Unit 2: Research Ethics and Safety

Lesson 2.1
Ethics in Research

Contents
Introduction 1

Learning Objectives 2

Warm Up 2

Learn about It! 4

Ethics 4
Ethics in Research 5
Historical Background of Research Ethics 5
The Scientific Revolution 5
The Industrial Revolution 6
After the World Wars 7
The Geneva Convention 7
The Helsinki Declaration 7
Present Time 7
Research Ethics in the Philippines 8
Research Ethics Regarding Animal Welfare 9
Principles in Research Ethics 10
Common Issues in Research Ethics 12
Lost in Practice (Negligence) 12
Fabrication and Falsification 12
Plagiarism 13
Welfare for Organisms 13

Key Points 14

Check Your Understanding 16

Challenge Yourself 17

Mini Task 18

Bibliography 20
Unit 2: Research Ethics and Safety

Lesson 2.1

Ethics in Research

Introduction
Ethics is defined as a set of moral principles that informs a person’s actions or behavior.
Similarly, in research, researchers have to follow a strict ethical standard so that the study
will be conducted responsibly and righteously. Not following these standards can create
confusion and misinformation to readers of research, and it can also infringe on the rights
of people. One example is a research produced in the early 1990s where the
measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine was linked with the increased risk of autism. This
research is questionable due to many factors, and one of them is the non-compliance to
research ethics. Another is a research conducted by Walter Reed (1900) to determine the

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cause of yellow fever. In his study, participants were exposed to mosquitoes that are known
to transmit yellow fever or by injecting the blood of people known to have the disease.
Several people died in this study including some research volunteers.

Ethics in research should also be observed between researchers in the aspect of proper
acknowledgment of other people’s work. These considerations are crucial in the active
decision-making of researchers to create a safe space in the pursuit of knowledge. In this
lesson, learners are expected to be familiar with ethical standards in research, how it can
benefit their own work and its effect on the academic community.

Learning Objectives DepEd Competency

In this lesson, you should be able to do the
This lesson serves as an enrichment for
following:
the following DepEd competency:
● Define ethics in scientific research. ● Differentiate applied and basic
● Review ethical rules needed in conducting research problems
(STEM_RP12-IIa-e-2).
scientific research.
● Discuss strategies on how research ethics
can be rigorously applied to your own
work.

Warm Up

Ethical Dilemmas 20 minutes

We have to make choices that may question our behavior as ethical or not on a daily basis.
In this group activity, you will be presented with different real-life scenarios with which you
will need to identify whether the action is ethical or not. You have to discuss your answers
within the group and provide explanations. At the end of the activity, your group will have to
share three (3) answers and explanations to the class.

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Materials
● marker
● manila paper

Procedure
1. Form groups with three members each.
2. Discuss whether the different situations outlined in Table 2.1.1 are ethical or not.
3. For each situation, you must also explain your answers and write them down to
complete Table 2.1.1. on a sheet of manila paper.
4. Post your manila papers on the board. Volunteer to share three of your answers to
the class.
5. Answer the guide questions below.

Table 2.1.1. Ethical or Not?

Ethical or Not
Situation Explanation
Ethical?

Borrowing another group’s questionnaire

without informing them.

Walking over a school lawn with a ‘Keep off the

Grass’ sign to pick up trash.

Reporting to your teacher that your research is

already at the data analysis stage even if your
group has just started acquiring samples.

Using a survey form from previous students’ of

research as a reference and citing them in your
acknowledgment.

Dissecting a living frog.

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Copying a close friend’s methodology and

passing it as yours because your friend gave
permission.

Posting a photo in a social media platform that

is not yours while using CTTO (credits to the
owner) in citing the source of the photo.

Asking consent from participants in your study

before proceeding to the data-gathering stage.

Requiring students to participate in a research

study for them to pass the subject.

Guide Questions
1. How would an action be considered ethical?
2. How do you feel after answering the activity? Why do you think so?
3. Does the class have similar answers in all example situations? Why do you think that
is the case?
4. Do you think ethics plays an important role in our lives? Why?

