BASIC

ELECTRICAL
AND
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
 UNIT-1
DC & AC Circuits
DC Circuits:
Electrical circuit elements:
Introduction
1. Electric charge(Q)
In all atoms there exists number of electrons which are very loosely bounded to its nucleus. Such
electrons are free to wander when specific forces are applied. If any
of these electrons is removed, the atom becomes positively charged. And if excess electrons are
added to the atom it becomes positively charged.
The total deficiency or addition of electrons in an atom is called its charge. A charged atom is
called Ion. An element containing a number of ionized atoms is said to be charged. And
accordingly, the element consisting of that atom is said to be positively or negatively charged.

charge
possessed by number of electrons.
Hence if an element has a positive charge of one coulomb then that element has
a deficiency of number of electrons.
Conductors:
The atoms of different materials differ in the number of electrons, protons and neutrons,
which they contain. They also differ in how tightly the electrons in the outer orbit are bound to
the nucleus. The electrons, which are loosely bound to their nuclei, are called free electrons.
These free electrons may be dislodged from an atom by giving them additional energy. Thus
they may be transferred from one atom to another. The electrical properties of materials largely
depend upon the number of free electrons available.
A conductor is a material in which large number of free electrons is available. Thus
current can flow easily through a conductor. All materials with resistivity less than 10 – 3 Ωm
come under the category of conductors. Almost all metals are conductors.
Silver, copper Aluminum, carbon is some examples of conductors. Copper and
Aluminum conductors are widely used in practice.
Insulators
Insulators are materials in which the outer electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus. It is
very difficult to take out the electrons from their orbits. Consequently, current cannot flow
through them. All materials with resistivity above 105 Ωm fall in the category of insulators.
Examples of insulators are mica, paper, glass, porcelain, rubber, oil and plastics.
Semiconductors
In some materials, the electrons in the outer orbits are normally held by the nucleus, but
can be taken out by some means. These materials are called semiconductors.
Materials such as germanium and silicon are examples of semiconductors. The addition
of slight traces of impurity to silicon or germanium can free the electrons. The semiconductors
have resistivity between 10 –3 and 105 Ωm.
 Current(I)
An electric current is the movement of electric charges along a definite path. In case of a
conductor the moving charges are electrons.
The unit of current in the international system of Units is the ampere (A).
The ampere is defined as that current which when flowing in two infinitely long parallel
conductors of negligible cross-section, situated 1 meter apart in vacuum, produces between the
conductors a force of 2 ×10 –7 Newton per meter length.
Voltage(V)
Energy is required for the movement of charge from one point to another. Let W joules
of energy be required to move positive charge of Q coulombs from a point a to b in a circuit. We
say that a voltage exists between the two points.
The voltage across two terminals is a measure of the work required to move charge
through the element. The unit of voltage is the volt, and 1 volt is the same as 1 J/C. Voltage is
represented by V or v.
Electromotive Force (EMF)
The emf represents the driving influence that causes a current to flow, and may be
interpreted to represent the energy that is used during passing of a unit charge through the
source. The term emf is always associated with energy conversion. The emf is usually
represented by the symbol E and has the unit VOLT
If W = energy imparted by the voltage source in joules (J)
Q = charge transferred through the source in coulombs ©
E = e.m.f. of the source
Then
𝑄 𝐽
𝐸= ( ) 𝑈𝑁𝐼𝑇𝑆
𝑤 𝐶
Potential Difference:
The potential difference (p.d.) between two points is the energy required to move one
coulomb of charge from one to the other.
If: W = energy required to transfer the charge
Q = charge transferred between the points
V = potential difference
Then
𝑄 𝐽
𝐸= ( ) 𝑈𝑁𝐼𝑇𝑆
𝑤 𝐶
Electric Power
Power is the rate at which work is done. Work is done whenever a force causes motion.
If a mechanical force is applied to lift or move a weight, work is done. We know that voltage is
an electric force and it forces current to flow in a circuit. When voltage causes current flow
(electrons to move), work is done.
The rate at which is work is done is called electric power and is measured in watts.
𝑊 𝐽
𝐸= ( ) 𝑈𝑁𝐼𝑇𝑆
𝑇 𝑆

