Megnetism Book

Chapter Moving Charge in
1 Magnetic Field
Day – 1
Introduction
Two bar magnets attract when opposite poles (N and S, or and N) are next to each other
The bar magnets repel when like poles (N and N, or S and S) are next to each other,
Magnetic phenomena were first observed at least 2500 years ago in fragments of magnetized iron
ore found near the ancient city of Magnesia (now Manias, is western Turkey). These fragments
were examples of what are now called permanent magnets
Before the relation of magnetic interactions to moving charges was understood, the interactions of
permanent magnets and compass needles were described in terms of magnetic poles. If a bar-
shaped permanent magnet, or bar magnet, is free to rotate, one end points north. This end is called
a north pole or N-pole; the other end is a south pole or S-pole. Opposite pole attract each other,
and like poles repel each other. An object that contains iron but is not itself magnetized (that is, it
shows no tendency to point north or south) is attracted by either pole of a permanent magnet. The
earth itself is a magnet. Its north geographical pole is close to a magnetic south pole, which is why
the north pole of a compass needle points north. The earth’s magnetic axis is not quite parallel to
its geographical axis (the axis of rotation), so a compass reading deviates somewhat from
geographic north. This deviation, which varies with location, is called magnetic declination or
magnetic variation. Also, the magnetic field is not horizontal at most points on the earth’s surface;
its angle up or down is called magnetic inclination. At the magnetic poles the magnetic field is
vertical
Page 1
(a) , (b) Either pole of a bar magnet attracts an unmagnetized object that contains iron.
The concept of magnetic poles may appear similar to that of electric charge, and north and south
poles may seem analogous to positive and negative charge. But the analogy can be misleading.
While isolated positive and negative charges exist, there is no experimental evidence that a single
isolated magnetic pole exists; poles always appear in pairs. If a bar magnet is broken in two, each
broken end becomes a pole. The existence of an isolated magnetic pole, or magnetic monopole,
would have a sweeping implication for theoretical physics. Extensive searches for magnetic
monopoles have been carried out, but so far without success
Page 2
A compass placed at any location in the earth’s magnetic field points in the direction of the field
line at that location. Representing the earth’s field as that of a tilted bar magnet is only a crude
approximation of its fairly complex configuration. The field, which is caused by currents in the
earth’s molten core, changes with time; geologic evidence shows that it reverses direction entirely
at irregular intervals of about a half million years.
Breaking a bar magnet. Each piece has a north and south pole, even if the pieces are different
sizes. (The smaller the piece, the weaker its magnetism)
Page 3
In Oersted’s experiment, a compass is placed directly over a horizontal wire (hire viewed from
above). When the compass is placed directly under the wire, the compass swings are reversed.
Magnetic Field
1- A moving charge or a current creates a magnetic field in the surrounding space (in addition to
its electric field)
2- The magnetic field exerts a force 𝐹 on any other moving charge or current that is present in the
field
Like electric field, magnetic field is a vector field-that is, a vector quantity associated with each
point in space. We will use the symbol 𝐵 for magnetic field. At any position the direction of 𝐵 is
defined as that in which the north pole of a compass needle tends to point. The arrows in suggest
the direction of the earth’s magnetic field; for any magnet, 𝐵 points out of its north pole and into
its south pole.
Page 4
The direction of 𝐹 is always perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑣 and 𝐵. Its magnitude is given
by
𝐹 = 𝑞 𝑣⊥ 𝐵 = 𝑞 𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃
Where 𝑞 is the magnitude of the charge and ϕ is the angle measured from the direction of 𝑣 to
the direction of 𝐵, as shown in the figure
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣 × 𝐵
(magnetic force on a moving charged particle)
The units of B must be the same as the units of F/qv. Therefore the SI unit of B is equivalent to
1N.s/C.m, or, since one ampere is one coulomb per second (1A = 1C/s), 1N/A, m. This unit is
called the tesla (abbreviated T), in honor of Nikola Tesla (1857-1943), the prominent Serbian-
American scientist and inventor
1 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 = 1𝑇 = 1𝑁/𝐴, 𝑚
Another unit of B, the gauss (1G = 10–4T) is also in common use. Instruments for measuring
magnetic field are sometimes called gauss meters
The magnetic field of the earth is of the order of 10–4T or 1G. Magnetic fields of the order of 10T
occur in the interior of atoms and are important in the analysis of atomic spectra. The largest
steady magnetic field that can be produced at present in the laboratory is about 45 T. Some pulsed
–current electromagnets can produce fields of the order of 120 T for short time intervals of the
order of a millisecond. The magnetic field at the surface of a neutron star is believed to be of the
order of 108T.
Page 5
Determining the direction of a magnetic field using a cathode – ray tube. Because electrons have a
negative charge, the magnetic force 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣 × 𝐵 in part (b) points in the direction opposite to the
rule
Magnetic Field Lines and Magnetic Flux Caution

Magnetic field lines are sometimes called “magnetic lines of force,” but that’s not a good name for
them; unlike electric field lines, they do not point in the direction of the force on a charge.
Equation shows that the force on a moving charged particle is always perpendicular to the
magnetic field, and hence to the magnetic field line that passes through the particle’s position. The
direction of the force depends on the particle’s velocity and the sign of its charge, so just looking
at magnetic field lines cannot in itself tell you the direction of the force on an arbitrary moving
charged particle. Magnetic field lines do have the direction that a compass needle would point at
each location; this may help you to visualize them,
Page 6
Illustration
A charged particle is projected in a magnetic field 𝐵 = 3𝑖 + 4𝑗 × 10−2 𝑇. The acceleration of the
particle is found to be 𝑎 = 𝑥𝑖 + 2𝑗 𝑚/𝑠 2 . Find the value of x
Solution
𝐹𝑚 ⊥ 𝐵
𝑎⊥𝐵
𝑎. 𝐵 = 0
8
𝑥 = −3
Illustration
An electron travels a circular path of radius 20 cm in a magnetic field of 2 × 10−3 𝑇. Find its
speed, and the p. d. through which the electron should be accelerated to acquire this speed.
𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶, 𝑚 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝐾𝑔
Solution
The magnetic force evB on the electron acts as the centripetal force mv2/r. That is,
evB = mv2/r
eBr
∴v= m
1.6×10 −19 𝐶 × 2×10 −3 𝑇 × 0.20m
⇒ 9.1×10 −31 Kg
7 −1
⇒ 7.0 × 10 ms
If V be the p.d. to give a speed v to an electron, then
1
eV = 2 mv 2
mv 2
V= 2𝑒
2
9.1×10 −31 Kg × 7.0×10 7 ms −1
⇒ ⇒ 13.9 × 103 V = 14kV
2×(1.6×10 −19 C)
Question Practice Online
Page 7
Day – 2
Motion of Charged Particles in a Magnetic Field
a particle with positive charge q is at point O, moving with velocity 𝑣 in a uniform magnetic field
𝐵 directed into the plane of the figure. The vectors 𝑣 and 𝐵 are perpendicular, so the magnetic
force 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣 × 𝐵 has magnitude F = qvB and a direction as shown in the figure. The force is
always perpendicular to 𝑣 , so it cannot change the magnitude of the velocity, only its direction. To
put it differently, the magnetic force never has a component parallel to the particle’s motion, so the
magnetic force can never do work on the particle. This is true even if the magnetic field is not
uniform. Motion of a charged particle under the action of a magnetic field alone is always motion
with constant speed
𝑣2
𝐹 = 𝑞 𝑣𝐵 = 𝑚
𝑅
A magnetic bottle. Particles near either end of the region experience a magnetic force toward the
center of the region. This is one way of containing an ionized gas that has a temperature of the
order of 106 K, which would vaporize any material container.
Page 8
We can also write this as R = p/|q|B, where p = mv is the magnitude of the particle’s momentum. If
the charge q is negative, the particle moves clockwise around the orbit in
𝑣 𝑞 𝐵 𝑞 𝐵
𝜔=𝑅=𝑣 =
𝑚𝑣 𝑚
𝑚𝑣 𝑝
𝑟= = 𝐵𝑞
𝐵𝑞
2𝐾𝑚 2𝑞𝑉𝑚
⇒ =
𝐵𝑞 𝐵𝑞
Here, p = momentum of particle
K = K, E of particle
𝑝2
⇒ 2𝑚 or 𝑝 = 2𝐾𝑚
We also know that if the charged particle is accelerated by a potential difference of V volts, if
acquires a KE given by
K = qV
Further, time period of the circular path will be
2𝜋𝑟
𝑇= 𝑣
𝑚𝑣
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑚
𝐵𝑞
⇒ =
𝑣 𝐵𝑞
2𝜋𝑚
Or 𝑇= 𝐵𝑞
Or the angular speed (ω) of the particle is
2𝜋 𝐵𝑞
𝜔= =
𝑇 𝑚
𝐵𝑞
𝜔=
𝑚
Frequency of rotation is
1
𝑓=𝑇
𝐵𝑞
Or 𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑛
Following points are worth noting regarding a circular path
(i) The plane of the circle is perpendicular to magnetic field. If the magnetic field is along z–
direction, the circular path is in x–y plane. The speed of the particle does not change in magnetic
field.
Page 9
Hence v0, if be the speed of the particle, then velocity of particle at any instant of time will be
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗
Where
𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑣02
(ii) T, f and ω are independent of v while the radius is directly proportional to v
Hence, if two charged particles of equal mass and charge enters in a magnetic field 𝐵 with
different speeds v1 and v2 (> v1) at right angles, then
T1 = T2
But r2 > r1
As shown in figure
Note
Charge per unit mass q/m is known as specific charge. It is sometimes denoted by α, the above
formulae can be written as
𝑣 2𝜋 𝐵𝛼
𝑟 = 𝐵𝛼 , 𝑇 = 𝐵𝛼 , 𝑓 = , and 𝜔 = 𝐵𝛼
2𝜋
When θ is other than 0o, 180o or 90o
Page 10
In this case velocity can be resolved in two components, one along 𝐵 and another perpendicular to
𝐵. Let the two components be 𝑣∥ and 𝑣⊥ . Then
𝑣∥ = 𝑣 cos 𝜃
and 𝑣⊥ = 𝑣 sin 𝜃
The component perpendicular to field 𝑣⊥ gives a circular path and the component parallel to field
𝑣∥ gives a straight line path. The resultant path is a helix as shown in figure. The radius of this
helical path is
𝑚 𝑣⊥ 𝑚𝑣 sin 𝜃
𝑟= =
𝐵𝑞 𝐵𝑞
Time period and frequency do not depend on velocity and so they are given by
2𝜋𝑚 𝐵𝑞
𝑇 = 𝐵𝑞 and 𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑚
There is one more term associated with a helical path, that is pitch (p) of the helical path. Pitch is
defined as the distance travelled magnetic field in one complete cycle
𝑃 = 𝑣∥ 𝑇
2𝜋𝑚
Or 𝑃 = 𝑣 cos 𝜃 𝐵𝑞
2𝜋𝑚𝑣 cos 𝜃
𝑃= 𝐵𝑞
Thomson’s e/m Experiment

In one of the landmark experiments in physics at the end of the nineteenth century, J. J. Thomson
(1856-1940) used the idea just described to measure the ratio of charge to mass for the electron.
for this experiment, carried out in 1897 at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, England,
Thomson used the apparatus shown in Fig. in a highly evacuated glass container, electrons from
the hot cathode are accelerated and formed into a beam by a potential difference V between the
two anodes A and A’. The speed v of the electrons is determined by the accelerating potential V.
The kinetic energy 1/2 mv2 equals the loss of electric potential energy eV, where e is the
magnitude of the electron charge
Page 11
Thomson’s apparatus for measuring the ratio e/m for the electron.
1 2𝑒𝑉
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 =
2 𝑚
𝐸 2𝑒𝑉 𝑒 𝐸2
= so = 2𝑉𝐵 2
𝐵 𝑚 𝑚
The most significant aspect of Thomson’s e/m measurements was that he found a single value for
this quantity. It did not depend on the cathode material, the residual gas in the tube, or anything
else about the experiment. This independence showed that the particles in the beam, which we
now call electrons, are a common constituent of all matter. Thus Thomson is credited with
discovery of the first subatomic particle, the electron. He also found that the speed of the electrons
in the beam was about one-tenth the speed of light, much larger than any previously measured
speed of a material particle
e/m = 1.758820174(71) × 1011C/Kg
Fifteen years after Thomson’s experiments, the American physicist Robert Millikan succeeded in
measuring the charge of the electron precisely. This value, together with the value of e/m, enables
us to determine the mass of the electron. The most precise value available at present is
m = 9.10938188(72) × 10– 31 Kg
Illustration
An electron at point A in the figure has a velocity 𝑣0 = 10−7 𝑚𝑠 −1 . Find
(a) The magnitude and direction of the magnetic induction that will cause the electron to follow
the semicircular path from A to B which are 10 cm apart.
(b) The time required for the election to move from A to B
Solution
𝑚 𝑣2
𝑒𝑣𝐵 = 𝑟
𝑚𝑣
𝐵= = 1.125 × 10−3 𝑇
𝑒𝑟
2𝜋𝑚
𝑇= = 3.14 × 10−8
𝑒𝐵
For A to B
𝑇
= 1.57 × 10−8 Sec
2
Page 12
Illustration
A charged particle (q, m) enters a uniform magnetic field B at angle α as shown in fig with speed
v0 then.
(a) The angle β at which it leaves the magnetic field.
(b) Time spent by the particle in magnetic field.
(c) The distance A.C
Solution
(a) α=β
(b) 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝑟(2𝛼)

𝑚 𝑣0
⇒ . 2𝛼
𝑞𝐵
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡 𝑕 𝐴𝐵𝐶 2𝑚𝛼
𝑡𝐴𝐵𝐶 = =
𝑣0 𝐵𝑞
(c) 𝐴𝐶 = 2𝐴𝐷
⇒ 2𝑟 sin 𝛼
2𝑚 𝑣0
⇒ sin 𝛼
𝑞𝐵
Illustration
A positive charge q is projected in magnetic field of width 𝑚𝑣/ 2𝑞𝐵 with velocity v as shown in
figure. Then time taken by charged particle to emerge from the magnetic field is
Page 13
a 𝑚/ 2𝑞𝐵 b 𝜋𝑚/4𝑞𝐵 c 𝜋𝑚/2𝑞𝐵 d 𝜋𝑚/ 2𝑞𝐵
Solution
𝑚𝑣
2 𝑞𝐵 1
sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑣 = 2
𝑞𝐵
𝜋
⇒ sin 45𝑜 = sin 4
𝜋
⇒𝜃= 4
2𝜋𝑚
Time period for angle 2𝜋 is 𝑞𝐵
Illustration
Two mutually perpendicular conductors carry currents I1 and I2 along x–axis and y–axis
respectively. The locus of points at which magnetic induction is zero is
𝐼2 𝐼
a 𝑦 = 𝐼2 𝑥 b 𝑥 = 𝐼1 𝑦
1 2
𝐼 𝐼
c 𝑦 = 𝐼1 𝑥 d 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝐼1
2 2
Solution
The magnetic field due to long straight wire is
𝜇 0𝐼
𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑟
The magnetic field at point P is
𝜇 0 𝐼1 𝜇 0 𝐼2
𝐵𝑝 = 2𝜋𝑟 − 2𝜋𝑟 =0
𝐼1 𝐼2
∴ =
𝑦 𝑥
𝐼
∴ 𝑦 = 𝐼1 𝑥
2
Page 14
Day – 3
1. Following points are worth noting in case of a helical path.
(i) The plane of the circle of the helix is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
(ii) The axis of the helix is along magnetic field
(iii) The particle while moving in helical path in magnetic field touches the line passing through
the starting point parallel to the magnetic field
(iv) The particle while moving in helical path in magnetic field touches the line passing through
the starting point parallel to the magnetic field every pitch
For example, a charged particle is projected from origin in a magnetic field (along x–direction) at
angle θ from the x–axis as shown. As the velocity vector 𝑣 makes an angle θ with B its path is a
helix. The plane of the circle of the helix is y–z (perpendicular to magnetic field) and axis of the
helix is x – axis. The particle while moving in helical path touches the x–axis after every pitch, i.
e., it will touch the x–axis at a distance
x = np
where n = 0, 1, 2,….
2. Deviation of a charged particle in magnetic field

