Motion, Forces and Energy

Physical Quantities and Measurement Techniques

Units and basic quantities

 A standard or unit must be chosen before a measurement can be made.

 The size of the quantity to be measured is found using an instrument with a
scale marked in the unit
 Three basic quantities are measured in physics: length, mass, and time.
 Units for other quantities are based on length, mass, and time.
 The SI (Système International d’Unités) system is a set of units used
in many countries

 1 kilometre (km) = 10³ m

 1 gigametre (Gm) = 10⁹ m

 Many length measurements are made with rulers/meter rule

For any length less than a meter, we use a tape measure

Area
 The area of a square with sides 1 cm long is 1 square centimetre (1 cm²).
 Area formula: area = length × breadth.
 SI unit of area: square metre (m²), which is the area of a square with sides
1 m long.
Volume
 Volume is the amount of space occupied.
 Unit of volume: cubic metre (m³).
 Commonly used unit for volume: cubic centimetre (cm³).
 Volume of a cylinder: V =πr2h
 A measuring cylinder can measure the volume of a liquid. Ensure the
cylinder is upright and the eye is at bottom level of the meniscus.

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Time
 Unit of time: second (s).
 Time-measuring devices use oscillations.
 Choose a timer that is precise enough for the task (e.g., a stopwatch for the
pendulum period or a millisecond timer for measuring the speed of sound).

Scalars and Vectors

 Scalar quantity: has magnitude (size) only.

o Examples: distance, speed, time, mass, pressure, energy,

temperature.

 Vector quantity: described by both magnitude and direction.

o Examples: force, gravitational field strength, electric field strength,

weight, velocity, acceleration, momentum.

 Representing Vectors: a straight line with length indicating the

magnitude and an arrow showing direction.

 Adding scalars: ordinary arithmetic.

 Adding vectors: geometrically, considering both magnitude and direction.

For two vectors, FX and FY, at right angles:

 The magnitude of the resultant

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Motion
Distance-Time Graph Examples

 At rest ( BC).
 Constant speed (AB and CD)
 Speed is higher when the gradient is steeper. For example, the speed of
the train at CD is 2m/s, but that at AB is 1m/s. It is higher in CD, which can
be seen as CD being steeper.

Non-Constant Speed

 When speed changes, the gradient of the distance-time graph varies.

 Upward curve of increasing gradient: accelerating.
 The upward curve of decreasing gradient: decelerating.

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  Example:
Gradient of the tangent at T: AB/BC=40m/2s = 20m/s

Speed

 Speed is the distance travelled by a body in unit time.

 When the distance travelled is (s) over a short time period (t), the speed (v)
is given by:

v=s/t

 Key definition: Speed is the distance travelled per unit time.

 General formula:

Average speed=Total distance travelled / Total time taken

Example: If a car travels 300 km in five hours, its average speed is:
Average speed=300 km / 5 h = 60 km/h

Velocity

 Velocity is the distance travelled in unit time in a given direction.

Ie.
Velocity = Speed given in a specific direction.
 Speed is the distance travelled in unit time.

 Example: If two trains travel due north at 20 m/s, they have the same
speed and velocity due north. If one travels north and the other south, their
speeds are the same, but not their velocities.

 Key definition: Velocity is the change in displacement per unit of time.

 Velocity formula:

Velocity =Distance moved in a given direction/ Time taken

Velocity =Displacement/ Time

 Velocity is the speed in a given direction.

 A body's velocity is uniform or constant if it moves at a steady speed in a
straight line.
 Velocity is not uniform if the body moves in a curved path.
 Speed and velocity units are the same: km/h, m/s.

Note: Speed is a scalar quantity and velocity a vector quantity. Displacement is a

vector, unlike distance which is a scalar

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Acceleration

 When the velocity of an object changes, the object accelerates.

 Acceleration is defined as the change of velocity in unit time:

Acceleration=Δv/Δt

o Example: If a car starts from rest and reaches a velocity of 2 m/s
after 1 second, its acceleration is 2m/s2,due north

 Key definition: Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time.

 Example: For a steady increase of velocity from 20 m/s to 50 m/s in 5

seconds:

 Acceleration=(50−20)/5=6m/s2

 Acceleration is a vector, and its magnitude and direction should be stated.