Basic Circuit Components

Resistor, inductor, and capacitor are the three basic components of a network. A resistor
is an element that dissipates energy as heat when current passes through it. An inductor stores
energy by virtue of a current through it. A capacitor stores energy by virtue of a voltage existing
across it.
Resistance
The opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electric current is called resistance.
Since current is the flow of free electrons, resistance is the opposition offered by the substance to
flow of free electrons. This opposition occurs because atoms and molecules of the substance
obstruct the flow of these electrons. Certain substances (e.g., metals such as silver, copper,
aluminium etc) offer very little opposition to the flow of electric current and are called
conductors. On the other hand, those substances which offer high opposition to the flow of
electric current (i.e., flow of free electrons) are called insulators e.g., glass, rubber, mica, dry
wood etc.
It may be noted here that resistance is the electric friction offered by the substance and causes
production of heat with the flow of electric current. The moving electrons collide with atoms or
molecules of the substance; each collision resulting in the liberation of minute quantity of heat.
• Denoted by R
• Unit is Ohms(Ω)
• Symbol:

Unit of resistance: The practical unit of resistance is ohm and is represented by the
symbol Ω.
It is defined as under:
A wire is said to have a resistance of 1 ohm if a p.d. of 1 volt across its ends causes 1 ampere of
current to flow through it.
Factors upon which Resistance Depends:
The resistance R of a conductor
(i) is directly proportional to its length (l)
(ii) is inversely proportional to its area of cross-section (a)
(iii) Depends upon the nature of material.
(iv) Changes with temperature.
From the first three points (leaving temperature for the time being), we have,
𝑙
𝑅∝ (Ω)
𝑎
𝝆𝒍
𝑹= (Ω)
𝒂
Where 𝜌 (Greek letter ‘Rho’) is a constant and is known as resistivity or specific resistance of
the material. Its value depends upon the nature of material.
Inductors
The electrical element that stores energy in association with a flow of current is called inductor. The
idealized circuit model for the inductor is called an inductance. Practical inductors are made of many
turns of thin wire wound on a magnetic core or an air core. A unique feature of the inductance is that
its presence in a circuit is felt only when there is a changing current. Fig below shows a schematic
representation of an inductor.
• Denoted as L.
• Units: Henry (H).
• Symbol

For the ideal circuit model of an inductor, the voltage across it is proportional to the rate of change of
current in it. Thus, if the rate of change of current is di/dt and v is the induced voltage, then
  di/dt
 = L di/dt volts
Capacitors:
A capacitor is a device that can store energy in the form of a charge separation when it is
suitably polarized by an electric field by applying a voltage across it. In the simplest form, a
capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates separated by air or any insulating material,
such as mica. It has the characteristic of storing electric energy (charge), which can be fully
retrieved, in an electric field. A significant feature of the capacitor is that its presence is felt in an
electric circuit when a changing potential difference exists across the capacitor. The presence of
an insulating material between the conducting plates does not allow the flow of dc current; thus a
capacitor acts as an open circuit in the presence of dc current.

• Denoted as C
• Unit is Farad (F).
• Symbol

(Schematic representation of a capacitor.)

The ability of the capacitor is storing charge is measured in terms of capacitance C.
Capacitance of a capacitor is defined as charge stored per volt applied and its unit is farad (F).
However, for practical purposes the unit of farad is too large. Hence, microfarad ( F) is used to
specify the capacitance of the components and circuits.
If the charge on the capacitor at any time t after the switch S is closed in q coulombs and
the voltage across it is v volts. Then by definition
Ohms Law
The relationship between Voltage, Current and Resistance in any DC electrical circuit was firstly
discovered by the German physicist Georg Ohm.Ohm found that, at a constant temperature, the
electrical current flowing through a fixed linear resistance is directly proportional to the voltage applied
across it, and also inversely proportional to the resistance.