Suppose a charged particle (q, m) enters a uniform magnetic field at right angles with speed v as
shown in figure. The magnetic field B extends up to a length x. The path of the particle is a circle
of radius r, where
mv
r = Bq
The speed of the particle in magnetic field does not change.
But it gets deviated in the magnetic field. The deviation θ can
be found in two ways
(i) After time t, deviation will be
𝐵𝑞
𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡
𝐵𝑞
As 𝜔= 𝑚
Page 15
(ii) In terms of the length of the magnetic field (i.e., when the particle leaves the magnetic field)
the deviation will be
𝑥
𝜃 = sin−1 𝑟
But since sin 𝜃 ≯ 1, this relation can be used only when 𝑥 ≤ 𝑟 For 𝑥 > 𝑟, the deviation will be
180o as shown in figure
Illustration
An electron accelerated by a potential difference V = 1.0 kV moves in a uniform magnetic field at
an angle α = 30o to the field of magnitude B = 29 mT. Find the pitch of the helical trajectory
Solution
𝑃 = 𝑣 cos 𝛼
2𝜋𝑚
𝑇 = 𝑣 cos 𝛼 × 𝑒𝐵
1 2
𝑚𝑣 = 𝑒𝑣
2
𝑣 = 2𝑐𝑚
Illustration
Electrons passing through the ionosphere are found to rotate at 1.4 × 106 revolutions per second.
Estimate the strength of the earth’s magnetic field in the ionosphere (e/m for the electron =
1.8 × 1011 C Kg −1
Solution
2𝜋𝑚 1 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇= ⇒ 𝐵 = 𝑇 ⇒ 𝑞/𝑚 = 𝑛 × 𝑒/𝑚 ⇒ 5 × 10−5 𝑇
𝑞𝐵
Illustration
The helical line along which an electron travels in a uniform magnetic field has a diameter d = 30
mm and a pitch l = 200 mm. The induction of the field is B = 5 mT. Determine the speed v of the
electron
Solution
𝑙
𝑣∥ = 𝑇
𝑙𝑒𝐵 𝑑 2𝜋 𝑑𝜋𝑒𝐵
⇒ 2𝜋𝑚 𝑣⊥ = 𝑟𝑤 ⇒ 2 × ⇒ 𝑣= 𝑣∥2 + 𝑣⊥2 = 4.5 × 107 m/s
𝑇 2𝜋𝑚
Page 16
Day – 4
Path of a charged particle in both electric and magnetic field

Here normally two cases are popular. In the first case,𝐸 ↑↑ 𝐵 and particle velocity is perpendicular
to both of these fields. In the second case, 𝐸 ⊥ 𝐵 and the particle is released from rest. Let us now
consider both the cases separately
Case 1.
When 𝑬 ↑↑ 𝑩 and particle velocity is perpendicular to both of these fields
𝐹𝑦 𝐹 𝑞𝐸𝑜
𝑎𝑦 = = 𝑚𝑒 =
𝑚 𝑚
The magnetic field rotates the particle in a circle in x – z plane (perpendicular to magnetic field).
The resultant path of the particle is a helix with increasing pitch. The axis of the plane is parallel
to y – axis.
𝑣 (𝑡)
= 𝑣𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘
𝑞𝐸
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑡
𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑧2 = constant
= 𝑣𝑜2
𝐵𝑞
𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜 cos 𝜃
𝐵𝑞𝑡
⇒ 𝑣𝑜 cos 𝑚
𝑣𝑧 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃
𝐵𝑞𝑡
⇒ 𝑣𝑜 sin 𝑚
𝐵𝑞𝑡 𝑞𝐸0 𝐵𝑞𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣0 cos 𝑖+ 𝑡 𝑗 + 𝑣0 sin 𝑘
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘
1
𝑦 = 2 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
1 𝑞𝐸
⇒ 2 𝑚0 𝑡 2
𝑥 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑚𝑣 𝐵𝑞𝑡
⇒ 𝐵𝑞0 sin 𝑚
𝑧 = 𝑟(1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑚 𝑣0 𝐵𝑞𝑡
⇒ 1 − cos
𝐵𝑞 𝑚
𝑚 𝑣0 𝐵𝑞𝑡 1 𝑞𝐸0 𝑚 𝑣0
𝑟 𝑡 = sin 𝑖+2 𝑡2𝑗 +
𝐵𝑞 𝑚 𝑚 𝐵𝑞
𝐵𝑞𝑡
⇒ 1 − cos 𝑚 𝑘
1. While moving in helical path the particle touches the y–axis after every T or after
t = nT
2𝜋𝑚
𝑇= 𝐵𝑞
Page 17
(ii) At t = 0, velocity is along positive x–axis and magnetic field is along y–axis. Therefore,
magnetic force is along positive z – axis and the particle rotate in x–z plane a shown in fig.
Case 2.
When 𝑬 ⊥ 𝑩 and the particle is released at rest from origin
𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑖 and 𝐵 = 𝐵0 𝑗
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑒 + 𝐹𝑚
⇒ 𝑞𝐸 + 𝑞 𝑣 × 𝐵
⇒ 𝑞 𝐸0 𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘 × 𝐵0 𝑗
𝐹 = 𝑞 𝐸𝑜 − 𝑣𝑧 𝐵0 𝑖 + 𝑞𝑣𝑥 𝐵0 𝑘
𝐹
𝑎 = 𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘
𝑞
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚 𝐸𝑜 − 𝑣𝑧 𝐵𝑜 … (i)
𝑞
𝑎𝑧 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑥 𝐵0 … (ii)
𝑑 2 𝑣𝑥 𝑞𝐵0 𝑑𝑣𝑧
=−
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑧
= 𝑎𝑧
𝑑𝑡
𝑞𝐵0
⇒ 𝑣𝑥
𝑚
𝑑 2 𝑣𝑥 𝑞𝐵 2
= − 𝑚0 𝑣𝑥 … (iii)
𝑑𝑡 2
Comparing this equation with the differential equation of SHM (d2y/dt2 = –ω2y), we get
𝑞𝐵
𝜔 = 𝑚0
𝑣𝑥 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) … (iv)
At time 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣𝑥 = 0, hence 𝜙 = 0
Again
𝑑𝑣𝑥
= 𝐴𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 (𝑎𝑠 𝜙 = 0)
𝑑𝑡
𝑞𝐸𝑜
From Eq. i , 𝑎𝑥 = at 𝑡 = 0, as 𝑣𝑧 = 0 at 𝑡 = 0
𝑚
𝑞𝐸0
𝐴𝜔 = 𝑚
𝑞𝐸
𝐴 = 𝜔𝑚0
Substituting ω = qB0/m, we get
𝐸
𝐴 = 𝐵0
0
Therefore, Eq, (iv) becomes
𝐸
𝑣𝑥 = 𝐵0 sin 𝜔𝑡
0
Where
𝑞𝐵0
𝜔= 𝑚
𝑑𝑣𝑧 𝑞𝐸0
= sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑣𝑧 𝑞𝐸0 𝑡
0
𝑑𝑣𝑧 = 0
sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑚
𝐸0
𝑣𝑧 = 𝐵 (1 − cos 𝜔𝑡)
0
Page 18
On integr4ating equations for vx and vz and knowing that at t = 0, x = 0 and z = 0 we get
𝐸
𝑥 = 𝐵 0𝜔 1 − cos 𝜔𝑡
0
𝐸0
𝑧=𝑏 𝜔𝑡 − sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑜𝜔
In the present case the radius of the rolling wheel is E0/B0ω, the maximum displacement along x–
direction is 2E0/B0ω. The x–displacement becomes zero at t = 0, 2π/ω, 4π/ω
Illustration
A particle of charge q and mass m is projected from the origin with velocity 𝑣 = 𝑣0 𝑖 in a no
uniform magnetic field 𝐵 = −𝐵0 𝑖𝑥𝑘. Here 𝑣0 and 𝐵0 are positive constants of proper dimensions.
Find the maximum positive x – coordinate of the particle during its motion
Solution
𝑓𝑚 cos 𝜃
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑚
𝑞𝑣0 cos 𝜃 𝐵0 𝑥
⇒ 𝑚
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦
.
𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑥
𝐵0 𝑣0 𝑞𝑥 cos 𝜃
⇒ 𝑚
𝑑𝑣𝑦
𝑣0 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑥
𝐵0 𝑞𝑥
⇒ 𝑣0 cos 𝜃
𝑚
𝑣0
0
𝑑𝑣𝑦
𝐵 𝑞 𝑥
= 𝑚0 0 max 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝑚 𝑣0
𝑥max = 𝐵0 𝑞
Illustration
A long straight wire carries a current i. A particle having a positive charge q and mass m, kept at a
distance x0 from the wire is projected towards it with a speed. Find the minimum separation
between the and particle
Page 19
Solution
𝜇 𝑖
𝐵 = 2𝜋0 𝑥
0 −𝑥
𝐹𝑚
𝑎𝑦 = cos 𝜃
𝑚
𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝜇0 𝑖
= 𝑞𝑣0 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 2𝜋 𝑥 0 −𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝜇 0𝑖 𝑞 1
. = 2𝜋 𝑚 𝑥 𝑣0 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 0 −𝑥
𝑣0 𝜇𝑞𝑖 𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑑𝑣𝑦 = 2𝜋𝑚 0 𝑥 0 −𝑥
2𝜋𝑚 𝑣0
𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥0 𝑒 − 𝜇 0 𝑞𝑖
Illustration
A insulated square frame ABCD of side a is table to rotate about one of it’s side taken as + z axis.
A magnetic field B is present in the origin given by 𝐵 = 𝐵0 𝑗. A small block of mass m and charge
q movable along side CB is initially near C, when frame lies in x–z plane. Now frame is given
angular velocity ω about z–axis. Whole system lies in gravity free space. If after time t block
reaches to B find B0 in terms of t.
Solution
Value of block 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑎
If frame move angle 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
Value of block 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑎 sin 𝜃 𝑖 + 𝜔𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑗 − 𝑣𝑧 𝑘
𝐵 = 𝐵0 𝑗
𝐹block = 𝑞 𝑣 × 𝐵
⇒ −𝑖𝐵0 𝑣𝑧 − 𝐵0 𝜔𝑎 sin 𝜃 𝑘
Force in z − dir ⇒ 𝑞𝜔𝐵0 sin 𝜃 (−𝑅)
𝜔𝑎 𝐵0 sin 𝜃
𝑎𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑘
𝑚
𝑑𝑣𝑧
put 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑞𝜔𝑎𝐵 −0 𝑡
⇒ 𝑉𝑧 = − 0
sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑚
𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
Page 20
Day – 5
Illustration
If a charged particle of charge 5μc and mass 5 g is moving with constant speed 5 m/s in a uniform
magnetic field B on a curve x2 + y2 = 25 where x and y are in meter. The value of magnetic field
will be
(a) 1 tesla (b) 1 kilo tesla along z-axis
(c) 5 kelo tesla along the x-axis (d) 1 kilo tesla along any line in the x-y plane
Solution
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25
𝑚𝑣 5×10 −3 ×5 5×10 −3 ×5
∴ 𝑟 = 5𝑚𝑟 = 5= 𝐵 = 5×10 −6 ×5 ⇒ 103 𝑇 = 1 kilo tesla
𝑞𝐵 5×10 −6 𝐵
Illustration
A charged particle +q of mass m is placed at a distance d from another charged particle –2q of
mass 2m in a uniform magnetic field of induction vector B (as shown in fig). If particles are
projected towards each other with equal speeds. The maximum value of the projection speed v0, so
that the two particles do not collide, is (Assume only magnetic force of interaction between
particles)
(a) qBd/m (b) qBd/2eB

(c) 2qBd/m (d) none of these
Solution
𝑚 𝑣0
Here 𝑟1 = 𝑞𝐵
2𝑚 𝑣0 𝑚 𝑣0
and 𝑟2 = =
2𝑞𝐵 𝑞𝐵
here ∵ 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 𝑟
2𝑚 𝑣
𝑑 = 2𝑟, 𝑑 = 𝑞𝐵 0
𝑞𝐵𝑑
𝑣0 = 2𝑚
Illustration
A charged particle of mass m and charge q in a uniform magnetic field B acts into the plane. The
plane is frictional having coefficient of friction μ. The speed of charged particle just before
entering into the region is v0. The radius of curvature of the path after the time is
(a) mv0/qB (b) mv0/2qB
(c) mv0/4qB (d) none of these
Solution
Here, centripetal acceleration is provided by magnetic force, but tangential acceleration is
provided by force of friction
𝑚𝑣2 𝑚𝑣 −𝜇𝑚𝑔
= 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑟 = Tangential acceleration = 𝑎 ⇒
𝑟 𝑞𝐵 𝑚
𝑣0 𝑣0 𝑚𝑣 𝑚 𝑣0
𝑣 = −𝜇𝑔 ⇒ 𝑟= ⇒
2𝜇𝑔 2 𝑞𝐵 1𝑞𝐵
Page 21
Chapter Magnetic field of
2 Current Element
Day – 1
Introduction
Principle of superposition of magnetic fields: The total magnetic field caused by several moving
charges is the vector sum of the fields caused by the individual charges. We begin by calculating
the magnetic field caused by a short segment 𝑑𝑡 of a current – carrying conductor, as shows in
Fig. The volume of the segment is a dl, where A is the cross – sectional area of the conductor.
If there are moving charged particles per unit volume, each of charge q, the total moving charge
dQ in the segment is
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑛𝑞𝐴 𝑑𝑙
The moving charges in this segment are equivalent to a single charge dQ, traveling with a velocity
equal to the drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 . (Magnetic fields due to the random motions of the charges will, on
average, cancel out at every point) From the magnitude of the resulting field 𝑑𝐵 at any field point
P is
𝜇 𝑑𝑄 𝑣𝑑 sin 𝜙 𝜇 𝑛 𝑞 𝑣𝑑 A 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜙
𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋0 = 4𝜋0
𝑟2 𝑟2
But from Eq. 𝑛 𝑞 𝑣𝑑 A equals the current I in the element. So
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜙
𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋0 𝑟 2
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟
𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋0 (Magnetic field of a current element)
𝑟2
Page 22
For these field points, 𝑟 and 𝑑𝑙 both lie in the tan – colored plane, and 𝑑𝐵is perpendicular to this
plane for these field points, 𝑟 and 𝑑𝑙 both lie in the orange – colored plane, and 𝑑𝐵 is
perpendicular to this plane
(a) Magnetic – field vectors due to a current element 𝑑𝑙 . (b) Magnetic field lines in a plane
containing the current element 𝑑𝑙 . The × indicates that the current is directed into the plane of the
page. Compare this figure to Fig. for the field of a moving point charge.
Law of Biot and Savart (pronounced “Bee – oh” and “Such – var”). We can use this law to find
the total magnetic field 𝐵at any point in space due to the current in a complete circuit. To do this,
we integrate over all segments 𝑑𝑙 that carry current; symbolically,
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 ×𝑟
𝐵 = 4𝜋0 𝑟2
The field vectors 𝑑𝐵 and the magnetic field lines of a current element are exactly like those set up
by a positive charge dQ moving in the direction of the drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 . The field lines are
circles in planes perpendicular to and 𝑑𝑙 centered on the line of 𝑑𝑙 . Their directions are given by
the same right – hand rule that we introduced for point charges.
What we measure experimentally is the total 𝐵 for a complete circuit. But we can still verify these
equations indirectly by calculating 𝐵 for various current configurations using and comparing the
results with experimental measurements.
If matter is present in the space around a current – carrying conductor, the field at a field point P in
its vicinity will have an additional contribution resulting from the magnetization of the material.
We‟ll have return to this point in Section .However, unless the material is iron or some other
ferromagnetic material, the additional field is small and is usually negligible. Additional
complications arise if time – varying electric or magnetic fields are present or if the material is a
super – conductor; we‟ll return to these topics later.
Magnetic Field of a Straight Current- Carrying Conductor
We first use the law of Biot and Savart, to find the field 𝑑𝐵 caused by the element of conductor of
𝑥
length dl = dy. From the figure, 𝑟 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 and sin 𝜙 = sin(𝜋 − 𝜙) = 2 2 . The right- hand
𝑆 +𝑦
Page 23
rule for the vector product 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑙 shows that the direction of 𝑑𝐵 is into the plane of the figure,
perpendicular to the plane; furthermore, the directions of the 𝑑𝐵𝑠, a significant simplification
𝜇 0𝐼 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝐵= 4𝜋 −𝑎 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 3/2
𝜇 0𝐼 2𝑎
𝐵= −
4𝜋 𝑥 𝑥 2 +𝑎 2
𝜇 0𝐼
𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑥
0 𝜇 𝐼
𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑟 (a long straight, current − carrying conductor)
Magnetic Field of a Circular Current Loop