 For motion in a straight line, the magnitude of the velocity equals the
speed, and the magnitude of the acceleration equals the speed change in
unit time.

 Example: A car accelerating on a straight road with the following speeds:

 The speed increases by 5 m/s every second, and the acceleration is

constant at 5 m/s².

 Acceleration is positive if the velocity increases.

 Acceleration is negative if the velocity decreases (also called deceleration

or retardation).

Speed-Time Graphs

 Speed-time graphs plot the speed of an object against time.

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  Used to solve motion problems.

Constant Speed

 Example: AB is a speed-time graph for an object moving with a constant

speed of 20 m/s.

A straight horizontal line on a speed-time graph indicates constant speed.

Constant Acceleration

 The linear shape (AB) of the graph indicates constant acceleration.

 The speed increases by 4 m/s every second, indicating constant

acceleration.

Variable Acceleration

Example 1: The figure shows acceleration from rest, constant speed,

and deceleration.

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Example 2: The figure shows changing acceleration with a curved shape.

 Speed increases over time, but by a smaller amount each second,

indicating decreasing acceleration.

Using Gradient to Calculate Acceleration

 The gradient of a speed-time graph represents the acceleration.

 For constant speed, the gradient is zero, indicating zero acceleration.
 For constant acceleration, the gradient is given by:
Gradient=Δx/Δy = X2−X1/ Y2−Y1
 For changing acceleration, the gradient changes, indicating changing
acceleration.
 An object accelerates if the speed increases and decelerates if the speed
decreases with time.

Area Under a Speed-Time Graph

 Measures the distance travelled.

 The rule applies even if acceleration is not constant.
 The distance equals the shaded area under the graph.

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Equations for constant acceleration

 First Equation

o If an object is moving with constant acceleration ( a ) in a straight line

and its speed increases from ( u ) to ( v ) in time ( t ):
o Acceleration is given by:
a = v-u/t
o Rearranging gives:
v=u+at (Equation 1)

 Second Equation

o For an object moving with constant acceleration, its average speed

equals half the sum of its initial and final speeds:
Average speed =u+v/2

o If (s) is the distance moved in time (t), then:

Average speed=s / t

o Combining these, we get

s/t=u+v/2

o Rearranging gives:
s=(u+v)/2⋅t (Equation 2)

Air Resistance and Free Fall

 In the air, a coin falls faster than a small piece of paper due to air
resistance.
 In a vacuum, both fall at the same rate.
 Air resistance has a greater effect on light bodies compared to heavy
bodies.
 Air resistance is negligible for dense, heavy objects at low speeds.

Acceleration of Free Fall

 All bodies falling freely under gravity accelerate uniformly if air resistance
is negligible.
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  This uniform acceleration is called the acceleration of free fall, denoted by (
g ).
 The value of (g) varies slightly but is about 9.8 m/s² on average.
 The velocity of a free-falling body increases by about 9.8m/s every second.

A ball shot upwards with a velocity of 30 m/s decelerates by about 9.8

m/s every second, reaching its highest point after 3 seconds.

As an object falls, air resistance increases, reducing its acceleration.

 When air resistance equals the object's weight, it falls at a terminal

velocity.
 Terminal velocity depends on the object's size, shape, and weight.
 A small, dense object has a high terminal velocity and accelerates for a
longer distance.
 A light object or one with a large surface area, like a raindrop or parachute,
has a low terminal velocity and accelerates over a shorter distance.
 Following is the velocity-time graph for a falling parachutist:

Explanation:

 Initial Phase: When the parachutist jumps out of the plane, they
experience free fall. During this phase, their velocity increases steadily due
to the acceleration of gravity (approximately 9.8m/s29.8m/s2 acting
downwards. The graph slopes upwards steeply.

 Slowing down of Parachute: Air resistance increases significantly when

the parachutist deploys their parachute. This causes a decrease in
acceleration, leading to a less steep slope on the graph. The parachutist’s
velocity continues to increase but at a slower rate compared to free fall.