Learn about It!

Ethics
For millennia of human existence, ethics has been a part of our daily lives. Its origin comes
from the Greek word “ἠθικός” or ethikos that translates to “morality or showing moral
character”. Ethics is an enduring discipline that asks questions about right and wrong which
encompasses all fields of study from biology to business administration, and social sciences
to information technology. As for ethics in research, it is an important consideration that
must be followed as early as the construction of a research problem until the publication of
research.

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Ethics in Research
The importance of ethics was already discussed in Unit 1. In the warm-up, we have
established how it is embedded in our daily lives and how much thought we put into
consideration with ethics. We will further and deepen our understanding of research ethics
in this section as we discuss some historical background and ethical principles that
researchers use today.

How have historical events shaped ethics in

research?

Historical Background of Research Ethics

In this subsection, we are going to discuss ethics in a chronological form on how it was
developed in the scientific community throughout the years. We will start with a short
discussion on the scientific revolution in Europe that occurred from 1550-1700 until the
present time in which ethical standards were already established and practiced by
researchers.

Timeline of the historical development of ethics in research

The Scientific Revolution

During the scientific revolution that emerged in Europe between 1550-1700, there was a
paradigm shift of thought and belief from religious to a more positivist way of inquiring
about nature. This was the time when Nicolaus Copernicus and Isaac Newton challenged
religious beliefs on how we look at the world.

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Did You Know?

Positivism is a view of the world that believes in only one reality
where we can do experimentation, observation, and
measurements.

For a positivist, if one can not do any of those things, it is not real or
it does not exist.

In the early years of the scientific revolution, the pursuit of knowledge was limited to small
groups of academics which were confined in the walls of universities. These groups of
people often shared their findings, discussed them in informal meetings, and probably did
some collaborations. From these conversations, norms were established on how
research should be conducted—the “right way”. Because these groups were small and
the pool of knowledge was relatively shallow, it was easy for academics to check and raise
issues of inconsistencies with each other.

The Industrial Revolution

During the industrial revolution
(1800-1900), travel became
much faster due to the invention
of the steam engine.
Communication and exchange of
information also became much
faster due to the invention of the
telegraph. There was an
exponential growth of industries
and urban cities that prompt
academics to more avenues in
scientific research. Research done
in these times still follow the norms set by the academics from the scientific revolution,
however, making sure that all published or unpublished studies were done the “right
way” became more challenging.

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After the World Wars

By the end of World War II in 1946, scientific researches from the militaries of different
countries were exposed. Atrocities and violations of human rights were found to have
occurred in many military experiments. The safety of the scientists who conducted these
experiments was also questioned. Environmental impacts were also given great importance
to the pursuit of knowledge. This led to the establishment of the Geneva Convention
(1949) for the protection of human rights, and the Helsinki Declaration (1964) that
outlined international guidelines on research and experimentation regarding
humans.

The Geneva Convention

This specifically refers to the fourth Geneva Convention that occurred in 1949 after World
War II. There were conventions in 1864, 1906, and 1929 primarily pertaining to soldiers and
political prisoners of war. The 1949 convention on the other hand, specifically protects
civilians that were harmed during the war, especially those who were part of military
experiments. Over 190 countries signed and ratified this agreement, including the
Philippines.

The Helsinki Declaration

The very first version was developed by the World Medical Association in 1964 and was
amended thereafter. The Helsinki Declaration outlines guidelines on research and
experimentation regarding humans. It is important to note that the declaration specifically
states that the well-being of human subjects should be prioritized over the interests of
science and society.

Present Time
In modern times where the exchange of information is faster and more voluminous than
ever — research, experimentation, observations, and ideas are constantly shared around
the world. Ethical considerations are becoming more important as a result. That is the
reason why academic institutions are encouraged to create their own ethics
committees to review all research that will be conducted within their jurisdiction.