Magnetic field of a circular loop. The current in the segment 𝑑𝑙 causes the field 𝑑𝐵 , which lies in
the xy-plane. The currents in other 𝑑𝑙 ′𝑠 cause 𝑑𝐵 ′𝑠 with different components perpendicular to
the x – axis; these components add to zero. The x - components of the 𝑑𝐵 ′𝑠 combine to give the
total 𝐵 field at point P
𝜇0 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 (𝑥 2 +𝑎 2 )
𝜇 0𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑎
𝑑𝐵𝑥 = 𝑑𝐵 cos 𝜃 =
4𝜋 (𝑥 2 +𝑎 2 ) 𝑥 2 +𝑎 2 1/2
𝜇0𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑥
𝑑𝐵𝑦 = 𝑑𝐵 sin 𝜃 =
4𝜋 (𝑥 2 +𝑎 2 ) 𝑥 2 +𝑎 2 1/2
Page 24
𝜇0𝐼 𝑎 𝑑𝑙 𝜇 0 𝑙𝑎
𝐵𝑥 = = 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋 𝑥 2 +𝑏 2 3/2 4𝜋 𝑥 2 +𝑎 2 3/2
𝜇 0 𝐼𝑎 2
𝐵𝑥 = (on the axis of a circular loop)
2 𝑥 2 +𝑏 2 3/2
𝜇 0 𝑁𝐼𝑎 2
𝐵𝑥 = (on the axis of N circular loop)
2 𝑥 2 +𝑏 2 3/2
𝜇 0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵𝑥 = (at the center of N circular loops)
2𝑎
𝜇0𝑁
𝐵𝑥 = (on the axis any number of circular loops)
2𝜋 𝑥 2 +𝑎 2 3/2
Illustration
Two circular coils X and Y having equal number of turns and carry equal currents in the same
sense and subtend same solid angle at point O. If the smaller coil X is midway between O and Y,
then if we represent the magnetic induction due to bigger coil Y at O as B, and due to smaller coil
X at O s Bx then
(a) By/Bx = 1 (b) By/Bx = 2

(c) By/Bx = 2 (d) By/Bx = ¼
Solution
𝜇0 2𝜋𝑖 2𝑟 2
𝐵𝑦 = 3
4𝜋
2𝑟 2 +𝑑 2 2
Page 25
𝜇 2𝜋𝑖 𝑟 2
𝐵𝑥 = 4𝜋0 3/2
𝑑2
𝑟 2+
4
Now use binomial (1 + x)n = 1 + nx if x << i then divide.
Illustration
Two circular coils of wires made of similar wires but of radius 20 cm and 40 cm are connected in
parallel. The ratio of the magnetic fields at their centre is
(a) 4 : 1 (b) 1 : 4
(c) 2 : 1 (d) 1 : 2
Solution
𝑖1 𝑅1
=
𝑖2 𝑅2
𝑙
𝑙 2 𝑙2
𝐴
⇒ 𝑙 =𝑙
𝑙 1 1
𝐴
𝑖1 2𝜋𝑟2
= 2𝜋𝑟
𝑖2 1
𝑖
𝐵1 𝜇0 1
2𝑟 1
= 𝑖
𝐵2 𝜇0 2
2𝑟 2
𝑟2 2
⇒ = 𝑟1
Page 26
Day – 2
Ampere’s Law
For the electric-field problem we found that in situations with a highly symmetric charge
distribution, it was often easier to use Gauss‟s law to find 𝐸 . There is likewise a law that allows
us to more easily find the magnetic fields caused by highly symmetric current distributions. But
the law that allows us to do this, called Ampere’s law, is rather different in character from Gauss‟s
law.
Page 27
Some integration paths for the line integral of 𝐵 in the vicinity of a long, straight conductor carrying
current I out of the plane of the page (as indicated by the circle with a dot). The conductor is seen end on
Gauss‟s law for electric fields involves the flux of 𝐸 through a closed surface; it states that this flux is
equal to the total charge enclosed within the surface, divided by the constant ∈0 . Thus this law relates
electric fields and charge distributions. By contrast, Gauss‟s law for magnetic fields, is not a relation
between magnetic fields and current distributions; it states that the flux of 𝐵 through any closed surface is
always zero, through any closed surface is always zero, whether or not there are currents within the surface.
So Gauss‟s law for 𝐵 can‟t be used to determine the magnetic field produced by a particular current
distribution. Ampere‟s law is formulated not in terms of magnetic flux, but rather in terms of the line
integral of 𝐵 around a closed path, denoted by
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑡
To introduce the basic idea of ampere‟s law, let‟s consider again the magnetic field caused by a long,
straight conductor carrying a current I. we found in Section that the field at a distance r from the conductor
has magnitude
𝜇 𝐼
0
𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑟
and that the magnetic field lines are circles centered on the conductor. Law‟s take the line integral of 𝐵
around one such circle with radius r. At every point on the circle, 𝐵 and 𝑑𝑡 are parallel, and so 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑡 =
𝐵𝑑𝑙; since r is constant around the circle, B s constant as well. Alternatively, we can say that 𝐵|| is constant
and equal to B at every point on the circle. Hence we can take B outside of the integral. The remaining
integral 𝑑𝑙 is just the circumference of the circle, so
𝜇 𝐼
0
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵|| 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝐼
The line integral is thus independent of the radius of the circle and is equal to 𝜇0 multiplied u the current
passing through the area bounded by the circle.
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 (Ampere′ sLaw)
If 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑙 = 0, it does not necessarily mean that 𝐵 = 0 everywhere along the path, only that the
total current through an area bounded by the path is zero. In the integration path enclose no current
at all; in there are positive and negative currents of equal magnitude through the are enclosed by
the path. In both cases, 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 = 0 and the line integral is zero.
Field inside a long cylindrical conductor
Page 28
A cylindrical conductor with radius R carries a current I. the current is uniformly distributed over
the cross-sectional area of the conductor. Find the magnetic field as a function of the distance r
from the conductor axis for points both inside (r < R) and outside (r > R) the conductor.
Indentify and set up
To find the magnetic field inside the conductor, we take as our integration path a circle with radius
r < R as shown in fig. outside the conductor, we again use a circle but with a radius r > R. In either
case, the integration path takes advantage of the circular symmetry of the magnetic field pattern.
Execute
Inside the conductor, 𝐵 has the same magnitude at every point on the circular integration path and
is tangent to the path. Thus the magnitude of the lien integral is simply 𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑟 . If we use the
right-hand rule for determining the sign of the current, the current through the red area enclosed by
the path is positive; hence 𝐵 points in the same direction as the integration path, as shown. To
find the current 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 enclosed by the path, note that the current density (current per unit area) is
𝐼
𝐽 = 𝜋𝑅 2 , so 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 = 𝐽 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝐼𝑟 2 /𝑅2 . Finally, Ampere‟s law gives
𝐼𝑟 2
𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝑅2
𝜇 0𝐼 𝑟
𝐵= (inside the conductor, r < 𝑅)
2𝜋 𝑅 2
For the circular integration path outside the conductor (r > R), the same symmetry arguments
apply and the magnitude of 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 is again 𝐵 2𝜋𝑟 . The right-hand rule gives the direction of 𝐵
as shown in Fig. For this path, 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 = 𝐼, the total current in the conductor. Applying ampere‟s law
gives the same equation as in Example, with the same result for B
𝜇 0𝐼
𝐵= (out side the conductor, r > 𝑅)
2𝜋𝑟
Outside the conductor, the magnetic field is the same as that of a long, straight conductor carrying
current I, independent of the radius R over which the current is distributed. Indeed, the magnetic
field outside any cylindrically symmetric current distribution is the same as if the entire current
were concentrated along the axis of the distribution. This is analogous to the results, in which we
found that the electric field outside a spherically symmetric charged body is the same as though
the entire charge were concentrated at the center.
Evaluate
Note that at the surface of the conductor (r = R) , for r < R and for r > R agree (as they must). Fig
show a graph of B as a function of r, both inside and outside the conductor.
Page 29
Field of a solenoid
A solenoid, discussed in, consists of a helical winding of wire on a cylinder, usually circular in
cross section. There can be hundreds or thousands of closely spaced turns, each of which can be
regarded as a circular loop. There may be several layers of windings. For simplicity, Fig shows a
solenoid with only a few turns. All turns carry the same current I, and the total 𝐵 field at every
point is the vector sum of the fields caused by the individual turns. The figure shows field lines in
the xy- and xz- planes. We draw a set of field lines that are uniformly spaced at the center of the
solenoid. Exact calculations shows that for a long, closely wound solenoid, half of these field lines
emerge from the ends and half “leak out” through the windings between the center and the end.
The field lines near the center of the solenoid are approximately parallel, indicating a nearly
uniform 𝐵 ; outside the solenoid, the field lines are spread apart, and the magnetic field is weak. If
the solenoid is long in comparison with its cross-sectional diameter and the coils are tightly
wound, the internal field near the midpoint of the solenoid‟s length is very nearly uniform over
the cross section and parallel to the axis, and the external field near the midpoint is very small Use
Ampere‟s law to find the field at or near the center of such a long solenoid. The solenoid has n
turns of wire per unit length and carries a current I.
Identify and Set up
We choose as out integration path the rectangle abcd in fig. Side ab, with length L, is parallel to
the axis of the solenoid. Sides bc and da are taken to be very long so that side cd is far from the
solenoid; then the field at side cd is negligibly small.
Execute
By symmetry, the 𝐵 field along side ab is parallel to this side and is constant. In carrying out the
Ampere‟s law integration, we go along side ab in the same direction as 𝐵 . So for this side,
𝐵|| = +𝐵 and
𝑏
𝑎
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵𝐿
Page 30
Along sides bc and da, 𝐵|| = 0 because 𝐵 is perpendicular to these side; along side cd, 𝐵|| = 0
The integral The number of turns in length L is nL. Each of these turns passes once through the
rectangle abcd and carries a current I, where I is the current in the windings. The total current
enclosed by the rectangle is then 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 = 𝑛𝐿𝐼. From Ampere‟s law, since the integral 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 is
positive, 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 must be positive as well; hence the current passing through the surface bounded by
the integration path must be in the direction shown in Fig. Ampere‟s law then gives the magnitude
B
𝐵𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐿𝐼
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 (𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑑)
Side ab need not lie on the axis of the solenoid, so this calculation also proves that the field is
uniform over the entire cross section at the center of the solenoid‟s length.
Evaluate
Note that the direction of 𝐵 inside the solenoid is in the same direction as the solenoid‟s vector
magnetic moment 𝜇 . This is the same result that we found in section for a single current carrying
loop For points along the axis, the field is strongest at the center of the solenoid and drops off near
the ends. For a solenoid that is very long in comparison to its diameter, the field at each end is
exactly half as strong as the field at the center. For a short, fat solenoid the relationship is more
complicated. Fig. shows a graph of B as a function of x for points on the axis of a short solenoid.
Illustration
A long straight metal rod has a very long hole of radius a drilled along parallel to the rod axis as
shown in the fig. if the rod carries a current I. The value of magnetic induction on the axis of hole,
where OC = c
𝜇 𝐼𝑐 𝜇 𝐼𝑐
𝑎 𝜋(𝑏 20−𝑎 2) 𝑏 2𝜋(𝑏02 −𝑎 2)
𝜇 0 (𝑏 2 −𝑎 2 ) 𝜇 0 𝐼𝑐
𝑐 𝑑
2𝜋𝐶 2𝜋 𝑎 2 𝑏 2
Solution
In the rod the current density
𝐼
𝐽 = 𝜋(𝑏 2 −𝑎 2 )
Page 31
The actual field is the sum of two current carrying rods. On the hole axis only the larger rod
contributes magnetic field
𝜇 0 (𝐽 𝜋𝐶 2 )
𝐵= 2𝜋𝐶
𝜇 0𝐼 𝜋𝐶 2
= 𝜋(𝑏 2 −𝑎 2 ) × 2𝜋𝐶
𝜇 𝐼𝐶
𝐵 = 2𝜋(𝑏02 −𝑎 2 )
Illustration
Show that the B at point P on the axis of a solenoid of finite length equals
𝜇0
𝑛𝑖 cos 𝛼2 − cos 𝛼1 , the angles being defined and n being the number of turns per unit
2
length
Solution
We denote the radius of the solenoid by k and we use the coordinates z and  as indicated in Fig.
Page 32
We find the on- axis field due to a (flat) circular coil with dN turns and carrying current i
𝜇 0 𝑖𝑘 2 𝑑𝑁
𝑑𝐵 = … (1)
2 𝑧 2 +𝑘 2 3/2
For a solenoid, dN = ndz since n is the number of turns per unit length. As can be seen from fig.
We have 𝑧 = 𝑘/ tan 𝛼, so that
𝑑𝛼
𝑑𝑧 = −𝑘 sin 2 𝛼
𝑧 2 + 𝑘 2 3/2 = 𝑘 3 cot 2 𝛼 + 1 3/2
= 𝑘 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝛼
Since all contributions to the net field at P are along the same line, we may integrate Eq (1) to
find
𝑧 2 𝜇 0 𝑖𝑘 2 𝑛 𝑑𝑧
𝐵= 𝑧1 2 𝑧 2 +𝑘 2 3/2
𝜇 0 𝑛𝑖 𝑘 2 𝛼2 𝑘 𝑑𝛼
= 𝛼1
− sin 2 𝛼 (𝑘 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑐 3 𝛼 )
2
𝜇 0 𝑛𝑖 𝛼 2 𝜇 0 𝑛𝑖 𝛼2
= 2 𝛼 − sin 𝛼 𝑑𝛼 = cos 𝛼 𝛼1
1 2
𝜇 0 𝑛𝑖
= cos 𝛼2 − cos 𝛼1 … (ii)
2
Illustration
Fig. show the cross section of a long metal rod of radius. The rod carries a current I = 5kA
directed out of the paper. Find B at point P(r = 20mm) and at the surface of the rod, assuming that
the permeability of the metal may be approximated as 𝜇0
Solution
Assuming uniform current density over the cross section, the lines of B will be circles concentric
with the surface of the rod. The current through the dashed circle, of area 𝜋𝑟 2 , is
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟2
𝐼 = 𝑅2 𝐼
𝜋𝑅 2
And Ampere‟s circuital law gives, by symmetry,
𝑟2
𝐵 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝑅 2 𝐼
𝜇 0𝐼
𝐵= 𝑟
2𝜋𝑅 2
𝐵𝑃 = 22. 𝑚𝑇
3
𝐵𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 2 𝐵𝑃 = 33.3𝑚𝑇
Page 33
Day – 3
Magnetic Force on a Current – Carrying Conductor

