TABLE OF CONENTS

S.no. Topic Page number

1 Certificate 1
2 Acknowledgement 2
3 Table of Contents 3
4 Current Electricity 4-10
5 Electric Potential 11-15
6 Electrical Resistance 16-21
7 Ohm’s Law 22-24
8 Resistors 25-39
9 Bibliography 40
Topic:

RESISTORS
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electric Current is the rate of flow of electrons in a conductor. The SI

Unit of electric current is the Ampere.

Electrons are minute particles that exist within the molecular structure
of a substance. Sometimes, these electrons are tightly held, and other
times they are loosely held. When electrons are loosely held by the
nucleus, they are able to travel freely within the limits of the body.
Electrons are negatively charged particles hence when they move, a
number of charges moves, and we call this movement of electrons as
electric current. It should be noted that the number of electrons that
are able to move governs the ability of a particular substance to
conduct electricity. Some materials allow the current to move better
than others. Based on the ability of the material to conduct electricity,
materials are classified into conductors and insulators.

Conductors: these materials allow the free flow of electrons from one
particle to another. Conductors allow for charge transfer through the
free movement of electrons. The flow of electrons inside the
conducting material or conductor generates an electric current. The
force that is required to drive the current flow through the conductor is
known as voltage.
Examples of conductors: Human body, aqueous solutions of salts and
metals like iron, silver and gold.

Insulators: Insulators are materials that restrict the free flow of

electrons from one particle to another. The particles of the insulator do
not allow the free flow of electrons; subsequently, the charge is
seldom distributed evenly across the surface of an insulator.

Examples of Insulators: Plastic, Wood and Glass

Symbol
The conventional symbol for current is I, which originates from the
French phrase intensité du courant, (current intensity). Current
intensity is often referred to simply as current. The I symbol was used
by André-Marie Ampère, after whom the unit of electric current is
named, in formulating Ampère's force law (1820). The notation
travelled from France to Great Britain, where it became standard,

Current in gases and liquids generally consists of a flow of positive

ions in one direction together with a flow of negative ions in the
opposite direction. To treat the overall effect of the current, its direction
is usually taken to be that of the positive charge carrier.

A current of negative charge moving in the opposite direction is

equivalent to a positive charge of the same magnitude moving in the
conventional direction and must be included as a contribution to the
total current.

Current in semiconductors consists of the motion of holes in the

conventional direction and electrons in the opposite direction.
Unit of Current
The magnitude of electric current is measured in coulombs per
second. The SI unit of electric current is Ampere and is denoted by the
letter A. Ampere is defined as one coulomb of charge moving past a
point in one second.

1A=1C/1 sec

If there are 6.241 x 1018 electrons flowing through our frame in one
second, then the electrical current flowing through it is ‘One Ampere.’

The unit Ampere is widely used within electrical and electronic

technology along with the multipliers like milliamp (0.001A), microamp
(0.000001A)

Electric Circuit
The electric circuits are closed-loop or paths, forming a network of
electrical components where electrons can flow. This path is made
using electrical wires and is powered by a source, like a battery. The
start of the point from where the electrons start flowing is called the
source, whereas the point where electrons leave the electrical circuit
is called the return. Let’s conduct a small experiment; you would need
the following,
 ● Electric bulb
● Wire
● Electrical tape
● A bulb

Types of Current

Alternating Current

In alternating current (AC) systems, the movement of electric charge

periodically reverses direction. AC is the form of electric power most
commonly delivered to businesses and residences. The usual
waveform of an AC power circuit is a sine wave, though certain
applications use alternative waveforms, such as triangular or square
waves. Audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also
examples of alternating current. An important goal in these
applications is recovery of information encoded (or modulated) onto
the AC signal.

Direct Current

Direct current (DC) refers to a system in which the movement of

electric charge in only one direction (sometimes called unidirectional
flow). Direct current is produced by sources such as batteries,
thermocouples, solar cells, and commutator-type electric machines of
the dynamo type. Alternating current can also be converted to direct
current through use of a rectifier. Direct current may flow in a
conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors,
insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. An
old name for direct current was galvanic current.
Heating Effect of Electric Current

When our clothes are crumpled, we use the iron box to make our
clothes crisp and neat. Iron box works on the principle of heating
effect of current. There are many such devices that work on the
heating effect.

When an electric current flows through a conductor, heat is generated

in the conductor.

The heating effect is given by the following equation

H=I2RT

The heating effect depends on the following factor:

● The time ‘t‘ for which the current flows. The longer the current
flows in a conductor more heat is generated.
● The electrical resistance of the conductor. Higher the resistance,
the higher the heat produced.
● The amount of current. The larger the amount of current higher
the heat produced.
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Electric Potential energy of any given charge or system of changes is

defined as the total work done by an external agent in bringing the
charge or the system of charges from infinity to the present
configuration without undergoing any acceleration.