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Research Ethics in the Philippines

The Philippines has a National Ethics Committee (NEC) that was formed under the
Department of Science and Technology (DOST) in 1984. This committee is tasked to uphold
international and local ethical standards specifically for research concerning human
subjects. Other large universities such as the University of the Philippines and Ateneo De
Manila University have their own ethics committee that reviews and approves research
proposals before they can be conducted. Research that is in the field of medicine and
health should be subjected to the review and approval of the Philippine Health
Research Ethics Board (PHREB) that follows the 2017 National Ethical Guidelines for Health
and Health-related Research. You can access the guidelines by checking the link below.
Table 2.1.2. shows example topics that should be subjected to PHREB’s review and
approval.

2017 National Ethical Guidelines for Health and

Health-Related Research
Philippine Health Research Ethics Board, “2017 National
Ethical Guidelines for Health and Health-Related Research,”
Ethics for Health Researches (the Department of Science and
Technology - Philippine Council for Health Research and
Development, March 2018), Download Link Here, last
accessed on January 07, 2020.

Table 2.1.2. Example Topics for Review and Approval of PHREB

Area Research Topic

Nutritional Value of Breastmilk in Indigenous Groups

Food and
Micronutrient Deficiency and High Population Density in Urban Areas
Nutrition
Impact of Fasting for Surgical Patients
Nanomedicine and Human Response

Medicine Relationship of a Disease with Environmental Factors

Genetic Engineering
Prevalence of Depression in School-Aged Children
Others
Post-disaster and Family Consumption of Relief Goods

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Research Ethics Regarding Animal Welfare

In many scientific studies, the use of animal subjects is inevitable. It is the responsibility of
researchers to be aware of the laws and policies in the Philippines that protect the welfare
of animals. Republic Act No. 8485 (RA 8485) or the Animal Welfare Act of 1998, as amended
by RA 10631 in 2013, pertains to the protection of animals not used for human
consumption. The penalty of up to Php 30 000 pesos or maximum jail time of one (1) year is
given to violators of this law. In line with this, the Department of Agriculture released an
Administrative Order No. 40 in 1999 (AO 40 s. 1999) entitled “Rules and Regulations on the
Conduct of Scientific Procedure Using Animals”. This administrative order created the
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) which reviews scientific research
proposals and grants the authorization to perform scientific experiments concerning
animals. It is specified in the administrative order that “scientific procedures refer to any
activity which entails manipulation of animals for the following purposes: a)
biomedical researches, experiments, studies, or investigations; b) teaching and
instruction; c) product (food, drugs, agrochemicals, and cosmetics) testing; and d)
production of antisera or other biologicals.”

Research that contains any procedures that are mentioned above should get authorization
from the IACUC before proceeding with the study.

Rules and Regulation on the Conduct of Scientific

Procedures Using Animals
Department of Agriculture, “Rules and Regulation on the
Conduct of Scientific Procedures Using Animals,” Paws.org.ph
(Office of the Secretary, Department of Agriculture, August 2
1999), Download Link Here, last accessed on January 07 2020.

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Principles in Research Ethics

Ethics in research has developed along with historical events. It has also been shaped by
the ever-changing ideas and beliefs in the scientific community over the years. The
advancement in communication technology boosted the creation of different research in all
areas, especially in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). These
changes have called for a need in following stricter ethical standards, and academic
institutions have complied.

Although agreements and committees that have been established for the sake of research
ethics are specifically focused on the rights of human subjects, it should not only be limited
to this. Instead, research ethics should also encompass the entire research process and
all participants of a research study. In this subsection, we are going to discuss the
different principles that have been agreed upon by researchers. These principles are
enumerated and described in Table 2.1.3 published in the paper of Žukauskas, Pranas,
Jolita Vveinhardt, and Regina Andriukaitienė (2018), entitled “Research Ethics.”

Table 2.1.3. Twelve Ethical Principles

Ethical Principles Definition

This must be observed at all research-related communications.