 Terminal Velocity: As the parachutist continues to fall, their velocity

eventually reaches a maximum constant value known as terminal velocity.
At terminal velocity, the forces of gravity and air resistance (drag) balance
out, resulting in zero net acceleration. On the velocity-time graph, this
appears as a horizontal line where the velocity remains constant.

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Mass and Weight
Mass

 The mass of an object is the measure of the amount of matter in it. It is a

measure of the quantity of matter in an object at rest relative to an
observer.
 The standard unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), with the gram (g) being
one-thousandth of a kilogram: 1g=10−3 kg=0.001kg
 Mass is different from weight, which is a gravitational force on an object
with mass.

Weight

 Weight is the gravitational force acting on an object that has mass.

 The weight of an object can vary with location due to differences in
gravitational field strength.
 The unit of force is the Newton (N). Weight is measured in newtons and can
be determined using a spring balance.

Gravitational Field

 Gravity acts through space, causing objects not in contact with the Earth to
fall towards it.
 Gravitational field strength (g) is the force per unit mass and is a vector
quantity with magnitude and direction.
 On Earth's surface, g = 9.8 N/kg or 9.8 m/s^2, representing both the
acceleration due to gravity and the gravitational field strength.

Density
Definition

 Density (ρ(ρ) is the measure of mass per unit volume

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 ρ=m / V
 Standard units for density include kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³) or
grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm³).

Calculation Methods

 Regular Shape: Measure mass (m) using a balance, and measure volume
(V) by direct measurement of dimensions.

 Irregular Shape: Measure mass (m) using a balance. Measure volume (V)
using displacement methods:

Method 1: Immerse the object in a measuring cylinder filled with water, record
the initial and final water levels to find volume.

Method 2: Displacement Can. Fill the can until the spout. Immerse the
object in the water and find the volume of water displaced. That volume
of water is the volume of the object.

 Liquid: To determine the mass of an empty container, add liquid, measure

total mass, and subtract to find the mass of the liquid. Divide by the known
volume to find density.

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  Air: Measure the mass of a flask filled with air, then remove the air with a
vacuum pump. Calculate air density by dividing the mass difference by
volume measured using water displacement.

Example Calculations

 Example 1: Calculate the density of copper given a mass of 63 g and a

volume of 7 Cm3.
ρ=m/v = 63 g / 7 cm³ =9 g/cm³

Floating and Sinking:

 Objects float or sink in liquids based on their density relative to the liquid's
density. A higher-density object sinks in a lower-density liquid and vice
versa.

Forces
Force
 A force is a push or a pull that can change the motion, speed, or shape of
an object.
 It can cause objects at rest to move or alter the direction of moving objects.

Extension in Springs

 Springs follow Hooke's Law, where extension is proportional to the

stretching force up to the limit of proportionality.
 Symbolically, extension∝stretching forceextension∝stretching force

Spring Constant

 The spring constant (k) measures the force needed to cause a unit
extension in a spring.
 k=F/x ; where (F) is the force applied and (x) is the resulting extension.

Load-Extension Graphs

 Used to graphically represent the relationship between applied force (load)

and resulting extension in materials like springs.
 Non-linear graphs beyond the limit of proportionality indicate permanent
deformation.

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Forces and Resultants

 Forces have magnitude and direction, represented by arrows in diagrams.

 Multiple forces acting on an object can be balanced (e.g. weight and
support force) or have a resultant force.
 The resultant force is the single force that has the same effect as all forces
acting together.
 A resultant force can change the velocity of an object by altering its speed
or direction of motion.

Newton’s First Law

 An object remains at rest or continues to move at a constant speed in a

straight line unless acted upon by a resultant force.

 This means that no force is required to maintain constant velocity if no

external forces act on the object.

Friction and Air Resistance

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  Forces like friction and air resistance cause objects to slow down and
eventually come to rest.

 In their absence, objects would continue moving indefinitely with constant

speed.

Newton’s Second Law

 States that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force

acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass.

 Mathematically expressed as:

F=ma

where (F) is the resultant force in newtons (N), (m) is the mass in kilograms
(kg), and (a) is the acceleration in meters per second squared(m/s2).