We can compute the force on a current-carrying conductor starting with the magnetic force
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝑑 × 𝐵 on a single moving charge. Shows a straight segment of a conducting wire, with
length l and cross-sectional area A; the current is from bottom to top. The wire is in a uniform
magnetic field 𝐵 perpendicular to the plane of the diagram and directed into the plane. Let‟s
assume first that the moving charges are positive. Later we‟ll see what happens when they are
negative
Force on a moving positive charge in a

current –carrying conductor.
The drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 is upward, perpendicular to 𝐵 . The average force on each charge is
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝑑 × 𝐵 , directed to the left as shown in figure; since 𝑣𝑑 and 𝐵 are perpendicular, the
magnitude of the force is F = qvdB.
A straight wire segment of length

l carries a current I in the direction of
l . The magnetic force on this segment
is perpendicular to both l and the
magnetic field B.
𝐹 = 𝑛𝐴𝑙 𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝐵 = 𝑛𝑞𝑣𝑑 (𝑙𝐵)

𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵
Page 34
𝐹 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵 sin 𝜙
𝐹 = 𝐼 𝑙 × 𝐵 (magnetic force on a straight wire segment)
𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼𝑑𝑙 × 𝐵 (magnetic force on an infinitesimal wire section)
(a) Magnetic field B, length 𝑙 and force (b) Reversing B reversed F

F vectors for a straight wire carrying a
current I.
(c) Also reversing the current reversed

𝑙 and returns F to the same direction
as in (a)
Force between Parallel Conductors
(a) (b)
Page 35
Parallel conductors carrying currents in the same direction attract each other. The diagrams show
how the magnetic field B caused by the current in the lower conductor exerts a force F on the
upper conductor We showed how to use the principle of superposition of magnetic fields to find
the total field due to two long current – carrying conductors. Another important aspect of this
configuration is the interaction force between the conductors. These force plays a role in many
practical situations in which current – carrying wires are close to each other, and it also has
fundamental significance in connection with the definition of the ampere. Fig shows segments of
two long, straight parallel conductors separated by a distance r and carrying currents I and 𝐼 ′
respectively, in the same direction. Each conductor lies in the magnetic field set up by the other, so
each experiences a force. The diagram shows some of the field lines set up the current in the lower
conductor.
𝜇 0𝐼
𝐵 = .2𝜋𝑟
The force that this field exerts on a length L of the upper conductor is F = 𝐼 ′ L × B, where the
vector L is in the direction of the current 𝐼 ′ and has magnitude L. Since B is perpendicular to the
length of the conductor and hence to L, the magnitude of this force is
𝜇 0 𝐼𝐼 ′ 𝐿
𝐹 = 𝐼 ′ 𝐿𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑟
𝐹𝜇 0 𝐼𝐼 ′
(two long, parallel , current − carrying conductors)
𝐿 2𝜋𝑟
Applying the right – hand rule to 𝐹 = 𝐼 ′ 𝐿 × 𝐵 shows that the force on the upper conductor is
directed downward. The attraction or repulsion between two straight, parallel, current – carrying
conductors is the basis of the official SI definition of the ampere.
One ampere is that unvarying current that, if present in each of two parallel conductors of infinite
length and one meter apart in empty space, causes each conductor to experience a force of exactly
2 × 10−7 newtons per meter of length.
Illustration
Show that the force per unit length f between two very long parallel wires is 𝑓 = − 𝜇0 𝐼1 𝐼2 (2𝜋𝑟)
where I1 and I2 are the currents in the wire and r is the distance between the wires. (The minus
sign indicates that he wires attract each other when their currents are in the same direction, and
that hey repel each other when their currents are in opposite directions.)
Solution
Refer to fig. The field at a distance r from a long wire carrying a current 𝐼1 𝑖𝑠 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐼1 /(2𝜋𝑟).
This field is at right angles to a second wire that is parallel to the first. Therefore, the force on a
length l of a second wire at r carrying the current 𝐼2 is 𝐹𝑚 = 𝐵𝐼2 𝑙 and the force per unit length is
𝐹𝑚
𝑓= = 𝐵𝐼2
𝑙
𝜇 0 𝐼1 𝐼2
= 2𝜋𝑟
Using the right – hand rules for fields and forces, it is seen that force on wire 2 is repulsive when
I1 and I2 have opposite directions and attractive when I1 and I2 have the same direction. This
can be expressed in the usual sign convention by
𝜇 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝑓 = − 2𝜋𝑟 … (i)
Page 36
Since f will be negative (attractive) when I1 and I2 have the same sign, and will be positive
(repulsive) when I1 and I2 have opposite signs.
Illustration
What is the force per unit length between the wires in fig.
Solution
Since the currents have opposite directions, we have, using the results of
𝜇 0 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝜇 0 25𝐴 (−35𝐴)
𝑓=− =−
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋(0.25𝑚 )
−4
= +7.0 × 10 𝑁/𝑚
This force is repulsive
Page 37
Day – 4
Force and Torque on a Current Loop
(a) Force on the sides of a current – carrying loop in a uniform magnetic field. The reslutant force
is zero. The net torque has magnitude 𝜏 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜙.
(b) The torque is maximum when the normal to the loop is peropendicualr to 𝐵 .
Page 38
(c) When the normal to the loop is paralle to 𝐵 , the torque is zero and the equilibrium is stable. If the
normal is antiparallel to 𝐵 , the torque is also zero but the equilibrium is unstable Shows a rectangular loop
of wire with side lengths a and b. A line perpendicular to the plane of the loop (i.e., a normal to the plane)
makes an angle 𝜙 with the direction of the magnetic field 𝐵 , and the loop carries a current I. the wires
leading the current into and out of the loop and the source of emf are omitted to keep the diagram simple.
The force 𝐹 on the right side of the loop (length a) is to the right, in the + x- direction as shown. On this
side, 𝐵 is perpendicular to the current direction, and the force on this side has magnitude.
F = IaB
A force – 𝐹 with the same magnitude but opposite direction acts on the opposite side of the loop. As
shown in the figure. The sides with length b make an angle (900 − 𝜙) with the direction of 𝐵 . The forces
on these sides are the vectors 𝐹 ′ and − 𝐹 ′ their magnitude F` is given by
𝐹 ′ = 𝐼𝑏𝐵 sin(900 − 𝜙)
The lines of action of both forces lie along the y – axis
The total force on the loop is zero because the force on opposite sides cancel out in pairs. The net force on a
current loop in a uniform magnetic field is zero. However, the net torque is not in general equal to zero.
The moment arm for each of these forces (equal to the perpendicular distance from the rotation axis to the
𝑏
line of action of the force) is 2 sin 𝜙. If we use for F, the magnitude of the net torque is:-
𝑏
𝜏 = 2𝐹 sin 𝜙 = 𝐼𝐵𝑎 𝑏 sin 𝜙
2
The torque is greatest when 𝜙 = 900 , 𝐵 is in the plane of the loop, and the normal to this plane is
perpendicular to 𝐵 . The torque is zero when 𝜙 is zero or 1800 and the normal to the loop is parallel or anti
parallel to the field. The value 𝜙 = 0 is a stable equilibrium position because the torque is zero there, and
when the loop is rotated slightly from this position, the resulting torque tends to rotate it back toward
𝜙 = 0. The position 𝜙 = 1800 is an unstable equilibrium position; if displaced slightly from this position,
the loop tends to move farther away from 𝜙 = 1800 . Fig shows rotation about the y – axis but because the
net force on the loop is zero, for the torque is valid for any choice of axis.
The right – hand rule determines the

direction of the magnetic moment of a
current – carrying loop. This is also the
direction of the loop’s area vector 𝐴
𝜇 − 𝐼𝐴 is a vector equation
𝜏 = 𝐼𝐵𝐴 sin 𝜙 (magnitude of torque on a current loop)
Page 39
The product IA is called the magnetic dipole moment or magnetic moment of the loop, for which
we use the symbol 𝜇 (Greek latter “mu”).
𝜇 = 𝐼𝐴
It is analogous to the electric dipole moment introduced in terms of 𝜇, the magnitude of the torque on a
current loop is
𝜏 = 𝜇𝐵 sin 𝜙
Where 𝜙 is the angle between the normal to the loop (the direction of the vector area 𝐴 ) 𝐵 . The torque
tends to rotate the loop in the direction of decreasing 𝜙, that is, toward its stable equilibrium position in
which the loop lies in the xy – plane, perpendicular to the direction of the field 𝐵 . A current loop, or any
other body that experiences a magnetic torque given by, is also called a magnetic dipole Finally, we can
express this interaction in terms of the torque vector 𝜏, which we used for electric – dipole interactions in
the magnitude of 𝜏 is equal to the magnitude of 𝜇 × 𝐵, and reference to Fig. shows that the directions are
also the same. So we have
𝜏 = 𝜇 × 𝐵 (vector torque on a current loop)
When a magnetic dipole changes orientation in a magnetic field, the field deep work on it. In an
infinitesimal angular displacement 𝑑𝜙 the work dW is given by 𝜏𝑑𝜙, and there is a corresponding change
in potential energy. As the above discussion suggests, the potential energy is least when 𝜇 and 𝐵 are
parallel and greatest when they are anti parallel. To find an expression for the potential energy U as a
function of orientation, we can make use of the beautiful symmetry between the electric and magnetic
dipole interactions. The torque on an electric dipole in an electric field is 𝜏 = 𝑝 × 𝐸 ; we found in that the
corresponding potential energy is 𝑈 = −𝑝 . 𝐸 . The torque on a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field is
𝜏 = 𝜇 × 𝐵 , so we can conclude immediately that the corresponding potential energy is
𝑈 = −𝜇 . 𝐵 = −𝜇𝐵 cos 𝜙 (Potential energy for a magnetic dipole)
With this definition, U is zero when the magnetic dipole moment is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
An arrangement of particular interest is the solenoid, a helical winding of wire, such as a coil wound on a
circular cylinder. If the windings are closely spaced, the solenoid can be approximated by a number of
circular loops lying in planes at right angles to its long axis. The total torque on a solenoid in a magnetic
field is simply sum of the torques on the individual turns. For a sole – noid with N turns in a uniform field
B, the magnetic moment is 𝜇 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴 and 𝜏 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜙.
The torque τ = μ × B on this solenoid in a