The researchers must honestly present information on data,
Honesty results, research methods and procedures, and status of work.
It is prohibited to falsify and distort the data to deceive
classmates, teachers, any school officials, or the public.

Research bias should be avoided in all stages of research. The

researchers should make sure that the observations and data
Objectivity
collected are recorded and presented as is. It must not be
changed in any way to agree with the wants of the researchers.

The researchers must uphold their promises and agreements,

Morality and to be honest and seek the guidance of teachers or any
school officials if necessary.

The researchers must avoid careless errors and omissions. This

can be achieved with careful evaluation of your own work. Being
Prudence
organized and strict with schedule are also other ways in which
this can be achieved.

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The researchers must share data, ideas, tools, resources, and to

Openness
be open to criticism and new ideas.

The researchers should publicize the results of the research for

the sake of science and the pursuit of knowledge, and not for
Responsible the benefit of passing a subject or self-glorification. They should
publication also remember to make sure that the research which is being
published is thoroughly checked and reviewed by experts or
peers.

The researchers must save and secure confidential information,

such as profiles of respondents, professional or trade secrets,
Confidentiality records about health, and any other sensitive information that
might put anyone involved in the research in an untoward
situation.

The researchers must respect patents, copyright rights, and

Respect for other forms of intellectual property. They should not use
unpublished data, methods, or results without
Intellectual
permission—quote where you must cite and thank properly for
Property
their help in the research. It is a criminal act for anyone to
plagiarize.

Respect for other Researchers should respect and interact with each other
politely and honestly. Regardless if researchers are within a
researchers
group or interacting with other groups.

Social The research that will be produced by the researchers must be

useful to the promotion of social welfare. It should benefit
responsibility
members of the school, the community, or the society at large.

The researchers must avoid discrimination against other

students, members of the school faculty, any school officials,
Anti-discrimination and participants of research due to sex, race, nationality,
religion, or other factors unrelated to scientific excellence and
honesty.

Conducting scientific research with human participants involves

Security of people
careful considerations with respect to human dignity, privacy,
involved in and autonomy. The researchers must take special precautions
scientific research in working with vulnerable populations and seek fair
distribution of the research benefits and burdens.

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Common Issues in Research Ethics

Several issues in research ethics will be discussed in this subsection. These are things that
researchers should be aware of and avoid in the entire process of research. Failure to do so
may cost the researcher some dire consequences such as termination of employment,
disruption of career, retraction of published papers, or in serious cases, jail time.

Lost in Practice (Negligence)

As much as ethical guidelines and ethical principles are easily accessible for reference, many
researchers still fail to strictly comply with them especially in academic institutions without
an ethics committee. Sometimes, when time is limited in conducting research, ethical
guidelines are overlooked, and many of the principles are not followed. It is imperative
that researchers must always have these ethical guidelines and principles on hand for easy
access or become familiar with them by heart. A common example of negligence is when a
researcher does not subject his or her research proposal for the approval of an ethics
committee even if it necessitates procedures that concern animal subjects.

Fabrication and Falsification

With limited time and the pressure of publishing or presenting novel research, researchers
sometimes are forced to fabricate data. It is the act of manufacturing observations or
data that appear to be collected from participants, subjects, or samples but are
actually created by the hands of the researchers or people who are not included in
the target population. An example of this is when the research problem requires data
from several households of a barangay, however, the researchers do not have enough time
to go through with it. So instead of actual collection of data, they ask students from the
lower grades to act as members of the barangay and to fill their data tables.

Falsification, on the other hand, are observations and data collected from a
legitimate source but are used in a manner not intended to it. It can also be the
modification of data sets to agree with the research hypothesis. Misrepresentation in any
part of the research can fall under falsification as well. An example of this is when a
necessary procedure is declared in the research’s methodology but the researchers did not
actually do the procedure. Another example is when the researchers used a data set from
the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) about the flooding levels of coastal cities between

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2009-2014, but the researchers declared it to be between 2014-2019 to satisfy the teacher’s
requirement for current data sets.

