How English Came to India: Language Education Policies in

Colonial India
Chhayankdhar Singh Rathore

ABSTRACT
In an increasingly globalized world, English has emerged as one of the primary languages
of global communication. The influence and dominance of English are evident in the
realms of popular culture, media, science and technology, and commerce, to name a few.
In this context, India is considered to have an English advantage over countries such as
Japan, China, and even parts of Europe, as it has 125 million speakers of the English
language as a first, second, or third language (Krishnaswamy & Krishnaswamy, 2006;
Times News Network, 2010). How did a country which is defined by multilingualism and
linguistic diversity come to speak a language that does not originate in the Indian
subcontinent? This paper attempts to understand the answer to this question by conducting
a historical analysis of the introduction of English language education in India during
the colonial period and the language policies in the education system of India at the time.

Keywords: English in India; colonial India; English language education in India.

Introduction of the Indian Constitution (Hall, 2002;

Linguistic diversity and multilingualism have Mohanty, 2006). Over time, multilingualism
long been considered an identifying in India has evolved to a point where often
characteristic of India. While the 1961 Census one of these two languages (and sometimes
of India reported that a total of 1,652 self- both) is spoken by a large section of the
reported mother tongues are spoken in India, Indian population. The 2001 Census of India
the Constitution of India, under the Eighth reports that there is a total of 125 million
Schedule, recognises 23 of these languages speakers of English in India who consider
as scheduled languages, enabling federal- English as their first, second, or third
level official administration and education to language (TNN, 2010). India and Indian
be conducted in any of these languages and English are increasingly becoming the centre
obligating the Government of India to of the international conversation on World
promote and preserve these languages Englishes (Bolton, 2012). A key feature of
(Mohanty, 2006; Jha, 2010; Bhatia & Ritchie, World Englishes is that it not only focuses
2012). However, two of these languages, on English as spoken and learnt in largely
Hindi, as written in the Devanagari script, and monolingual speech communities or in
English, have been accorded the position of “mother tongue varieties of the language”
official languages of India under Article 343 (Kachru, 1996, as cited in Higgins, 2003,

Journal of English Language Teaching, Vol. 62, No. 5, September-October 2020 19

p. 618), but also in communities and landscape of India were concerned with the
countries where English is spoken and learnt promotion of Oriental learning in Sanskrit,
along with other languages in a multilingual Persian, and Arabic. This concern was
context. A crucial factor behind this exemplified in the establishment of the
phenomenon is not only the history of Calcutta Madrasa (also known as the Arabic
colonisation that most of these countries have College) by Governor-General Warren
but also the language policy in their education Hastings in 1781 and the establishment of
systems. This paper will analyse the history the Sanskrit College of Benaras by Jonathan
of language policy in the Indian education Duncan in 1794 (Spear, 1938; Evans, 2002).
system in the colonial period, which has Evans (2002) explains that these actions of
resulted in a sizeable anglophone population the Company represent the prevailing policy
in India. of Orientalism, which was considered the
Language Policy in Education during the official policy of the Company from the
Colonial Era Governor-Generalship of Warren Hastings
The introduction and extensive propagation (1773-85) until that of William Bentinck
of English in India was essentially a colonial (1828-35).
project that began after India became a British The term Orientalism, for most parts of the
colony. The colonial history of India can be 18th and 19th century, was used to represent
divided into two phases: 1757-1858 when a sympathetic view of the languages, culture,
colonial India was ruled by the East India laws, customs, religions, literature, art,
Company and 1858-1947 when colonial India thoughts, and society of the East, and even a
was ruled by the British Crown (Mukherjee, desire to protect the eastern civilisations from
1974). the high-handed European notions of cultural
The Orientalist Period supremacy (MacKenzie, 1995).
Unlike the widespread assumption, the East The beginning years of colonial rule in India
India Company (henceforth referred to as the were viewed as a period when British power
Company) did not intend to introduce had a fragile basis in India (Evans, 2002).
English-language education to India from the Consequently, the Company believed that
onset of the colonial rule. In fact, from the there was a political need to bring together
Governor-Generalship of Warren Hastings Indians and the emerging British Raj.
(1773-85) until the beginning of the Attempts were made at building bridges
Governor-Generalship of William Bentick between these two groups through the
(1828-35), the Company was opposed to the presence of acculturated British officials.
introduction of English-language education. These officials would use their knowledge
The reasoning behind this was that such an of Indian laws and customs to rule India in
action would diffuse Western knowledge and an approach that was similar to that of
ideas, which might wield a subversive effect traditional Indian rulers (Evans, 2002). As a
on traditional Indian society and culture. result, the Company believed that its
Consequently, the very first occasions of educational mission, if any, was the
British involvement in the educational improvement of Oriental studies of the elite