uniform magnetic field is directed straight
into the page. It tends to rotate the solenoid
clockwise, aligning the magnetic moment
and the axis of the solenoid with the
magnetic field. An actual solenoid has many
more turns, wrapped closely together.
Page 40
Illustration
Consider the three long, straight, parallel wires shown in Fig. Find the force experienced by a 25
cm length of wire C
Solution
The fields due to wires D and G at wire C are
0 𝜇 𝐼 4𝜋×10 −7 𝑇.𝑚 /𝐴 30𝐴
𝐵𝐷 = 2𝜋𝑟 = 2𝜋 0.05𝑚
= 0.8 × 10−4 𝑇
In to the page, and
𝑚
4𝜋 ×10𝑇. 20𝐴
𝐴
𝐵𝐺 = 2𝜋 0.05𝑚
4
= 0.8 × 10 𝑇
Out of the page. The force on a 25 cm length of C is
𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 sin 𝜃
= 10𝐴 0.25𝑚 1.2 × 10−4 𝑇 (sin 900 )
= 3 × 10−4 𝑁
Using the right hand rule at wire C tells us that the force on wire C is toward the right.
Illustration
A uniformly charged disk whose total charge has magnitude | q | and whose radius is r rotates with
constant angular velocity of magnitude . Show that the magnetic dipole moment has the
magnitude 𝜔 𝑞 𝑟 2 /4.
Solution
𝑞
The surface charge density is (𝜋𝑟 2 ). Hence the charge within a ring of radius R and width dR is
𝑞
𝑑𝑞 = (2𝜋𝑅 𝑑𝑅)
𝜋𝑟 2
2𝑞
= (𝑅 𝑑𝑅)
𝑟2
The current carried by this ring is its charge divided by the rotation period
Page 41
𝑑𝑞 𝑞𝜔
𝑑𝑖 = (2𝜋/𝜔 ) = 𝜋𝑟 2 (𝑅 𝑑𝑅)
The magnetic moment contribute by this ring has magnitude dM = a|di| where a is the area of the
ring.
Therefore
𝑑𝑀 = 𝜋𝑅2 |𝑑𝑖|
𝑞 𝜔
= (𝑅3 𝑑𝑅)
𝑟2
Since the contributions dM from the various rings are all parallel, we have
𝑟 𝑞 𝜔
𝑀= 𝑑𝑀 = 𝑅=0 𝑟 2
(𝑅3 𝑑𝑅)
𝑞 𝜔 𝑅 4 𝑅=𝑟
= 𝑅=0
𝑟2 4
𝑞 𝜔𝑟2
= 4
Page 42
Day – 5
Illustration
A solenoid, 60 cm long and 4.0 cm in radius, has 3 layers of windings of 300 turns each. A 2.0 cm
long wire of mass 2.5 g lies inside the solenoid near its centre, normal to its axis. Both the wire
and the axis of the solenoid are in the horizontal plane. The wire is connected to an external
battery which supplies a current of 6.0 A to the wire. For what value of current (with sense of
circulation ) in the windings of the solenoid, the wire can be supported against its weight
𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑁𝐴−2 and 𝑔 = 9.8𝑚𝑠 −2 or 9.8𝑁 𝑘𝑔−1 .
Solution
The ratio of length to radius of the solenoid is 15 and so it can be treated as a long solenoid. The
magnitude of the magnetic field 𝐵 near the centre of a long solenoid having n turns per meter and
carrying a current of I ampere in its windings is given by
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝑖
𝐵 is parallel to the axis of the solenoid. Now, the „vertical‟ force on the current – carrying wire
placed perpendicular to the field 𝐵 is given by
𝐹 = 𝑖 ′ 𝐵𝑙 = 𝑖 ′ (𝜇0 𝑛𝑖)𝑙
′
Where 𝑖 is the current in the wire and 𝑙 is the length of the wire. The wire will be supported, if F
equals the weight mg of the wire, that is
𝑖 ′ 𝜇0 𝑛𝑖 𝑙 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑔
𝑖=𝜇 ′
0 𝑛𝑖 𝑙
Here
𝑚 = 2.5𝑔 = 2.5 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔
𝑛 = 3 × 300/0.60𝑚 = 1500𝑚−1
𝑖 ′ = 6.0 𝐴, 𝑙 = 2.0 𝑐𝑚 = 2 × 10−2 𝑚
Also 𝑔 = 9.8𝑘𝑔−1 and 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑁𝐴−2
2.5×10 −3 𝑘𝑔 ×9.8𝑁 𝑘𝑔 −1
𝑖= 4×3.14×10 −7 𝑁𝐴−2 ×1500 𝑚 −1 ×6.0𝐴×(2.0×10 −2 𝑚 )
= 108𝐴
The sense of circulation of current in the windings of the solenoid should be such that the axial
field 𝐵 produced by it exerts an upward force on the wire.
Illustration
A current of 10A flows around a closed path in a circuit which is in the horizontal plane, as shown
in the fig. the circuit consists of eight alternating arcs of radii r1 = 0.08m and r2 = 0.12m. Each are
subtends the same angle at the centre. (a) Find the magnetic field produced by this circuit at the
centre. (b) An infinitely long straight wire carrying a current of 10 A is passing through the centre
of the above circuit vertically with the direction of the current being into the plane of the circuit (i)
Page 43
What is the force acting on the wire at the centre due to the current in the circuit (ii) What is the
force acting on the arc AC due to the current at the centre (𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇 𝑚𝐴−1 )
Solution
(a) The magnetic field at eh centre due to the straight portions of the circuit is zero. The magnetic
field at the centre due to all the four arcs of radius r1is given by
𝜇0 𝑖
𝐵1 = 4 4𝜋 𝑟12
𝜇 𝑖 𝜋𝑟1 𝜇 𝑖
= 4 × 4𝜋0 𝑟 2 × = 4𝑟0
1 4 1
According to right hand palm rule, the direction of 𝐵1 will be perpendicular to the plane of the
paper, directed upwards. Similarly, the magnetic field at the centre due to all the four arcs of r2
radius is given by
𝜇 𝑖
𝐵2 = 4𝑟0
2
(perp. To the plane of the paper, directed upwards)
The magnetic field at the centre due to the entire circuit is
𝐵 = 𝐵1 + 𝐵2
𝜇 0𝑖 1 1
= +𝑟
4 𝑟1 2
4𝜋×10 −7 ×10 1 1
= + 0.12
4 0.08
= 6.54 × 10−5 𝑇
The magnetic field 𝐵 is perpendicular to the plane of paper, directed upwards (b) (i) The direction
of the magnetic field at the centre is antiparallel to the direction of current in the wire. Hence the
magnetic force at every point on the wire will be zero (ii) The magnetic field due to the infinitely
long current carrying straight wire at the centre, will be tangential at every point of the arc AC.
Hence the magnetic force on the arc AC will be zero 𝐹 = 𝑖𝐵𝐿 sin 𝜃 = 𝑖𝐵𝐿 sin 0 = 0 .
Illustration
A straight horizontal metallic rod (mass m = 60g and length l = 0.45m) is suspended by two light
vertical wires at its ends. A current of 5.0 A is passed in the rod through the wires. (a) What
magnetic field should be set up perpendicular to the rod in order to reduce the tensions in the wires
to zero (b) What will be the total tension in the wires if the current is reversed in direction, keeping
the magnetic field unchanged (𝑔 = 9.8𝑚𝑠 −2 )
Solution
Page 44
(a) The wires will be tension free if the weight mg of the rod is balanced by an upward magnetic
force iBl on the rod set up by the magnetic field 𝐵 that is
iBl = mg
𝑚𝑔
𝐵= 𝑖𝑙
60×10 −3 𝑘𝑔 9.8𝑁 𝑘𝑔 −1
= = 0.26𝑇
5.0𝐴×0.45𝑚
𝐵 must be horizontal to create vertically upwards force on the rod (Fleming‟s left hand rule)
(b) If current is reversed, the magnetic force on the rod (equal to the weight of the rod) will act in
the direction of the weight. Hence the total tension T in the supporting wires will be
T = 2mg
= 2 × 60 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔 × 9.8𝑁𝑘𝑔−1 = 1.176𝑁
Illustration
A rectangular loop of sides 25𝑐𝑚 × 10𝑐𝑚, carries a current of 15 A. it is placed with its longer
side parallel to a long straight conductor 2.0 cm apart and carrying a current of 25 A. Find the net
force on the loop. What will be the difference in force if the current in the loop be reversed
Solution
Let ABCD be the loop (length l, width b and current i1), with its longer side AB placed parallel and
at distance d from a long conductor XY carrying current i2 as shown on fig The (attractive )force
on the side AB of the loop, due to current i2 is
𝜇 𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑙
𝐹1 = 02𝜋𝑑 , towards 𝑋𝑌
Similarly, the (repulsive) force on the side CD of the loop is
𝜇 𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑙
𝐹2 = 2𝜋0 (𝑑+𝑏) , away from 𝑋𝑌
The force on the sides AD and BC of the loop; being equal,
opposite and collinear, cancel each other
Net force on the loop is
𝜇 1 1
𝐹1 − 𝐹2 = 2𝜋0 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 𝑙 − (𝑑+𝑏)
𝑑
𝜇 0 𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑙 𝑏
, towards XY
2𝜋 (𝑑+𝑏)
Substituting the value
i1 = 15A, i2 = 25A, l = 0.25m, b = 0.10m, d = 0.02m,
𝜇
d + b = 0.12m and 2𝜋0
= 2 × 10−7 𝑁𝐴−2
We get
15×25×0.25×0.10
𝐹1 − 𝐹2 = 2 × 10−7 × 0.03×0.12
= 7.8 × 10−4 𝑁
The net force is directed towards the long conductor. If the current in the loop, or in the long
conductor, be reversed, the net force will remain same in magnitude but will then be directed away
from the long conductor.
Page 45
Day – 6
Illustration
In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom the electron follows a circular path centered on the
nucleus. Its speed is 2.2 × 106 𝑚/𝑠, and the radius of the orbit is 5.3 × 1011 𝑚, (a) Show that the
𝑒
effective current in the orbit is 𝑒𝑣/2𝜋𝑟. (b) Show that 𝜇 = − 𝐿, where L = mrv s the angular
2𝑚
momentum of the electron in its orbit
Solution
(a) Since charge –e passes a point once every revolution
𝑒
𝑖 = 𝑇 , where 𝑇 = (2𝜋𝑟)
So that
𝑖 = (𝑒𝑣)/(2𝜋𝑟)
(b) In magnitude, the dipole moment is
𝜇 = 𝑖𝐴
𝑒𝑣 𝑒
= 𝜋𝑟 2 = 2𝑚
2𝜋𝑟
2 𝑒
= 2𝑚 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 2𝑚 𝐿
And because the electron is negatively charged, 𝜇 is antiparallel to L.
Illustration
(a) A rigid circular loop of radius r and mass m lies in the xy plane on a flat table and has a current
I flowing in it. At this particular place, the earth‟s magnetic field is 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑗. How large
must I be before one edge of the loop will lift from the table (b) Repeat if 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘.
Solution
(a) The torque on the loop must be equal to the gravitational torque exerted about an axis tangent
to the loop. The gravitational torque = mgr while magnetic torque
𝜇 × 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐵 sin 900
= 𝜋𝑟 2 𝐼𝐵
Equating gives
1/2
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑔 /[𝜋𝑟 𝐵𝑥2 + 𝐵𝑦2 ]
(b) only Bx causes a torque, so
𝑚𝑔
𝐼 = 𝜋𝑟 𝐵
𝑥
Illustration
(a) If the mass of the disk is m, what is the magnitude of its angular momentum? (b) What is the
ratio of the magnitude of its magnetic dipole moment to the magnitude of its angular momentum?
Page 46
How does the sign of the charge govern the relation between the directions of these vector
quantities.
Solution
(a) Assuming that the disk has a uniform mass distribution, we find that its moment of inertia
1
𝐼 = 2 𝑚𝑟 2
Hence its angular momentum has magnitude
1
𝐿 = 2 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜔
𝑀 𝑞 𝜔𝑟2 1
(b) = 1
𝐿 4 𝑚 𝑟 2𝜔
2
𝑞
= 2𝑚
If the charge q is positive, M and L are parallel. If the charge is negative, M and L are antiparallel.
The relationship between M and L can be summarized by the equation.
𝑞
𝑀 = 2𝑚 𝐿
Page 47
Chapter Magnetic Flux and
3 Gauss’s law of Magnetism
Day – 1
Introduction
We define the magnetic flux ϕB through a surface just as we defined electric flux in connection
with Gauss’s law. We can divide any surface into elements of area dA. For each element we
determine 𝐵⊥ the component of 𝐵 normal to the surface. (Be careful not to confuse ϕ with 𝜙𝐵 .) In
general, this component varies from point to point on the surface. We define the magnetic flux
𝑑𝜙𝐵 through this area as
𝑑𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵⊥ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵 cos 𝜙 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵. 𝑑𝐴
𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵⊥ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵 cos 𝜙 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵. 𝑑𝐴
(magnetic flux through a surface)
Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity. In the special case in which is uniform over a plane surface with
total area A. B⊥ and ϕ are the same at all points on the surface and
𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵⊥ 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜙
The SI unit of magnetic flux is equal to the unit of magnetic field (1T) times the unit of area (Im2).
This unit is called the Weber (1Wb), in honor of the German physicist Wilhelm Weber (1804 –
1891)
1𝑊𝑏 = 1𝑇. 𝑚2
1𝑇 = 1𝑁/𝐴. 𝑚
1𝑊𝑏 = 1𝑇. 𝑚2 = 1𝑁. 𝑚/𝐴
The magnetic flux through an area element

dA is defined to be 𝑑𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵⊥ 𝑑𝐴.
Page 48
In Gauss’s law the total electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the total electric
charge enclosed by the surface. For example, if the closed surface encloses an electric dipole, the
total electric flux is zero because the total charge is zero. The total magnetic flux through a closed
surface would be proportional to the total magnetic charge enclosed. But we have mentioned that
no magnetic monopole has ever been observed, despite intensive searches. We conclude that the
total magnetic flux through a closed surface is always zero. Symbolically
𝐵 = 𝑑𝐴 = 0 megnetic flux through any closed surface
In Gauss’s law the total electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the total electric
charge enclosed by the surface. For example, if the closed surface encloses an electric dipole, the
total electric flux is zero because the total charge is zero. The total magnetic flux through a closed
surface would be proportional to the total magnetic charge enclosed. But we have mentioned that
no magnetic monopole has ever been observed, despite intensive searches. We conclude that the
total magnetic flux through a closed surface is always zero. Symbolically
Caution
Unlike electric field lines that begin and end on electric charges, magnetic field lines never have
end points; such a point would indicate the presence of a monopole. You might be tempted to
draw magnetic field lines that begin at the north pole of a magnet and end at a south pole. But as
Fig Shows, the field lines of a magnet actually continue through the interior of the magnet. Like
all other magnetic field lines, they form closed loops.
For Gauss’s law, which always deals with closed surface, the vector area element 𝑑𝐴 Eq. always
points out of the surface. However, some applications of magnetic flux involve an open surface
with a boundary line; there is then an ambiguity of sign in Eq. because of the two possible choices
of direction for 𝑑𝐴. In these cases we choose one of the possible choices of direction for 𝑑𝐴. In
these cases we choose one of the possible sides of the surface to be the “positive” side and use that
choice consistently.
If the element of area dA in Eq. is at right angles to the field lines, then 𝐵⊥ = 𝐵; calling the area
𝑑𝐴⊥ we have
𝑑𝜙
𝐵 = 𝑑𝐴𝐵
⊥
That is, the magnitude of magnetic field is equal to flux per unit area across an area at right angles
to the magnetic field. For this reason, magnetic field 𝐵 is sometimes called magnetic flux density
Induction Experiments
During the 1830s, several pioneering experiments with magnetically induced emf were carried out
in England by Michael Faraday and in the United States by Joseph Henry (1797 – 1878), later the
first director of the Smithsonian Institution. Fig shows several examples. In Fig a coil of wire is
connected to a galvanometer. When the nearby magnet is stationary, the meter shows no current.
Page 49
This isn’t surprising; there is no source of emf in the circuit. But when we move the magnet either
toward or away from the coil, the meter shows current in the circuit, but only while the magnet is
moving. If we keep the magnet stationary and move the coil, we again detect a current during the
motion. We call this an induced current, and the corresponding emf required to cause this current
is called an induced emf.
To explore further the common elements in these observations, let’s consider a more detailed
series of experiments with the situation shown in Fig. We connect a coil of wire to a
galvanometer, then place the coil between the poles of an electromagnet whose magnetic field we
can very. Here’s what we observe
1. When there is no current in the electromagnet, so that 𝐵 = 0, the galvanometer shows no
current.
2. When the electromagnet is turned on, there is a momentary current through the meter 𝐵 as
increases
3. When 𝐵 levels off at a steady value, the current drops to zero, no matter how large 𝐵 is
4. With the coil in a horizontal plane, we squeeze it so as to decrease the cross sectional area of the
coil. The meter detects current only during the deformation, not before or after. When we increase
the area to return the coil to its original shape, there is current in the opposite direction, but only
while the area of the coil is changing.
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(a) A stationary magnet has no effect on a stationary coil of wire. A galvanometer connected to the
coil shows zero current.
(b) When the magnet and coil move relative to each other, a current is induced in the coil. The
current is in one direction if the magnet moves down and the opposite direction if the magnet
moves up.
(c) We get the same effect as in (b) if we replace the magnet by a second coil carrying a constant
current.
(d) When the switch is opened or closed, the change in the inside coil’s current induces a current
in the outer coil
5. If we rotate the coil a few degrees about a horizontal axis, the meter detects current during the
rotation, in the same direction as when we decreased the area. When we rotate the coil back, there
is a current in the opposite direction during this rotation
6. If we jerk the coil out of the magnetic field, there is a current during the motion, in the same
direction as when we decreased the area.
Page 51
A coil in a magnetic field. When the 𝐵 field is
constant and the shape, location, and orientation of
the coil do not change, no current is induced in the
coil. A current is induced when any of these factors
change.
7. If we decrease the number of turns in the coil by unwinding one or more turns, there is a current
during the unwinding, in the same direction as when we decreased the area. If we wind more turns
onto the coil, there is a current in the opposite direction during the winding
8. When the magnet is turned off, there is a momentary current in the direction opposite to the
current when it was turned on
9. The faster we carry out any of these changes, the greater the current
10. If all these experiments are repeated with a coil that has the same shape but different material
and different resistance, the current in each case is inversely proportional to the total circuit
resistance. This shows that the induced emf that are causing the current do not depend on the
material of the coil but only on its shape and the magnetic field
Faraday’s Law
The common element in all induction effects is changing magnetic flux through a circuit. Before
stating the simple physical law that summarizes all of the kinds of experiments described in
section, let’s first review the concept of magnetic flux ϕB (which we introduced in section). For an
infinitesimal area element 𝑑𝐴 in a magnetic field 𝐵, the magnetic flux dϕB through the area is
The magnetic flux through an area element

dA is defined to be 𝑑𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵⊥ 𝑑𝐴
Page 52
𝑑𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵⊥ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵 𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜙
Where 𝐵⊥ is the component of 𝐵 perpendicular to the surface of the area element and ϕ is the
angle between 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝐴. (be careful to distinguish between two quantities named “phi” ϕ and
ϕB) The total magnetic flux ϕB through a finite area is the integral of this expression over the area
𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵 . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵 𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜙
𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜙
Faraday’s law of induction states

The induced emf in a closed loop equals the negative of the time rate of change of magnetic flux
through the loop.
In symbols, Faraday’s law is
𝑑𝜙
𝜖 = − 𝐵 (faraday ′ s law of induction)
𝑑𝑡
To understand the negative sign, we have to introduce a sign convention for the induced emf ϵ.
But first let’s look at a simple of this law in action
Direction of Induced EMF