Remember
Fabrication is the manufacturing or making up of data or
observations, while falsification is the presentation of information
in any part of the research but was not actually performed or used.

Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the act of copying or using works from another person and presenting it as
your own. It is basically stealing other people’s work. The Intellectual Property Code of the
Philippines or Republic Act 8293, is a law enacted on January 1, 1998, protects the
intellectual works of people such as books, inventions, designs, trade secrets, and other
works registered as copyright. Any offenders of this law may suffer a penalty of Php 500 000
- Php 1 500 000 or imprisonment of up to 9 years for third and subsequent acts. Although
not all acts of plagiarism is a criminal offense under RA 8293, it is extremely discouraged in
the academic community. Sometimes, it may affect a professional’s career or in cases with
students’ involvement, expulsion. Examples of plagiarism include: copying an entire text
from another researcher without proper citation, paraphrasing ideas from another source
without proper citation, or using a procedure developed by another researcher without
acknowledging them in your paper.

What can you do to prevent accidental plagiarism?

Welfare for Organisms

The issues regarding proper animal handling in scientific research have been discussed
above. However, some scientific studies also focus on human subjects. Examples of studies
that focus on these include the following:
● clinical trials for drugs,
● collection of biological samples,

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● studies on diseases,
● surveys, and others.
In these cases, the researchers take extra precautions in ensuring that no physical,
mental, or emotional harm befalls the subject of the research. In addition to this are several
other guidelines that must be followed, including the following:
● the subject must be a willing participant;
● the subject must be made aware of all risks;
● the privacy of the subject must be protected;
● the subject has the right to withdraw from the study at any point;
● information must be disclosed to the subject.
Similar to the procedures for other studies, any research involving human subjects is usually
subjected to a review by an ethical board beforehand. Take note that even surveys should
be reviewed before they are administered.

Key Points
___________________________________________________________________________________________

● Ethics is a branch of philosophy that asks questions about the right and wrong
ways of human behavior.
● Ethics in research have developed through time by different advancements in
technology, beliefs, and thought.
● Ethics committees are set in place at the national and local levels to protect all
research participants (human subjects, animal subjects, and researchers) in any
scientific or medical research studies.
● Research ethics is not just confined to the protection of human subjects, it also
protects the welfare of animals in scientific research.
● There are twelve ethical principles that a researcher must be familiar with. These
are honesty, objectivity, morality, prudence, openness, responsible publication,
confidentiality, respect for intellectual property, respect for other researchers, social
responsibility, anti-discrimination, and security of people involved in scientific
research.
● Common issues in research ethics that should be avoided by researchers are lost in
practice (negligence), fabrication and falsification, and plagiarism.

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Flow for inspecting research ethics standards

___________________________________________________________________________________________

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Check Your Understanding

A. Identify the ethical principles that are represented in the following

scenarios.

_______________ 1. The researchers discuss and share their research project while it is
still ongoing.
_______________ 2. One of the procedures that were expected to be accomplished was
not finished, instead of lying about it on their report, the
researchers narrated this in their scope and limitations.
_______________ 3. Personal records of participants were kept in a space location
where only the researchers have access to them.
_______________ 4. The research group was able to finish their research on time due to
proper organization and systematic accomplishments of each step.
_______________ 5. Upholding a promise for a group of participants.
_______________ 6. All members of the group kept their opinions for themselves so
that it will not affect the answers to the research subjects.
_______________ 7. For people who are differently-abled, the researchers collected
data in their houses instead of inviting them to their school.
_______________ 8. One of the group members convinced everyone to keep their head
leveled even if several unfortunate events have happened during
your field data gathering that was caused by another group.
_______________ 9. At the end of your research, teachers from a rural village will be
able to benefit from your study.
_______________ 10. Judgment was not passed for participants from an indigenous
group who have different beliefs and customs as you.

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B. Complete the given table below by giving examples of common issues in

research ethics.