Ohms Law Relationship

By knowing any two values of the Voltage, Current or Resistance quantities we can use Ohms
Law to find the third missing value. Ohms Law is used extensively in electronics formulas and
calculations so it is “very important to understand and accurately remember these formulas”

Limitations Of ohm’s law:

1. Linear Circuits Only: Ohm's Law is strictly applicable to linear circuits, where the
relationship between voltage and current is constant. In non-linear circuits, the
relationship may change based on the operating conditions, and Ohm's Law may not
accurately predict the behavior.
2. Temperature Dependency: Ohm's Law assumes that the resistance in a circuit is
constant. However, in real-world situations, resistance can change with temperature. The
resistance of many materials increases with temperature, and this can lead to deviations
from Ohm's Law.
3. Frequency Limitations: Ohm's Law is primarily designed for direct current (DC)
circuits. In alternating current (AC) circuits, the relationship between voltage and current
can be more complex, involving factors such as capacitance and inductance. Ohm's Law
is still applicable in AC circuits, but additional considerations are necessary.
4. Material Dependency: Ohm's Law assumes that the material in the circuit has a constant
resistance. In some materials, resistance may vary with factors like impurities, strain, or
other environmental conditions, leading to deviations from the predicted behavior.
5. Validity at Macroscopic Scale: Ohm's Law is generally applicable at the macroscopic
scale and may not accurately describe the behavior of individual electrons at the
microscopic scale. Quantum effects and other phenomena may come into play at very
small scales, challenging the simplicity of Ohm's Law.
6. Ideal Component Assumption: Ohm's Law assumes ideal components, meaning that the
conductors and resistors in the circuit have no other properties or factors affecting their
behavior. Real-world components often have additional properties, such as inductance
and capacitance, which can complicate the circuit's behavior.
Kirchhoff Laws:
Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1887), an eminent Germen physicist did a
considerable amount of work on the principle of governing behaviour of electric
circuits. He gave his finding in a set of two laws which together called Kirchhoff’s
laws. These two laws are
1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) 2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that the algebraic sum of the current
meeting at a node (junction) is equal to zero
 i.e., I 0
This law is illustrated below.
Five branches are connected to node O which carries
currents I1, I2, I3, I4 and I5 as shown in figure (1). Consider current entering (I1, I3 &
I5) to the node as positive and current leaving (I2 & I4) from the node as negative.
From above diagram -I1- I2+ I3+ I4+ I5=0 or I1+ I2= I3+ I4+ I5
i. e., Incoming currents = Outgoing currents, Hence Kirchhoff’s first law can be
stated as:
In an electric circuit the sum of currents flowing towards any
junction is equal to the sum of the currents flowing away from the junction

Solved Problem: Find the currents IW, I X, IY, IZ

2A

9A

IX IY

12 A
6A

IZ

IW

solution : Iw=-2 A IX = -5 A

IY = -3 A IZ = -8 A
Ac circuits:
IMPEDANCE(z):

We know how inductive reactance and capacitive reactance act to oppose the flow of current in an ac
circuit. However, there is another factor, the resistance, which also opposes the flow of the current.
Since in practice ac circuits containing reactance also contain resistance, the two combine to oppose
the flow of current. This combined opposition by the resistance and the reactance is called the
IMPEDANCE, and is represented by the symbol Z.
Since the values of resistance and reactance are both given in ohms, it might at first seem possible to
determine the value of the impedance by simply adding them together. It cannot be done so easily,
however. You know that in an ac circuit which contains only resistance, the current and the voltage will
be in step (that is, in phase), and will reach their maximum values at the same instant. You also know
that in an ac circuit containing only reactance the current will either lead or lag the voltage by one-
quarter of a cycle or 90 degrees. Therefore, the voltage in a purely reactive circuit will differ in phase
by 90 degrees from that in a purely resistive circuit and for this reason reactance and resistance are rot
combined by simply adding them.
If the value of resistance and reactance cannot simply be added together to find the impedance, or Z,
how is it determined? Because the current through a resistor is in step with the voltage across it and the
current in a reactance differs by 90 degrees from the voltage across it, the two are at right angles to
each other. They can therefore be combined by means of the same method used in the construction of
a right-angle triangle.