We can find the direction of an induced emf or current by using Eq. together with some simple
sign rules. Here’s the procedure
1. Define a positive direction for the vector area 𝐴
2. From the directions 𝐴 of and the magnetic field 𝐵, determine the sign of the magnetic flux ϕB
and its rate of change 𝑑𝜙𝐵 /𝑑𝑡 Fig shows several examples
3. Determine the sign of the induced emf or current. If the flux is increasing, so 𝑑𝜙𝐵 /𝑑𝑡 is
positive, then the induced emf or current is negative, if the flux is decreasing, 𝑑𝜙𝐵 /𝑑𝑡 is negative
and the induced emf or current is positive.
4. Finally, determine the direction of the induced emf or current using your right hand. Curl the
fingers of your right hand around the vector 𝐴, with your right thumb in the direction of 𝐴. If the
induced emf or current in the circuit is positive, it is in the same direction as your curled fingers; if
the induced emf or current is negative, it is in the opposite direction.
(a) (b)
Positive flux (ϕB > 0) Positive flux (ϕB > 0)
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜙
Flux becoming more positive 𝑑𝑡𝐵 < 0 Flux becoming less positive 𝑑𝑡𝐵 < 0
Induced emf is negative (ε > 0) induced emf is positive (ε > 0)
Page 53
(c) (d)
Negative flux (ϕB < 0) negative flux (ϕB < 0)
𝑑𝜙 𝐵 𝑑𝜙 𝐵
Flux becoming more negative <0 Flux becoming less negative >0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Induced emf is positive (ε > 0) induced emf is negative (ε > 0)
The magnetic flux is becoming (a) more positive, (b) less positive, (c) more negative, and (d) less
negative. Therefore ϕB is increasing in (a) and (d) and decreasing in (b) and (c). In (a) and (d) the
emfs are negative (they are opposite to the direction of the curled fingers of your right hand when
your right thumb points along 𝐴). In (b) and (c) the emfs are positive (in the same direction as the
curled fingers).
Lenz’s Law
Lenz’s law is a convenient alternative method for determining the direction of an induced current
or emf. Lenz’s law is not an independent principle; it can be derived from Faraday’s law. It always
gives the same results as the sign rules we introduced in connection with Faraday’s law, but it is
often easier to use. Lenz’s law also helps us gain intuitive understanding of various induction
effects and of the role of energy conservation. H. F. E. Lenz (1804 – 1865) was a Russian scientist
who duplicated independently many of the discoveries of Faraday and Henry. Lenz’s law states
The direction of any magnetic induction effect is such as to oppose the cause of the effect. The
“cause” may be changing flux through a stationary circuit due to a varying magnetic field,
changing flux due to motion of the conductors that make up the circuit, or any combination. If the
flux in a stationary circuit changes, the induced current sets up a magnetic field of its own within
the area bounded by the circuit, this field is opposite to the original field if the original field is
increasing but is in the same direction as the original field if the latter is decreasing. That is, the
induced current opposes the change in flux through the circuit (not the flux itself)
If the flux change is due to motion of the conductors, the direction of the induced current in the
moving conductor is such that the direction of the magnetic field force on the conductor is
opposite in direction to its motion. Thus the motion of the conductor, which caused the induced
current, is opposed. We saw this explicitly for the slide wire generator in Ex. In all these cases the
induced current tries to preserve the status quo by opposing motion or a change of flux.
Page 54
Lenz’s law is also directly related to energy conservation. If the induced current in Ex. Were in the
direction opposite to that given by Lenz’s law, the magnetic force on the rod would accelerate it to
ever increasing speed with no external energy source, even though electric energy is being
dissipated in the circuit. This would be a clear violation of energy conservation and doesn’t
happen in nature.
Finding the Direction of induced current
In Fig there is a uniform magnetic field 𝐵 through the coil. The magnitude of the field is
increasing, and the resulting induced emf causes an induced current. Use Lenz’s law to determine
the direction of the induced current.
This situation is the same as in Ex. By Lenz’s law the induced current must produce a magnetic
field 𝐵induced inside the coil that is downward, opposing the change in flux. Using the right – hand
rule we described in Section for the direction of the magnetic field produced by a circular loop,
𝐵induced will be the desired direction if the induced current flows as shown in fig
The induced current due to the change in 𝐵 is

clockwise, as seen from above the loop. The added
field Binduced that it causes is downward, opposing
the charge in the upward field 𝐵.
Fig shows several application of Lenz’s law to the similar situation of a magnet moving near a
conducting loop. In each of the four cases shown, the induced current produces a magnetic field of
its own, in a direction that opposes the change in flux through the loop due to the magnet’s motion
(a) To produce this induced field, induced (b) To produce this induced field, induced
current must be counterclockwise as seen from current must be clockwise as seen from
above loop above loop
Page 55
Motion Electromotive Force
We’ve seen several situations in which a conductor moves in a magnetic field, as in the generators
discussed in Ex. We can gain additional insight into the origin of the induced emf in these
situations by considering the magnetic forces on mobile charges in the conductor. Fig shows the
same moving rod that we discussed in Ex, separated for the moment from the U – shaped
conductor. The magnetic field 𝐵 is uniform and directed into the page, and we move the rod to the
right at a constant velocity 𝑣 . A charged particle q in the rod then experiences a magnetic force
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣 × 𝐵 with magnitude 𝐹 = |𝑞|𝑣𝐵. We’ll assume in the following discussion that q is
positive; in that case the direction of this force is upward along the rod, from b toward a.
This magnetic force causes the free charges in the rod to move, creating an excess of positive
charge at the upper end a and negative charge at the lower end b. this in turn creates an electric
field 𝐸 within the rod, in the direction from a toward b (opposite to the magnetic force). Charge
continues to accumulate at the ends of the rod until 𝐸 becomes large enough for the downward
electric force (with magnitude qE) to cancel exactly the upward magnetic force (with magnitude
qbB). Then qE = qvB and the charges are in equilibrium
The magnitude of the potential difference 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 is equal to the electric field magnitude E
multiplied by the length L of the rod. From the above discussion, 𝐸 = 𝑣𝐵, so
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝐸𝐿 = 𝑣𝐵𝐿
With point a at higher potential than point b.
ϵ = 𝑣𝐵𝐿
(motional emf; length and velocity perpendicular to B uniform)
𝑑 ϵ = 𝑣 × 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙
ϵ= 𝒗 × 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙
Illustration
In Fig. there is a + x – directed magnetic field of 0.2 T. Find the magnetic flux through each face
of the box
Solution
Let 𝑛 represent the outward unit normal vector to a given face of the box and A the area of that
face.
Then the outward flux through the face is 𝜙 = 𝐵. 𝑛𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 cos θ. Clearly 𝜙 = 0 through the two
side faces 𝑛 in ± 𝑧 direction and the bottom face 𝑛 in − 𝑦 direction through the front and
back faces 𝑛 is along +x and –x, respectively, so
𝜙front = 0.2 T 40 × 10−4 m2
⇒ 0.8 m Wb
Page 56
𝜙back = 0.2 T 90 × 10−4 m2 −1
⇒ = −1.8 m Wb
(The minus sign indicates flux is inward through surface). For the top surface θ=
60o 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜙top = 0.2 T 100 × 10−4 m−2 = 1.0 m Wb
Illustration
A loop of wire is placed in a magnetic B = 0.0200iT field. Find the flux through the loop if its area
vector is A = 30i + 16j + 23k cm2. What is the angle between B and A
Solution
𝜙 = 𝐵. 𝐴 = 0.0200𝑖 𝑇 30𝑖 + 16𝑗 + 23𝑘 10−4 m2
⇒ 60 𝜇𝑊𝑏
In terms of magnitudes
𝜙 = 𝐵. 𝐴 cos θ
B = 0.0200 T
And
A = (302 + 162 + 232)1/2 = 41.0 cm2
Then
6.0 × 10−5 𝑊𝑏
⇒ 0.02 𝑇 41 × 10−4 m2 cos θ
And
cos θ = 0.73 or θ = 43o .
Page 57
Illustration
The perpendicular component of the external magnetic field through a 10 – turn coil of radius 50
mm increases from 0 to 18 T in 3s, as shown in Fig. If the resistance of the coil is 2Ω, what is the
magnitude of the induced current what is the direction of the current
Solution
The initial flux 𝜙1 is zero, and the final flux 𝜙2 is

𝜙 = 𝑁𝐵𝑛 𝐴
⇒ 10 18 𝑇 25𝜋 × 10−4 m−2
⇒ 1.41 𝑊𝑏
And so
∆𝜙 = 𝜙2 − 𝜙1 = 1.41 𝑊𝑏
The induced emf if
∆𝜙 1.41 𝑊𝑏
𝛿 = − ∆𝑡 = − 3𝑠
⇒ −0.47 𝑉
The minus sign indicates that the emf will cause a current that creates a field opposing the change
in B. the magnitude of the induced current is
𝛿 0.47
𝐼1 𝑅 = 2Ω
⇒ 0.235 𝐴.
Page 58
Day – 2
Inductance
A changing current in a coil induces an emf in an adjacent coil. The coupling between the coils is
described by their mutual inductance. A changing current in a coil also induces an emf in that
same coil. Such a coil is called an inductor, and the relationship of current to emf is described by
the inductance (also called self – inductance) of the coil. If a coil is initially carrying a current,
energy is released when the current decreases; this principle is used in automotive ignition
systems. We’ll find that this released energy was stored in the magnetic field caused by the current
that was initially in the coil, and we’ll look at some of the practical applications of magnetic –
field energy
Mutual inductance
In we considered the magnetic interaction between two wires carrying steady current; the current
in one wire causes a magnetic field, which exerts a force on the current in the second wire. But an
additional interaction arises between two circuits when there is a changing current in one of the
circuits. Consider two neighboring coils of wire, as in Fig. a current flowing in coil 1 produces a
magnetic field 𝐵 and hence a magnetic flux through coil2. If the current in coil 1 changes, the flux
through coil 2 changes as well; according to Faraday’s law, this induces an emf in coil 2. In this
way, a change in the current in one circuit can induce a current in a second circuit.
Let’s analyze the situation shown in Fig. In more detail. We will use lowercase letters to represent
quantities that vary with time; for example, a time – varying current is I, often with a subscript to
identify the circuit. In Fig a current i1 in coil 1 sets up a magnetic field (as indicated by the blue
lines), and some of these field lines pass through coil 2. We denote the magnetic flux through each
turn of coil 2, caused by the current i1 in coil 1, as 𝜙B2 . (If the flux is different through different
turns of the coil, then 𝜙B2 denotes the average flux). The magnetic field is proportional to i1, so
𝜙B2 is also proportional to i1. When i1 change 𝜙B2 , change; this changing flux induces an emf 𝜀2
in coil 2, given by
A current i1 in coil 1 gives rise to a

magnetic flux through coil 2. If i1
change an emf is induced in coil 2; this
is described in terms of mutual
inductance
𝑑 𝜙B2
𝜀2 = −𝑁2 𝑑𝑡
Page 59
We could represent the proportionality of 𝜙B2 and i1 in the form 𝜙B2 = constant 𝑖1 , but instead
it is more convenient of include the number of turns N2 in the relation. Introducing a
proportionality constant, called the mutual inductance of the coils, we write
𝑁2 𝜙B2 = 𝑀21 𝑖1
Where 𝜙B2 is the flux through a single turn of coil 2. From this,
𝑑𝜙B2
𝑁2 = 𝑀21 𝑖1
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑖1
𝜀2 = −𝑀21 𝑑𝑡
We may also write the definition of mutual inductance,
𝑁2 𝜙 B 2
𝑀21 = 𝑖1
If the coils are in vacuum, the flux 𝜙B2 through each turn of coil 2 is directly proportional to the
current i1. Then the mutual inductance M21 is a constant that depends only on the geometry of the
two coils (the size, shape, number of turns, and orientation of each coil and the separation between
the coils.) If a magnetic material is present, M21 also depends on the magnetic properties of the
material. If the material has nonlinear magnetic properties, that is, if the relative permeability Km is
not constant and magnetization is not proportional to magnetic field, then 𝜙B2 is no longer directly
proportional to i1. In that case the mutual inductance also depends on the value of i1. In this
discussion we will assume that any magnetic material present has constant Km so that flux is
directly proportional to current and M21 depends on geometry only.
We can repeat our discussion for the opposite case in which a changing current i2 in coil 2 causes a
changing flux 𝜙B1 and an emf ϵ1 in coil 1. We might expect that the corresponding constant M21
would be different from M21 because in general the two coils are not identical and the flux through
them is not the same. It turns out, however that M21 is always equal to M21, even when the two
coils are not symmetric. We call this common value simply the mutual inductance, denoted by the
symbol M without subscripts; it characterizes completely the induced – emf interaction of two
coils. Then we can write
𝑑𝑖1
𝜀2 = −𝑀 and 𝜀1
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖2
= −𝑀 mutually induced emfs
𝑑𝑡
Where the mutual inductance M is
𝑁2 𝜙 B 2 𝑁1 𝜙 B 1
𝑀= = mutual inductance
𝑖1 𝑖2
Caution
Note that only a time – varying current in a coil can induce an emf and hence a current in a second
coil. Equations show that the induced emf in each coil is directly proportional of the rate of change
of the current in the other coil, not to the value of the current. A steady current in one coil, no
matter how strong, cannot induce a current in a neighboring coil
Page 60
Self – inductance and inductors
An important related effect occurs even if we consider only a single isolated circuit. When a
current is present in a circuit, it sets up a magnetic field that causes a magnetic flux through the
same circuit; this flux changes when the current changes. Thus any circuit that carries a varying
current has an emf induced in it by the variation in its own magnetic field. Such an emf is called a
self – induced emf. By Lenz’s law, a self – induced emf always opposes the change in the current
that caused the emf and so tends to make it more difficult for variations in current to occur. For
this reason, self – induced emf can be of great importance whenever there is a varying current.
The current i in the circuit causes a

magnetic field 𝐵 in the coil and hence a
flux through the coil. When the current i
changes, the flux changes also and a self –
induced emf appears in the circuit
Self – induced emf can occur in any circuit, since there is always some magnetic flux through the
closed loop of a current – carrying circuit. But the effect is greatly enhanced if the circuit includes
a coil with N turns of wire. As a result of the current I, there is an average magnetic flux 𝜙𝐵
through each turn of the coil. In analogy to Eq. we define the self – inductance L of the circuit as
𝑁𝜙 𝐵
𝐿= 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑖
When there is no danger of confusion with mutual inductance, the self – inductance is called
simply the inductance. Comparing we see that the units of self – inductance are the same as those
of mutual inductance; the SI unit of self – inductance is one Henry.
If the current I in the circuit changes, so does the flux 𝜙𝐵 ; from rearranging Eq. and taken the
derivative with respect to time, the rates of change are related by
𝑑𝜙𝐵 𝑑𝑖
𝑁 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
From Faraday’s law for a coil with N turns, the self – induced emf is 𝜀 = −𝑁 𝑑𝜙𝐵 /𝑑𝑡, so it
follows that
𝑑𝑖
𝜀 = −𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓
Equation also states that the self – inductance of a circuit is the magnitude of the self – induced
emf per unit rate of change of current. This relationship makes it possible to measure an unknown
self – inductance in a relatively simple way; Change the current in the circuit at a known rate di/dt,
measure the induced emf, and take the ratio to determine L
Page 61
A circuit device that is designed to have a particular inductance is called an inductor, or a choke.
The usual circuit symbol for an inductor is
Consider the circuit shown in Fig the box contains some combiantion of batteries and variable
resistors that enables us to control the current I in the circuit. According to Faraday’s law the line
integral of 𝐸 𝑛 around the circuit is the negative of the rate of change of flux through the circuit,
which in turn is given by. Combining these two relations, we get
A circuit containing a source of emf