Definition: Electric potential energy is defined as the total potential

energy a unit charge will possess if located at any point in outer
space.

Factors affecting Electric potential

There are two key elements on which the electric potential energy of
an object depends:

● Its own electric charge.

● Its relative position with other electrically charged objects.
Electric Potential Formula

Method 1:

The electric potential at any point around a point charge q is given by:
V = k × [q/r]

Where,

● V = electric potential energy

● q = point charge
● r = distance between any point around the charge to the point
charge
● k = Coulomb constant, k = 9.0 × 109 N
Method 2: Using Coulomb’s Law

The electrostatic potential between any two arbitrary charges q1, q2

separated by distance r is given by Coulomb’s law and
mathematically written as:
U = k × [q1q2/r2]

Where,

● U is the electrostatic potential energy

● q1 and q2 are the two charges

Note: The electric potential at infinity is zero (as r = ∞ in the

above formula).
Units and Symbol for Electrostatic Potential

SI unit of electrostatic potential volt

Other units statvolt

Symbol of electrostatic potential V or φ

Dimensional formula ML2T3I-1

Electric Potential Difference

In an electrical circuit, the potential between two points (E) is defined

as the amount of work done (W) by an external agent in moving a unit
charge (Q) from one point to another.

Mathematically we can say that,

E = W/Q
Where,

● E = Electrical potential difference between two points

● W = Work done in moving a charge from one point to another
● Q = Quantity of charge in coulombs

Equipotential Surface
The surface, the locus of all points at the same potential, is known as
the equipotential surface. No work is required to move a charge from
one point to another on the equipotential surface. In other words, any
surface with the same electric potential at every point is termed as an
equipotential surface.
 ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

Resistance is a measure of the opposition to the flow of current in an

electrical circuit. It is influenced by the material's properties, length,
cross-sectional area, and temperature. It is a measure of its opposition
to the flow of electric current. Electrical resistance shares some
conceptual parallels with mechanical friction.When an electric current
flows through a bulb or any conductor, the conductor offers some
obstruction to the current and this obstruction is known as electrical
resistance and is denoted by R. Every material has an electrical
resistance and this is the reason why conductors give out heat when
current passes through it. Resistance involves collisions of the
current-carrying charged particles with fixed particles that make up
the structure of the conductors. Resistance is often considered as
localised in such devices as lamps, heaters, and resistors, in which it
predominates, although it is characteristic of every part of a circuit,
including connecting wires and electric transmission lines. The
standard unit of resistance is the ohm, sometimes written out as a
word, and sometimes symbolised by the uppercase Greek letter
omega Ω.
Electrical Resistance of a Circuit

The electrical resistance of a circuit is the ratio between the voltage

applied to the current flowing through it.

R=V/I

The unit of electrical resistance is ohms.

i.e.,
ohm=1 volt/1 ampere

Electric charge flows more easily through some materials than others.
The electrical resistance measures how much the flow of this electric
charge is restricted within the circuit.

Factors Affecting Electrical Resistance

The electrical resistance of a conductor is dependent on the following

factors:

● The cross-sectional area of the conductor

● Length of the conductor
● The material of the conductor
● The temperature of the conducting material
Electrical resistance is directly proportional to length (L) of the
conductor and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area (A). It
is given by the following relation.

R=ρL/A

where,
ρ is the resistivity of the material (measured in Ωm, ohm metre)

Resistivity
Electric resistivity is defined as the electrical resistance offered per
unit length and unit cross-sectional area at a specific
temperature and is denoted by ρ. Electrical resistance is also known
as specific electrical resistance. The SI unit of electrical resistivity is
Ωm. Following is the formula of electrical resistivity:

ρ=E/J

Where,

● ρ is the resistivity of the material in Ω.m

● E is the electric field in V.m-1
● J is the current density in A.m-2
 Difference Between Resistance and Resistivity

Parameters Resistance Resistivity

Definition When the flow of electrons is opposed in a When resistance is

material is known as resistance offered

Formula R=VI ρ=EJ

SI unit Ω Ω.m

Symbol R ρ

Dependence Dependent on the length and Temperature

cross-sectional area of the conductor and
temperature

.
Conductance and Conductivity

The ease with which electrons can pass in a conductor is measured

by conductance. Unit for conductance is Siemens or ohm-1.

Factors affecting Conductance:

● The attraction between the ions

● Solubility
● Temperature
● Viscosity

Conductance is the reciprocal of Resistance

i.e.,
G=1/R
;

where,
G = Conductance

R = Resistance

Conductivity is a measure of a solution's ability to conduct electricity.