Proportional Relationships

 Acceleration (a) is directly proportional to the force (F) when mass (m) is
constant
a∝F

 Acceleration (a) is inversely proportional to mass (m) when force (F ) is

A ∝ 1/m
constant

Units and Constant (k)

 The unit of force, the newton (N), is defined as the force that gives a 1 kg
mass an acceleration of 1m/s2

 k in F=kma equals 1 when m=1kg and a = 1m/s2

Resultant Force and Motion

 Resultant force (F ) causes an object to accelerate in the direction of the

force.

 When forces are balanced, there is no acceleration, but changes in shape

may occur due to internal forces within the object.

Friction

 Friction is the force that opposes the motion o of one surface over another.
 It is essential for walking and gripping surfaces but can prevent proper
movement on surfaces like ice.

Types of Friction

 Static Friction: The frictional force that opposes the starting of motion
between surfaces in contact.
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  Kinetic Friction: The frictional force that opposes the motion of surfaces
sliding past each other.

 Fluid Friction (Drag): Resistance encountered by an object moving through

a fluid (air or liquid), increasing with speed and reducing acceleration.

Effect of Force and Mass on Friction

 Increasing the force pressing surfaces together increases friction initially.

 Friction converts kinetic energy into thermal energy, causing a rise in

temperature when contacting surfaces.

Centripetal Force

 In a circular motion, an object moves in a curved path due to a force

directed towards the centre of the circle.

Acceleration in Circular Motion

 Despite constant speed, circular motion involves acceleration because

velocity direction changes continuously.
 Acceleration towards the centre of the circle is necessary to maintain
circular motion.

Factors Affecting Centripetal Force

Centripetal force magnitude depends on the following:

 Speed (v): Increasing speed increases centripetal force.

 Radius (r): Decreasing radius increases centripetal force.
 Mass (m): Increasing mass increases centripetal force.

Role of Centripetal Force

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 It ensures the object maintains a constant distance from the centre of the

circle.
Moment of a Force

 The turning effect of a force around a pivot point is called the moment of
the force.

 It depends on both the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular

distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force.

 Mathematically, the moment is given by:

M=F×d

where d is the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of
the force.

 The unit of moment is the Newton metre (Nm).

Balancing a Beam and the Law of Equilibrium

 To balance a beam around a pivot point, the principle of moments (or law
of moments) is used.
 The law states that for a beam in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise
moments about any point equals the sum of anticlockwise moments about
the same point.
 This principle is essential for designing and understanding the equilibrium
of lever systems and other balanced structures.

Conditions for Equilibrium

An object is in equilibrium if:

 The sum of all forces acting on it equals zero (static equilibrium).

 The sum of all moments (clockwise and anticlockwise) around any point is
zero (rotational equilibrium).

Centre of Gravity

 The centre of gravity (or centre of mass) of an object is the point through
which the entire weight of the object acts.
 It behaves as if all the mass were concentrated at this single point.
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  For a uniform object, such as a ruler, the centre of gravity is at its
geometric centre.

Determining the Centre of Gravity

 Finding the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped lamina involves

suspending the object from different points and using a plumb line to mark
the vertical line through which it hangs. The centre of gravity is where
these lines intersect.

Stability and Toppling

 The stability of an object depends on the position of its centre of gravity

relative to its base.
 An object is stable if its centre of gravity remains over its base of support.
 Toppling occurs when the vertical line through the centre of gravity falls
outside the base of support.
 Increasing the base area and lowering the centre of gravity improves
stability.

Types of Equilibrium

 Stable Equilibrium: An object returns to its original position when

displaced slightly (e.g., a ball in a bowl).

 Unstable Equilibrium: An object moves further away from its original

position when displaced slightly (e.g., a ruler balanced on its edge).

 Neutral Equilibrium: An object remains in its new position when

displaced (e.g., a ball sitting on a flat surface).

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Momentum

 Momentum (p) is the product of an object's mass (m) and its velocity (v).
 Mathematically, p=mv
 It is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction.
 The SI unit of momentum is kilogram metre per second (kgm/s) or newton
second (Ns).