and an inductor. The source is variable.
So the current i and its rate of change
di/dt can be varied
𝑑𝑖
𝐸𝑛 . 𝑑𝑙 = −𝐿 𝑑𝑡
Where we integrate clockwise around the loop (the direction of the assumed current). But 𝐸𝑛 is
different from zero only within the inductor. Therefore the integral of 𝐸𝑛 is different from zero
only within the inductor. Therefore the integral of 𝐸𝑛 around the whole loop can be replaced by its
integral only form a to b through the inductor; that is
𝑏 𝑑𝑖
𝑎
𝐸𝑛 . 𝑑𝑙 = −𝐿 𝑑𝑡
Resistor with current i flowing from a to b

potential drops from a to b
(a) The potential difference across a resistor depends on the current.
Page 62
Next, because 𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝑛 = 0 at each point within the inductor coils, we can rewrite this as
𝑏 𝑑𝑖
𝑎
𝐸𝑐 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
inductor with current I flowing from a to

b:If di/dt > 0 potential drops from a to b
If di/dt < 0 potential increases from a to
bIf i is constant (di/dt = 0) no potential
difference
(b) The potential difference across an inductor depends on the rate of change of the current.
Caution
Note that the self – induced emf does not oppose the current I itself; rather, it opposes any change
(di/dt) in the current. Thus the circuit behavior of an inductor is quite different from that of a
resistor. Fig. compares the behavior of a resistor and an inductor and summarizes the sign relations
Illustration
A wire perpendicular to a long straight wire is moving parallel to the latter with a speed v = 10 m/s
in the direction of the current flowing in the latter. The current is 10 A. What is the magnitude of
the potential difference between the ends of the moving wire? What is the sign of the potential
difference?
Page 63
Solution
The notation is indicated in Fig. according to the right – hand rule, the magnetic field due to the
current – carrying wire is directed down into the plane of the fig. all along the wire segment AB.
The magnitude of the field is. Since v is perpendicular to B, we have [v × B] = Bv. In order for the
Lorentz force to be zero (as required for the equilibrium of a mobile charge carrier in the wire
segment), there must be an electric field. Referring to the fig. we see that 𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑝 is directed from A
toward B along the wire, so that the electric potential is higher at A than at B:VA > VB. Specifically,
We have
𝑟2
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑟1
𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟2 𝜇 o 𝑖𝑣 𝑟2 𝑑𝑟
⇒ 𝑟1
𝐵𝑣 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑟1 𝑟
2𝜋
Using i = 10A, v = 10 m/s, and r2/r1 = (10.0 cm)/(1.0 cm) = 10, we find that
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 2 × 10−7 10 10 In 10
⇒ 46.1 𝜇𝑉
Illustration
The rod shown in Fig. rotates about point C as pivot with the constant frequency 5 rev/s. find the
potential difference between its two ends, because of the magnetic field, B = 0.3 T
Solution
Consider a fictitious loop CADC. As time goes on, its area and the flux through it will increase.
The induced emf in this loop will equal the potential difference we seek
∆𝜙 𝐵∆𝐴
𝛿 =𝑁 = 1
∆𝑡 ∆𝒕
It takes one-fifth second for the area to change from zero to that of a full circle. 𝜋𝑟 2 . Therefore
∆𝐴 𝜋𝑟 2 0.8 𝑚 2
𝛿 = 𝐵 ∆𝑡 = 𝐵 0.20 𝑠 ⇒ 0.3 𝑇 ⇒ 3.0 𝑉
0.20 𝑠
Illustration
A metal rod makes contact with a partial circuit and completes the circuit. The circuit area is perpendicular
total magnetic field with B = 0.15 T. if the resistance of the total circuit is 3Ω, how large a force is needed
to move the rod as indicated with a constant speed of 2 m/s
Page 64
Solution
The induced emf in the rod causes a current to flow counterclockwise in the circuit. Because of
this current in the rod, it experiences a force to the left due to the magnetic field, in order to pull
the rod to the right with constant speed, this force must be balanced by the puller
Method 1
𝛿 = 𝐵𝐿𝑣 = 0.15 𝑇 0.50 𝑚 (2 𝑚/𝑠)
⇒ 0.15 𝑉
Then
𝛿 0.15 𝑉
𝐼= =
𝑅 3Ω
Form which
F = ILB sin 90o
⇒ (0.050 A)(0.50 m)(0.15 T)(1)
⇒ 3.75 × 10–3 N
Method 2
The emf induced in the loop is
∆𝜙
𝛿 =𝑁 ∆𝑡
𝐵 ∆𝐴 𝐵 𝐿 ∆𝑥
⇒ 1 = = 𝐵𝐿𝑣
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
As before. Now proceed as follows
Mechanical power supplied to circuit = rate at which electric work is done on charges
∆𝑞 𝛿 𝛿 2
𝐹𝑣 = =𝐼 𝛿 =
∆𝑡 𝑅
Substitute for 𝛿 and solve for F to find
𝐵 2 𝐿2 𝑣
𝐹= 𝑅
0.15 𝑇 2 0.50 𝑚 2 (2 𝑚/𝑠)
⇒ 3Ω
⇒ 3.75 × 10−3 𝑁
Page 65
Day - 3
Magnetic – field energy

Establishing a current in an inductor requires an input of energy, and an inductor carrying a
current has energy stored in it. Let’s see how this comes about. In Fig an increasing current I in the
inductor causes an emf ϵ between its terminals, and a corresponding potential difference 𝑉𝑎𝑏
between the terminals of the source, with point a at higher potential than point b. Thus the source
must be adding energy to the inductor, and the instantaneous power P (rate of transfer of energy
into the inductor) is 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑖.
We can calculate the total energy input U needed of establish a final current I in an inductor with
inductance L if the initial current is zero. We assume that the inductor has zero resistance, so no
energy is dissipated within the inductor. Let the current at some instant be I and let its rate of
change be di/dt; the current is increasing, so di/dt > 0. The voltage between the terminals a and b
of the inductor at this instant is Vab = L di/dt and the rate P at which energy is being delivered to
the inductor (equal to the instantaneous power supplied by the external source) is
𝑑𝑖
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑖 = 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑡
The energy dU supplied to the inductor during an infinitesimal time interval dt is dU = P dt so
dU = Li di
The total energy U supplied while the current increases from zero to a final value I is
1 1
𝑈=𝐿 0
𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝐿𝐼 2 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
After the current has reached its final steady value I, di/dt = 0 and no more energy is input to the
inductor. When there is no current, the stored energy U is zero; when the current is I, the energy is
1/2 LI2
When the current decreases from I to zero the inductor acts as a source that supplies a total amount
of energy 1/2 LI2 to the external circuit. If we interrupt the circuit suddenly by opening a switch or
yanking a plug from a wall socket, the current decreases very rapidly, the induced emf is very
large, and the energy may be dissipated in an arc across the switch contacts. This large emf is the
electrical analog of the large force exerted by a car running into a brick wall and stopping very
suddenly.
Resistor with current i: Inductor with current i:

energy is dissipated energy is stored
Page 66
A resistor is a device in which energy is irrecoverably. By contrast, energy stored in a current –
carrying inductor can be recovered when the current decreases to zero
Caution
It’s important not to confuse the behavior of resistors and inductors where energy is concerned.
Energy flows into a resistor whenever a current passes through it, whether the current is steady or
varying; this energy is dissipated in the form of heat. By contrast, energy flows into an ideal, zero
– resistance inductor only when the current in the inductor increases. This energy is not dissipated;
it is stored in the inductor and released when the current decreases. When a steady current flows
through an inductor, there is no energy flow in or out.
The R – L circuit
Let’s look at some examples of the circuit behavior of an inductor. One thing is clear already; an
inductor in a circuit makes it difficult for rapid changes in current to occur, thanks to the effects of
self – induced emf. Eq shows that the greater the rate of change of current di/dt, the greater the self
– induced emf and the greater the potential difference between the inductor terminals. This
equation, together with Kirchhoff’s rules gives us the principles we need to analyze circuits
containing inductors.
Current Growth in an R – L circuit

We can learn several basic things about inductor behavior by analyzing the circuit of fig. a circuit
that includes both a resistor and an inductor, and possibly a source of emf, is called an R – L
circuit. The inductor helps to prevent rapid changes in current, which can be useful if a steady
current is required but the external source has a fluctuating emf. The resistor R may be a separate
circuit element, or it may be the resistance of the inductor windings; every real – life inductor has
some resistance unless it is made of superconducting wire. By closing switch S1, we can connect
the R—L combination to a source with constant emf ε.(We assume that the source has zero internal
resistance, so the terminal voltage equals the emf)
An R–L circuit. Closing switch S1 connects

the R–L combination in series with a
source of emf ε. Closing switch S2 while
opening switch S1 disconnects the
combination from the source
Suppose both switches are open to begin with, and then at some initial time t = 0 we close switch.
The current cannot change suddenly from zero to some final value, since di/dt and the induced emf
in the inductor would both be infinite. Instead, the current begins to grow at a rate that depends
only on the value of L in the circuit.
Let I be the current at some time t after switch S1 is closed and let di/dt be its rate of change at that
time. The potential difference vab across the resistor at that time is
Page 67
vab = iR
And the potential difference vab across the inductor is
𝑑𝑖
𝑣 𝑏𝑐 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
Note that if the current is in the direction shown in Fig. and is increasing, then both vab and vbc are
positive; a is at a higher potential than b, which in turn is at a higher potential than c. (Compare to
Fig) We apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule, starting at the negative terminal and proceeding
counterclockwise around the loop
𝑑𝑖
𝜀 − 𝑖𝑅 − 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 = 0
Solving this for di/dt, we find that the rate of increase of current is
𝑑𝑖 𝜀 − 𝑖𝑅 𝜀 𝑅
= =𝐿−𝐿𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
At the instant that switch S1 is first closed, i = 0 and the potential drop across R is zero. The initial
rate of change of current is
𝑑𝑖 𝜀
=𝐿
𝑑𝑡 initial
As we would expect, the greater the inductance L, the more slowly the current increases.
As the current increases, the term (R/L)i in also increases, and the rate of increase of current given
by becomes smaller and smaller. This means that the current is approaching a final, steady – state
value I. When the current reaches this value, its rate of increase is zero. Then becomes
𝑑𝑖 𝜀 𝑅
=0=𝐿−𝐿𝐼
𝑑𝑡 final
𝜀
𝐼=𝑅
The final current I does not depend on the inductance L; it is the same as it would be if the
resistance R alone were connected to the source with emf ε.
The behavior of the current as a function of time is shown by the graph of Fig. To derive the
equation for this curve (that is, an expression for current as a function of time), we proceed just as
we did for the charging capacitor in. First we rearrange to the form
𝑑𝑖 𝑅
𝜀 = − 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝑖−
𝑅
This separates the variables, with I on the left side and t on the right. Then we integrate both sides,
renaming the integration variables i' and i' so that we can use i and i as the upper limits. (The
lower limit for each integral is zero, corresponding to zero current at the initial time) We get
Graph of i versus t for growth of current

in an R – L circuit with an emf in series.
The final current is I = ε/R after one time
constant , the current is 1 – 1/e of this
value
Page 68
𝑖 𝑑𝑖′ 𝑡𝑅
0 𝑖′ − 𝜀
=− 0 𝐿
𝑑𝑡′
𝑅
𝜀
𝑖− 𝑅
𝑅
𝑖𝑛 𝜀 = −𝐿𝑡
−
𝑅
Now we take exponentials of both sides and solve for i. We leave the details for you to work out;
the final result is
𝑅
𝜀
𝑖 = 𝑅 1 − 𝑒− 𝑡
𝐿 corrent in an R − L circuit with emf
This is the equation of the curve in. Taking the derivative of Eq. We find
𝑑𝑖 𝜀
= 𝐿 𝑒 −(𝑅/𝐿)𝑡
𝑑𝑡
At time t = 0, i = 0 and di/dt = ε/L. AS t ⟶ ∞, i = ⟶ ε/R and di/dt ⟶ 0, as we predicted.
As Fig shows, the instantaneous current i first rises rapidly, then increases more slowly and
approaches the final value I = ε/R asymptotically. At a time equal to L/R the current has risen to (1
– 1/e) or about 63%, of its final value. The quantity L/R is therefore a measure of how quickly the
current builds toward its final value; this quantity is called the time constant for the circuit,
denoted by:
𝐿
𝜏=𝑅 time constant for an R − L curcuit
In a time equal to 2τ, the current reaches 86% of its final value; in 5τ, 99.3%; and in 10τ 99.995%.
(Compare the discussion in of charging a capacitor of capacitance C that was in series with a
resistor of resistance R; the time constant for that situation was the product RC.
The graphs of i versus t have the same general shape for all values of L. For a given value of R,
the time constant τ is greater for greater values of L. When L is small, the current rises rapidly ot
its final value; when L is large, it rises more slowly. For example, if R = 100Ω and L = 10 H.
L 10 𝐻
τ = 𝑅 = 100 Ω = 0.10 𝑠
And the current increases to about 63% of its final value in 0.10s. (Recall that 1H = 1Ω s. But if L
= 0.010 H, τ = 1.0 × 10–4 s = 0.10 ms, and the rise is much more rapid
Energy considerations offer us additional insight into the behavior of an R – L circuit. The
instantaneous rate at which the source delivers energy to the circuit is P = εi. The instantaneous
rate at which energy is dissipated in the resistor is i2R, and the rate at which energy is stored in the
inductor is 𝑖𝑣𝑏𝑐 = 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡 (or, equivalently,) (di/dt)(1/2Li2) = Li(di/dt). When we multiply by i
and rearrange, we find
𝑑𝑖
𝜀𝑖 = 𝑖 2 𝑅 + 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑡
Of the power εi supplied by the source, part (i2R) is dissipated in the resistor and part (Li di/dt)
goes to store energy in the inductor. This discussion is completely analogous to our power analysis
for a charging capacitor, given at the end of
Current decay in an R – L circuit
Page 69
Now suppose switch S1 in the circuit of has been closed for a while and that the current has
reached the value I0. Resetting our stopwatch to redefind the initial time, we close switch S2 at
time t = 0, by passing the battery. (At the same time we should open S1 to save the battery from
ruin). The current through R and L does not instantaneously go to zero but decays smoothly, as
shown in Fig.
The Kirchhoff’s – rule loop equation is obtained from simply omitting the ε term. We challenge
you to retrce the steps in the above analysis and show that the current i varies with time according
to
𝑖 = 𝐼0 𝑒 − (𝑅/𝐿)𝑡
Graph of i versus t for decay of current