Since electricity needs charged particles in order to flow, there is
generally a positive relationship between the concentration of ions and
the ability of a solution to conduct electricity. Scientists use
conductivity metres

Measurement of Resistance
An instrument for measuring resistance is called an ohmmeter. Simple
ohmmeters cannot measure low resistances accurately because the
resistance of their measuring leads causes a voltage drop that
interferes with the measurement, so more accurate devices use
four-terminal sensing.

.
 OHM’S LAW

Ohm’s Law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly

proportional to the current flowing through it, provided all physical
conditions and temperatures remain constant.

Mathematically, this current-voltage relationship is written as,

V=IR

where,
R= resistance of the circuit (in Ω)
I= current in the circuit (in Ampere)
V= potential difference across the circuit (in volts)

The same formula can be rewritten in order to calculate the current

and resistance respectively as follows:

I=V/R
R=V/I
Ohm’s law only holds true if the provided temperature and the
other physical factors remain constant. In certain components,
increasing the current raises the temperature. An example of this is
the filament of a light bulb, in which the temperature rises as the
current is increased. In this case, Ohm’s law cannot be applied. The
lightbulb filament violates Ohm’s Law.

Calculating Electrical Power Using Ohm’s Law

The rate at which energy is converted from the electrical energy of the
moving charges to some other form of energy like mechanical energy,
heat energy, energy stored in magnetic fields or electric fields, is
known as electric power. The unit of power is the watt. The electrical
power can be calculated using Ohm’s law and by substituting the
values of voltage, current and resistance.

Formula to find power

When the values for voltage and current are given,

P=VI
When the values for voltage and resistance are given,
P=V^2/R
When the values for current and resistance are given,
P=I^2R
Applications of Ohm’s Law

The main applications of Ohm’s law are:

● To determine the voltage, resistance or current of an electric

circuit.
● Ohm’s law maintains the desired voltage drop across the
electronic components.
● Ohm’s law is also used in DC ammeter and other DC shunts to
divert the current.
 RESISTORS
Resistor is defined as a passive electrical component with two
terminals that are used for either limiting or regulating the flow of
electric current in electrical circuits. The resistor is one of the main
components of the circuit. The main purpose of resistor is to reduce
the current flow and to lower the voltage in any particular portion of the
circuit. It is made of copper wires which are coiled around a ceramic
rod and the outer part of the resistor is coated with an insulating paint.
Resistors can also be used to provide a specific voltage for an active
device such as a transistor. In a direct-current (DC) circuit, the current
through a resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance, and
directly proportional to the voltage across it. This is well-known as

Ohm's Law. In alternating-current (AC) circuits, this rule also applies

as long as the resistor does not contain inductance or capacitance.
Resistors are used for many purposes. A few examples include
limiting electric current, voltage division, heat generation, matching
and loading circuits, gain control, and setting time constants. They are
commercially available with resistance values over a range of more
than nine orders of magnitude. They can be used as electric brakes to
dissipate kinetic energy from trains, or be smaller than a square
millimetre for electronics.

Symbol for Resistors

Each resistor has one connection and two terminals.The terminals of
the resistor are each of the lines extending from the squiggle (or
rectangle). Those are what connect to the rest of the circuit. The
resistor circuit symbols are usually enhanced with both a resistance
value and a name. The value, displayed in ohms, is obviously critical
for both evaluating and actually constructing the circuit.

Types of Resistors

There are two basic types of resistors as follows:

● Linear resistor
● Non-linear resistor

Linear resistors

The resistors whose values change with change in applied

temperature and voltage are known as linear resistors. There are two
types of linear resistors:

Fixed resistors: These resistors have a specific value and these

values cannot be changed. Following are the different types of fixed
resistors:

● Carbon composition resistors

● Wire wound resistors
 ● Thin film resistors
● Thick film resistors

Variable resistors: These resistors do not have a specific value and

the values can be changed with the help of dial, knob, and screw.
These resistors find applications in radio receivers for controlling
volume and tone. Following are the different types of variable
resistors:

● Potentiometers
● Rheostats
● Trimmers
Non-linear resistors

The resistor values change according to the temperature and voltage

applied and are not dependent on Ohm’s law. Following are the
different types of non-linear resistors:

● Thermistors
● Varisters
● Photo resistors

Types of Materials used in Resistors

On the basis of the chemical composition of the resistors, they are

described into 6 distinct categories. The different types of resistor
materials are as follows:

1. Wire-wound: The basic composition of the wire-wound resistor

includes the winding of a resistive material, mostly a wire around
 a non-conductive core. Fundamentally, the core is made up of
fibreglass or, most usually, ceramic, and the wire that is used for
winding around that core is made up of nickel-chromium alloy.
However, it cannot be used in a circuit whose power is more than
50 kHz.