Conservation of Momentum

 The total momentum of a closed system of objects remains constant if no

external forces act on it (such as friction or air resistance).
 This principle is known as the conservation of momentum.
 Momentum is conserved in collisions (both elastic and inelastic) and
explosions. For example, in a collision, the total momentum before and
after the collision remains the same.
P initial=p final

Impulse

 Impulse ( J ) is the change in momentum (Δp) of an object when a force

acts on it over a period of time (Δt).
 Mathematically, J=FΔt=Δp
 Impulse is also a vector quantity and has the same direction as the force
causing it.

Force and Momentum:

 Relation of force to the rate of change of momentum:

o (F=Δp / Δt), which is an alternative form of Newton's second law.

3. Waves

3.1. Light

Light: an electromagnetic wave capable of passing through free space or a

material medium in the form of varying electric and magnetic fields.

Normal is a line drawn at right angles between the boundary of two materials.

The angle of incidence is the angle made by the incident ray to the normal. The
angle of reflection is the angle made by the reflected ray to the normal.

The image formed by a plane mirror has the following characteristics: same
size, same distance from the mirror, and virtual.

The Law of Reflection states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle
of reflection.

The angle of refraction is the angle made by the refracted ray to the normal.

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The critical angle is the angle made to the normal in the denser material when
the angle of refraction is 90°.

The Equation for Critical Angle is:

Refractive index, n: as the ratio of the speeds of a wave in two different

regions .

The Equation for the Refractive Index is:

 Optical fibers are used mainly in telecommunications.

 A thin, converging lens converges a parallel beam of light.
 A thin diverging lens diverges a parallel beam of light.
 The principal focus (focal point) is the point on the principal axis
where parallel waves passing through the lens meet.
 The principal axis is a line of symmetry passing through the centre of
the lens.
 The focal length is the distance from the centre of the lens to the
principal focus.
 A virtual image is formed when diverging rays are extrapolated
backwards and do not form a visible projection on a screen.

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 A single lens is used as a magnifying glass.
 A converging lens is used to correct long-sightedness.
 A diverging lens is used to correct short-sightedness

Dispersion of Light : The Dispersion of Light is shown by the refraction of

white light passing through a glass prism.

 The seven colours (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet) of white
light increase from red to violet, and the wavelength decreases from red to
blue.
 Visible light of a single frequency or wavelength is described as
monochromatic.

Waves

3.2. Sound

Longitudinal waves produced by vibrating sources are known as sound waves.

 Sound waves require a medium to be transmitted (such as air).
 Compressions: high pressure
 Rarefactions - low pressure
 Solids transmit sound the fastest, liquids are slower, and gases are the
slowest.

Pitch, Amplitude, Frequencies and Echoes

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  The louder a sound wave is, the greater its amplitude.
 The higher the pitch of a sound wave, the higher its frequency.
 An echo is a reflection of sound waves.

Methods of Determining the Speed of Sound in Air

 Make a noise at a known, significant distance from a solid wall and record
the time it takes for the echo (reflected sound) to be heard, then use speed
= distance/time, considering that the sound has to travel there and back.

Speed of Sound in Matters and the Human Audible Range

 Sound travels at 343 meters per second in air, 1493 meters per second in
water, and 5130 meters per second in steel.
 The audible frequency range for a healthy human ear is 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.

Ultrasound

Ultrasound: sound having a frequency of more than 20000 Hz Ultrasound

is partially reflected when it reaches a border between two media. The
remaining waves pass through. A transceiver can produce ultrasound and
collect the reflected waves to determine the distance of objects below the
surface. Ultrasound is utilized for SONAR and medical imaging without
ionizing radiation.

3.3. General Properties of Waves

Wavelength (λ): distance between two crests or troughs, measured in mm cm

or m

 Frequency: Number of complete waves that go past a given point per unit
of time. Measured in hertz (Hz) 1Hz = 1 complete wave per unit second

 Amplitude: The maximum particle displacement of the wave from the

undisturbed position, measured in mm cm or m

 Speed: Distance travelled by the wave per unit time, measured in m/s,
cm/s or mm/s

 Wavefront: A line drawn to represent the peaks of a wave in two

dimensions. The distance between two adjacent wavefronts is the
wavelength of the wave. Wavefronts can be used to show some properties
of waves.

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Relationship between speed, frequency and wavelength:

wave speed = frequency × wavelength ;

Reflection, refraction and diffraction (using water waves in a ripple tank) :

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