20 Journal of English Language Teaching, Vol. 62, No. 5, September-October 2020

classes of India, leading to a revival of the Act of 1833, which was followed by
Indian civilisation and not its replacement. Bentinck’s Resolution of March 7, 1835, that
Nevertheless, the Company still believed in made some crucial declarations. Firstly, the
the superiority of the European arts and goal of the British government was the
sciences, which were to be imparted through promotion of Western (European) literature
a policy of ‘engraftment’ onto traditional and science. Secondly, all funds were to be
Indian education, for the elite learned class devoted to English education alone because
who would eventually become intermediaries the classical languages (Sanskrit, Arabic, and
between the British and the Indian masses Persian) were considered too distant from the
(Evans, 2002). masses. At the same time, the vernaculars
The Occidental Period were considered too crude to be appropriate
The early nineteenth century witnessed the vehicles of knowledge. Thirdly, Persian was
decline of Orientalism and the rise of replaced with English as the official language
Occidentalism. The younger generation of of administration and courts of law. Fourthly,
Company officials believed in Occidental ideas the “principle of percolation of knowledge
of the supremacy of British power, religion, and from above to the masses was adopted”
culture. This generation held the opinion that (Spear, 1938, p. 95). Consequently,
the mission for Britain was the transformation educational funding was concentrated on
of Indian society and culture through English encouraging higher education and English
language and Christianity, as these would education, instead of elementary education
provide the Indian masses with “direct access (Spear, 1938). Following the resolution, in
to the superior arts, philosophy, and faith of 1844, an official policy of giving preferential
Britain” (Evans, 2002, p.264). Additionally, the treatment to English-educated Indian
Occidental group advocated that introducing applicants for public-sector jobs was
English as the language of governance and introduced, and this was successful in making
education would assimilate the conquered the educated Indian population desire English
group with the conquerors – a departure from education and view such education as
the hitherto Orientalist argument of having beneficial to them (Evans, 2002).
Company officials assimilate with the Indian At the same time, support for English-
masses (Evans, 2002). language education was growing within
This move towards Occidentalism was pockets of the Indian elite classes as reflected
represented by the appointment of William in the establishment of the Hindu College in
Bentinck as the Governor-General in 1833. Calcutta in 1816 and the rise of private
One of the primary responsibilities entrusted English tutorial schools in Madras (Evans,
to Bentinck was to cut the administrative 2002). This small but influential group was
costs (Spear, 1938; Evans, 2002). To this end, led by Ram Mohan Roy, who advocated the
Bentinck proposed replacing British revival of Indian culture while eradicating the
expatriates in the judicial and administrative social evils through not only the teaching of
branches of the government with Indians. the English language, but more importantly,
This provision was included in the Charter the content of English education (Spear,

Journal of English Language Teaching, Vol. 62, No. 5, September-October 2020 21

1938). urban areas (Evans, 2002). The primary
The policy change in favour of English- reason behind this popularity was the
education in India led to the growth of an awareness that even a mild proficiency in the
English-speaking secretarial and professional English language could open avenues for
class who eagerly learned the English political employment with the government and other
principles and became the core of the Indian European organisations.
National Independence Movement. The legal, Impact of Colonial Education Policies on
medical, and secretarial classes that emerged the Current Indian Educational
as a result of these changes continued to exist Landscape
(Spear, 1938). The impact of Wood’s Dispatch can be seen
Wood’s Dispatch: The Most Important in what is known as the Three Language
Policy Formula (TLF) – the single-most important
The most critical educational policy for policy regarding language education in India.
colonial India came in the form of a dispatch The TLF was recommended in 1956 by the
by Charles Wood, the President of the Board All India Council for Education and
of Control of the Company, to Lord underwent many modifications. These
Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India in modifications eventually led to its final form
1854. Wood’s dispatch became the in 1968 when it was codified in the National
foundation of British educational policy in Policy on Education.
India and entailed the following points. The TLF recommends that the mother
Firstly, he restated that the primary goal of tongue or regional language should be the
British policy in India was the propagation first language of instruction and this should
of European knowledge. Secondly, he be followed by the teaching of Hindi or a
clarified that the aim of British policy was regional language and English (Mohanty,
not to substitute the vernaculars with English. Panda, Pal, Menken & Garcia, 2010). The
Thirdly, he recommended that a balance be TLF provides that “all school-going children
struck between English education and will have first, second, and third languages
education in the vernacular languages by by the time they complete secondary school”
using English as the medium of instruction (Vaish, 2008, p. 14). Laitin (1989) refers to
at secondary and tertiary levels, while using India’s language education policy as the de
vernacular languages at the primary level facto 3 + 1 language policy, which refers to
(Evans, 2002). the fact that although the TLF espouses to
The dual-language system of Wood’s impart three languages to the students,
dispatch was endorsed by the Indian depending on the similarity or dissimilarity
Education Commission’s landmark report in between their mother tongue and the
1883. Over time, there was an increase in regional language or Hindi, some speakers
English-medium schools by state-assisted might learn two languages while others may
missionary societies and a strong demand for have to learn four languages. The TLF not
English-medium education, especially in only highlights the bilingual education
policy of the school system in India, but also

22 Journal of English Language Teaching, Vol. 62, No. 5, September-October 2020

reflects the state’s agenda of encouraging Krishnaswamy, N. & Krishnaswamy, L.
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of British rule in India, English has 22(3-4), 415-436.
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with not only one of the largest English- the unequals and predicaments of education
speaking populations, but also with English- in India: Mother tongue or other tongue.
speakers who are becoming essential cogs in Imagining Multilingual Schools. Clevedon:
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Mohanty, A. K., Panda, M., Pal, R., Menken,
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Journal of English Language Teaching, Vol. 62, Email:
No. 5, September-October 2020
chhayankdharsingh@gmail.com 23