Common Issues
Examples
in Research Ethics

Lost in Practice (Negligence)

Fabrication

Falsification

Plagiarism

Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions.

1. Why do you think it is important to discuss the development of research ethics

alongside significant historical events?
2. What are the challenges involved in making sure ethics in research are strictly
followed?
3. Among the twelve ethical principles discussed in this lesson, choose three that you
believe are the most important? Explain your answer.
4. Why do some researchers still fabricate or falsify their research?
5. How can researchers avoid common issues in research ethics?

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Mini Task

Strategies for Research Ethics Compliance

For the researchers to be able to follow the principles in research ethics and prevent the
occurrence of issues that might be encountered in the conduct of your research, you must
be able to develop strategies that will help you in this endeavor.

Materials
● marker
● manila paper

Procedure
1. Create different strategies or ways in each stage of research on how to constantly
follow the principles in research ethics or to prevent the occurrence of issues. Write
down your answers in the table provided on the worksheet.
2. Perform the task by completing Worksheet 2.1.. You can print the worksheet or edit
the template by clicking the link below.
a. Take note that you need to log in to your Gmail account after you click the
link. Then, select “Make a copy”.
b. Rename the file as specified by your teacher. You can move the file to your
desired location in your Google Drive.

Mini Task 2.1 Strategies on How to Constantly Follow the

Principles in Research Ethics
Quipper Limited, “Mini Task 2.1 Strategies on How to Constantly
Follow the Principles in Research Ethics,” (June 27, 2020),
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1UHzer6vfaHyWWlltqqL0xr
8TTYtJNRTL46zuKb0MjWk/copy, last accessed on June 27, 2020.

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Worksheet 2.1. Strategies on How to Constantly Follow the Principles in Research Ethics

Strategies for Research Ethics Compliance

Stages of Research Strategies

Identification of the
Research Problem

Review of Related
Literature

Methodology

Data Collection

Data Presentation

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Bibliography
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https://www.historyofvaccines.org/content/articles/do-vaccines-cause-autism.

Fraenkel, Jack R., and Norman E. Wallen. How to Design and Evaluate Research in
Education. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2009.

Hatch, Robert A. “The Scientific Revolution.” The Scientific Revolution - Definition -

Concept - History. Accessed January 7, 2020.
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ncept.htm.

History.com Editors. “Geneva Convention.” History.com. A&E Television Networks,

November 17, 2017. https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/geneva-convention.
History.com Editors. “Industrial Revolution.” History.com. A&E Television Networks,
October 29, 2009.
https://www.history.com/topics/industrial-revolution/industrial-revolution.

“Positivism.” Philosophy Terms, October 25, 2018.

https://philosophyterms.com/positivism/.

Ruyter, Knut W. “The History of Research Ethics.” Etikkom. Accessed January 7, 2020.
https://www.etikkom.no/en/library/introduction/systhematic-and-historical-perspectiv
es/the-history-of-research-ethics/.

“The Geneva Conventions of 1949 and Their Additional Protocols.” ICRC, October 29,
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https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/war-and-law/treaties-customary-law/geneva-conventions
/overview-geneva-conventions.htm.

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Trinidad, Jose Eos. Researching Philippine Realities: a Guide to Qualitative, Quantitative,

and Humanities Research. Quezon City: BlueBooks, 2018.

“UN, United Nations, UN Treaties, Treaties.” United Nations. United Nations. Accessed
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er=11&Temp=mtdsg5&clang=_en.

“WMA - The World Medical Association-Declaration of Helsinki.” The World Medical

Association. Accessed January 9, 2020.
https://www.wma.net/what-we-do/medical-ethics/declaration-of-helsinki/.

“World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki.” World Medical Association

Declaration of Helsinki, 2001. https://www.who.int/bulletin/archives/79(4)373.pdf.

Žukauskas, Pranas, Jolita Vveinhardt, and Regina Andriukaitienė. “Research Ethics.”

Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility, April 18, 2018.
https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70629.

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