be restricted. Hindu and Buddhist religions
also share similar beliefs. The quest for sporting prowess has not been viewed as important in Hindu and
Muslim countries compared to Christian countries, power and performance and winning are important.

Gender roles
selected cultures have long established history of roles for men and women come on with men being
the ones allowed to participate in sports while women were denied this opportunity. Participating in
sports was not seen as important or appropriate for females as they were expected to learn how to
cook, clean house and care for the children. Arab culture also does not see sport as being something
that the women should do. Instead, they have to be ladies and are encouraged to get married, have
babies and settle down. Participating in sport love you as a necessity in life.

Language
language can be viewed as a cultural barrier to participation in sport. this is more critical in areas where
migration has taken place and the migrant now finds himself in a country with a language different from
his phone. With the language barrier, it is difficult to mix and make friends. Added to this, there will be a
lack of awareness of opportunities and available resources that can facilitate access to participating in
sport and recreational activities

family responsibilities
culturally embedded gender roles have showered some women with an equal distribution of family
responsibilities leaving this gender with little time for participation in leisure and sporting activities,
thereby acting as a barrier to their participation.

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Guideline and Overview of the Domain Social Issues
evaluate various issues related to Physical (a) Politics: role of government (policy, funding).
Education and Sport. (b) Gender: equity.
(c) Violence: hooliganism, terrorism.
(d) Drugs: social drugs, performance enhancing
drugs, anti-doping (methods, testing, banned
substances).
(e) Special populations: inclusion, accessibility.
(f) Cultural influences: customs and traditions.
(g) Media: influence of the mass media.
(h) Technology: officiating, statistics and analysis
of performance.
(I) Commercialization: sponsorship, endorsement,
marketing.
(j) Ethics: fair play and sportsmanship, racism.
(k) Legal issues: contracts. (l) Environment:
relationship between sport and the environment.

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