2. Carbon composition: In the carbon composition resistor, the

material used in resistors is carbon particles. The ability of this
resistor depends upon the ratio of the carbon as well as the
resistive material that is used in the manufacturing of this
resistor.
3. Carbon film: The carbon film resistor consists of carbon film that
is spread over the cylindrical core of the resistor. The carbon film
resistor can withstand a high energy range between 1 to 10 .

4. Metal film: The basic chemical composition that is used in the

construction of the metal film resistor is nichrome. However,
several other chemical compositions can also be used in the
construction; the most commonly suggested material is tantalum
nitride. These resistors are less stable than the wire-wound
resistors.
5. Metal oxide film: As per the name, the metal oxide resistors are
made up of metal oxides, for example, tin oxide. The basic
advantage of metal oxide film resistors is that they have the
capability of working in high-range temperatures.

6. Foil: One of the most stable resistors that are present to date is
the foil resistor. The basic construction of the foil resistors
involves thin metal foil as the resistive material along with the
cemented substrate. Therefore, they have the property of a
low-temperature coefficient.
Colour Coding of Resistors
Resistors may not display the value outside but their resistance can
be calculated through their colour pattern PTH (plated-through-hole)
resistors use a colour-coding system (which really adds some flair to
circuits), and SMD (surface-mount-device)resistors have their own
value-marking system.

Following is a table with colour code of resistors:

Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 1

Brown 1 10 ± 1%

Red 2 100 ± 2%

Orange 3 1000

Yellow 4 10,000

Green 5 100,000 ± 0.5%

 Blue 6 1,00,000 ± 0.25%

Violet 7 10,000,000 ± 0.1%

Grey 8 ± 0.05%

White 9

Gold 0.1 ± 5%

Silver 0.01 ± 10%

How to Read the Colour Code of a Resistor?

● To read them, hold the resistor such that the tolerance band is on
your right. The tolerance band is usually gold or silver in colour
and is placed a little further away from the other bands.
● Starting from your left, note down all the colours of the bands
and write them down in sequence.
● Next, use the table given below to see which digits they
represent.
 ● The band just next to the tolerance band is the multiplier band.
So if the colour of this band is Red (representing 2), the value
given is 10^2.

Tolerance of Resistors
Resistor tolerance is the deviation from the nominal value. It is
expressed as a ±%, measured at 25°C with no load applied. Some
resistor designs have extremely tight tolerances. For example,
precision wirewound resistors are made with tolerances as tight as
±0.005%. Film resistors typically have tolerances of ±1% to ±5%. In
applications like precision voltage dividers and networks, the designer
should consider resistor sets matched for resistance or ratio
tolerances. Often, these matched sets save cost over buying
individual resistors with very tight resistance tolerances.

Colour Tolerance

Brown ±1%

Red ±2%

Gold ±5%

Silver ±10%

How to calculate Tolerance of a Resistor ?

The tolerance values represent that by how much the resistance can
vary from its mean value in terms of percentage.

Tolerance=Value of resistor × value of tolerance band

Combination of Resistors

Resistors in Series
Two or more resistors are said to be connected in series when the
same amount of current flows through all the resistors. In such
circuits, the voltage across each resistor is different. In a series
connection, if any resistor is broken or a fault occurs, then the entire
circuit is turned off. The construction of a series circuit is simpler
compared to a parallel circuit.

For the above circuit, the total resistance is given as:

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + ….. + Rn
The total resistance of the system is just the total sum of individual
resistances.
Resistors in Parallel
Two or more resistors are said to be connected in parallel when the

voltage is the same across all the resistors. In such circuits, the
current is branched out and recombined when branches meet at a
common point. A resistor or any other component can be connected
or disconnected easily without affecting other elements in a parallel
circuit.

For the above circuit, the total resistance is given as:

1/R(total)= 1/R1+1/R2+….+1/Rn

The sum of reciprocals of resistance of an individual resistor is the

total reciprocal resistance of the system.
Applications of Resistors
Following are the applications of resistors:

● Wire wound resistors find applications where balanced current

control, high sensitivity, and accurate measurement are required
like in shunt with ampere metre.
● Photoresistors find application in flame detectors, burglar alarms,
in photographic devices, etc.
● Resistors are used for controlling temperature and voltmeter.
● Resistors are used in digital multimeter, amplifiers,
telecommunication, and oscillators.
● They are also used in modulators, demodulators, and
transmitters.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

The content of this Project has been taken from the

following sources:

www.byjus.com
www.wikipedia.com
www.riedon.com
www.eepower.com
www.unacademy.com
NCERT Physics (Class XII)