in an R – L circuit. After one time
constant , the current is 1/e of its initial
value.
In this case, Li di/dt is negative; Eq shows that the energy stored in the inductor decreases at a rate
equal to the rate of dissipation of energy i2R in the resistor
This entire discussion should look familiar; the situation is very similar to that of a charging and
discharging capacitor, analyzed. It would be a good idea to compare that section with our
discussion of the R – L circuit
Illustration
Find an expression for the total magnetic energy stored in two coils with inductances L1 and L2
and mutual inductance M, when the currents in the coils I1 and I2 are respectively
Solution
While the currents are building up we have for the emf
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖2
𝛿 = −𝐿1 𝑑𝑡 ± 𝑀 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖2 𝑑 𝑖1
⇒ 𝛿 = −𝐿2 ±𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
When the ± appear consistently in both equations, and depend on the coil geometry and circuit
sense. Then the external work done in time dt to push charges dq1 and dq2 through each circuit,
respectively, is
𝑑𝑊 = −𝛿1 𝑑𝑞1 − 𝛿2 𝑑𝑞2
𝑑 𝑖1 𝑑 𝑖2 𝑑 𝑖2 𝑑𝑖1
⇒ 𝐿1 𝑑𝑞1 ∓ 𝑀 𝑑𝑞1 + 𝐿2 𝑑𝑞2 ∓ 𝑀 𝑑𝑞2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Page 70
Nothing that
𝑑𝑞 1 𝑑 𝑞2
𝑖= and 𝑖2 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
We have
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑙1 𝑖1 𝑑𝑖1 + 𝐿2 𝑖2 𝑑𝑖2 ∓ 𝑀𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2 + 𝑀𝑖2 𝑑𝑖1
⇒ 𝐿1 𝑖1 𝑑𝑖1 + 𝐿2 𝑖2 𝑑𝑖2 ∓ 𝑀 𝑑 𝑖1 𝑖2
Integrating form 0 to final current we have
𝐼1 𝐼 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝑈= 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐿1 0
𝑑𝑖1 + 𝐿2 0 2 𝑑𝑖2 ∓ 𝑀 0
𝑑 𝑖1 𝑖2
1 1
⇒ 𝐿1 𝐼12 + 𝐿 𝐼 2 ∓ 𝑀𝐼1 𝐼2
2 2 2 2
Illustration
Suppose that coils C1 and C2 have self – inductances L1 = 200 mH and L2 = 120 mH and mutual
inductance M = 50 mH. For I1 = 20A and I2 = 15A compute the total energy of inductance
Solution
Using the geometry and observing the sense of current in the coils and the positive linkage of coil
C2 by the flux due to C1 we have the –M sign in
1 1
𝑈 = 2 𝐿1 𝐼1 + 2 𝐿2 𝐼2 + 𝑀𝐼1 𝐼2
We have
1 2 2
𝑈 = 2 0.200 20 + 0.120 15 + 2 0.50 20 15
⇒ 68.5 𝐽
Illustration
As is seen form Fig. I1 and I2 can be independently increased, decreased, or held constant by
varying resistances R1 and R2. Let L1 = 50 mH, L2 = 40 mH, M = 15 mH. (a) I1 is made to increase
at the rate of 120 A/s. I2 is held constant. Compute the voltages v1 and v2 induced in each coil (b) I1
is made to decrease at the rate of 120 A/s. I2 is held constant. Compute v1 and v2 (c) I1 is increased
at the rate of 120 A/s and I2 is decreased at the rate of 200 A/s. compute v1 and v2
Page 71
Solution
Each coil has both self – induced and mutually induced emf. With the current senses as chosen for
each circuit we have
𝑑𝑙1 𝑑 𝑙2
𝑣1 = −𝐿1 −𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑙2 𝑑𝑙1
𝑣2 = −𝐿2 −𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Then sign in front of M is negative since an increase in I1 creates an emf in circuit 2 opposing the
sense of I2 (and vice versa). Then
𝑑𝑙1
(a) 𝑣1 = −𝐿1 +0
𝑑𝑡
⇒ − 0.050 120
⇒ −6 𝑉
𝑑𝑙1
𝑣2 = 0 − 𝑀 = − 0.015 −120
𝑑𝑡
⇒ −1.8 𝑉.
𝑑𝑙1
(b) 𝑣1 = −𝐿1 +0
𝑑𝑡
⇒ − 0.050 −120
⇒ +6 𝑉
𝑑𝑙1
𝑣2 = 0 − 𝑀 ⇒ − 0.015 −120 ⇒ +1.8 𝑉
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑙1 𝑑 𝑙2
(c) 𝑣1 = −𝐿1 −𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⇒ 0.050 120 − 0.015 −200
⇒ −3 𝑉
𝑑𝑙2 𝑑𝑙1
𝑣2 = −𝐿2 −𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⇒ − 0.040 −200 − 0.015 −200
⇒ +6.2 𝑉.
Page 72
Day – 4
Illustration
A circular ring of diameter 20 cm has a resistance of 0.01Ω. How much charge will flow through
the ring if it is turned from a position perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of 2.0T to a
position parallel to the field?
Solution
Since 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑉 = −∆𝜙𝑚 /∆𝑡
∆𝑞
And the current 𝑖= ∆𝑡
We have 𝑅 ∆𝑞 = −∆𝜙𝑚
∆𝜙 𝑚
Or ∆𝑞 = 𝑅
𝜙 𝑚𝑓 − 𝜙 𝑚𝑖
⇒ 𝑅
Since the final flux is zero, and the initial flux has magnitude
𝜋𝑑 2 𝐵
𝜙𝑚𝑖 = 4
𝜋𝑑 2 𝐵
We have ∆𝑞 = 4𝑅
𝜋 0.20 2 2.0
⇒ 4 0.01
⇒ 6.28 C
Illustration
A 5 – Ω coil, of 100 turns and diameter 6 cm, is placed between the poles of a magnet so that the
flux is maximum through its area. When the coil is suddenly removed from the field of the
magnet, a charge of 10–4 C flows through a 595 – Ω galvanometer connected to the coil. Compute
B between the poles of the magnet
Solution
As the coil is removed, the flux changes from BA, where A is the coil area, to zero. Therefore
∆𝜙 𝐵𝐴
𝛿 =𝑁 =𝑁
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
We are told that ∆𝑞 = 10−4 𝐶 But, by Ohm’s law
∆𝑞
𝛿 = 𝐼𝑅 = 𝑅
∆𝑡
Where R = 600 Ω, the total resistance. If we now equate these two expressions for 𝛿 and solve
for B, we find that
𝑅 ∆𝑞
𝐵= 𝑁𝐴
600 Ω 10 −4 𝐶
⇒ = 0.212 𝑇
100 𝜋 9 × 10 −4 𝑚 2
Page 73
Illustration
How much charge will flow through a 200 – Ω galvanometer connected to a 400 – Ω circular coil
of 1000 turns wound on a wooden stick 20 mm in diameter, if a magnetic field B = 0.0113T
parallel to the axis of the stick is decreased suddenly to zero
Solution
R for the circuit of coil plus galvanometer = 200Ω + 400Ω = 600Ω
∆𝑞
𝛿 = 𝐼𝑅 = 𝑅
∆𝑡
∆𝜙
⇒ −𝑁 ∆𝑡
𝑁 ∆𝜙
So ∆𝑞 = − 𝑅
𝑁𝐴 ∆𝐵
⇒ − 𝑅
1000 𝜋 × 10 −4 0.00𝑇−0.0113 𝑇
⇒ = +5.9 𝜇𝐶
600 Ω
(The sign merely indicates that the charge passes through the galvanometer in the same sense as
the induced current)
Page 74
Day - 5
Illustration
The sum and the difference of self inductances of two coils are 13 H and 5H respectively. The
maximum mutual inductances of two coil is
(a) 6 H (b) 5 H (c) 65 𝐻 (d) 18 H
Solution
L1 + L2 = 13 … (i)
L1 – L2 = 5 … (ii)
Adding equation (i) and (ii)
2L1 = 18
L1 = 9H
L2 = L1 – 5 = 9
⇒ 4𝐻
𝑀 = 𝐾 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝑀max = 𝐾max 9 × 4
⇒ 1 × 36 = 6𝐻 ∴ 𝐾max = 1
Illustration
A coil of inductance L = 300 mH and resistance R = 140 mΩ is connected to a constant voltage
source. Current in the coil will reach to 50% of its steady value after time t equals to
(a) 155 s (b) 0.755 s (c) 0.155 s (d) 1.48 s
Solution
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 (𝐼 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 )
𝐼𝑜
= 𝐼𝑜 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 )
2
1
= 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
2
1 𝑡
𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 = 2 − 𝜏 In 𝑒 = −In 2
𝐿 300 × 10 −3 30
𝑡 = 𝜏 in 2 = 𝑅 In 2 ⇒ In 2 = 14 In 2
140 × 10 −3
⇒ 1.48 𝑠
Illustration
A fan blade of length 2a rotates with frequency f cycle per second perpendicular to magnetic field
B. then potential difference between centre and end of blade is
(a) 𝜋𝐵𝑎2 𝑓 (b) 4𝜋𝐵𝑎𝑓 (c) 4𝜋𝑎2 𝐵𝑓 (d) 2𝜋𝑎𝐵𝑓
Solution
𝑑𝜙 𝑑 𝐵𝑑𝐴 𝐵𝜋𝑎 2
𝐸= ⇒ 𝐵𝐴 ⇒ = = 𝜋𝐵𝑎2 𝑓 .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1/𝑓
Page 75
School Level
Para magnetism
In an atom, most of the various orbital and spin magnetic moments of the electrons add up to zero.
However, in some cases the atom has a net magnetic moment that is of the order of μB. When such
a material is placed in a magnetic field, the field exerts a torque on each magnetic moment, as
given 𝑏𝑦𝜏 = 𝜇 × 𝐵 by. These torques tend to align the magnetic moments with the field, the
position of minimum potential energy, as we discussed in .This position, the directions of the
current loops are such as to add to the externally applied magnetic field.
We saw that the 𝐵 field produced by a current loop is proportional to the loop’s magnetic dipole
moment. In the same way, the additional 𝐵 field produced by microscopic electron current loops
is proportional to the total magnetic moment 𝜇0 total per unit volume V in the material. We call this
vector quantity the magnetization of the material, denoted by 𝑀
𝜇 total
𝑀= n
𝑉
The additional magnetic field due to magnetization of the material turns out to be equal simply to
𝜇𝑜 𝑀, where completely surrounds a current- carrying conductor, the total magnetic field 𝐵 in the
material is
𝐵 = 𝐵0 + 𝜇0 𝑀
Where 𝐵0 is the field caused by the current in the conductor.
To check that the units in are consistent, note that magnetization 𝑀 is magnetic moment per unit
volume. The units of magnetic moment are current times area (A.m2), so the units of
magnetization are (A.m2)/m3 = A/m. From the units of the constant μ0 are T. m/A. So the units 𝜇0 𝑀
of are the same as the units of 𝐵 (T. m/A) (A/m) = T.
A material showing the behavior just described is said to be paramagnetic. The result is that the
magnetic field material, than it would be if the material were replaced by vacuum. The value of Km
is different for different materials; for common paramagnetic solids and liquids at room
temperature, Km typically ranges from 1.00001 to 1.003.
All of the equations in this chapter that relate magnetic fields to their sources can be adapted to the
situation in which the current-carrying conductor is embedded in a paramagnetic material. All that
need be done is to replace μ0 by Kmμ0. This product is usually denoted as μ and is called the
permeability of the material.
𝜇 = 𝐾𝑚 𝜇0
The amount by which the relative permeability differs from unity is called the magnetic
susceptibility, denoted by Xm.
𝑋𝑚 = 𝐾𝑚 − 1
Both Km and Xm are dimensionless quantities. Values of magnetic susceptibility for several
materials are given in Table. For example, for aluminum, Xm = 2.2 × 10-5 and Km = 1.000022. The
Page 76
first group of materials in the table are paramagnetic; we’ll discuss the second group of materials,
which are called diamagnetic, very shortly
Diamagnetism
In some materials the total magnetic moment of all the atomic current loops is zero when no
magnetic field is present. But even these materials have magnetic effects because an external field
alters electron motions within the atoms, causing additional current loops and induced magnetic
dipoles comparable of the induced electric dipoles we studied in section. In this case the additional
field caused by these current loops is always opposite in direction to that of the external field.
(This behavior is explained by Faraday’s law of induction, which we will study. An induced
current always tends to cancel the field change that caused it)
Such materials are said to be diamagnetic. They always have negative susceptibility, as shown in
Table and permeability Km slightly less than unity, typically of the order of 0.99990 to 0.99999 for
solids and liquids. Diamagnetic susceptibilities are very nearly temperature-independent
In this drawing adapted from a

magnified photo, the arrows shows
show the directions of magnetization in
the domains of a single crystal of
nickel. Domains that are magnetized in
the direction of an applied magnetic
field grow larger.
Ferromagnetism
There is a third class of materials, called ferromagnetic materials, which includes iron, nickel,
cobalt, and many alloys containing these elements. In these materials. Strong interactions between
atomic magnetic moments cause them to line up parallel to each other in regions called magnetic
domains, even when no external field is present. Fig show an example of magnetic domain
structure. Within each domain, nearly all of the atomic magnetic moments are parallel
For many ferromagnetic materials the relation of magnetization to external magnetic field is
different when the external field is increasing from when it is decreasing. Fig shows this relation
for such a material. When the material is magnetized to saturation and then the external field is
reduced to zero, some magnetization remains. This behavior is characteristic of permanent
magnets, which retain most of their saturation magnetization when the magnetizing field is
removed. To reduce the magnetization to zero requires a magnetic field in reverse direction.
Page 77
This behavior is called hysteresis, and the curves in Fig are called hysteresis loops. Magnetizing
and demagnetizing a material that has hysteresis involves the dissipation of energy, and the
temperature of the material increases during such a process.
Ferromagnetic materials are widely used in electromagnets, transformer cores and motors and
generators, in which it is desirable to have as large a magnetic field as possible for a given current.
Because hysteresis dissipates energy, materials that are used in these applications should usually
have as narrow a hysteresis loop as possible. Soft iron is often used; it has high permeability
without appreciable hysteresis. For permanent magnets a broad hysteresis loop is usually
desirable, with large zero – field magnetization and large reverse field needed to demagnetize.
Many kinds of steel and many alloys, such as Alnico, are commonly
A magnetization curve for

a ferromagnetic material.
The magnetization M
approaches its saturation
value Msat as the magnetic
field B0 (caused by external
currents) becomes large.
Hysteresis loops. The materials of both (a) and (b) remain strongly magnetized when is reduced to
zero. Since (a) is also hard to demagnetize, it would be good for permanent magnets. Since (b)
magnetizes and demagnetizes more easily, it could be used as a computer memory material. The
material of (c) would be useful for transformers and other alternating – current devices where zero
hysteresis would be optimal.
Page 78
Summary
𝜇 𝑞𝑣 ×𝑟
The magnetic field 𝐵 𝐵 = 4𝜋0 𝑟2
created by a charge q
moving with velocity 𝑣
depends on the distance r
from the source point (the
location of q) to the field
point (where 𝐵 is
measured). The 𝐵 field is
perpendicular to 𝑣 and 𝑟,
the unit vector directed
from the source point to the
field point. The principle of
superposition of magnetic
fields states that the total 𝐵
field produced by several
moving charges is the
vector sum of the fields
produced by the individual
charges.
The law of Biot and Savart 𝜇 𝐼𝑑 𝐼 ×𝑟

𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋0 𝑟2
gives the magnetic field d𝐵
created by an element d𝐼 of
a conductor carrying
current I. The field 𝑑𝐵 is
perpendicular to both 𝑑𝐼
and 𝑟 the unit vector from
the element to the field
point. The 𝐵 field created by
a finite current- carrying
conductor is the integral of
𝑑𝐵 over the length of the
conductor.
𝜇 𝐼
The magnetic field 𝐵 at a 0
𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑟
distance r from a long,
straight conductor carrying a
current I has a magnitude that
is inversely proportional to r.
the magnetic field lines are
circles coaxial with the wire,
with directions given by the
right-hand rule
Page 79
𝐹 𝜇 0 𝐼𝐼′
Two long, parallel, current- =
𝐿 2𝜋𝑟
carrying conductors attract
if the currents are in the
same direction and repel if
the currents are in opposite
directions. The magnetic
force per unit length
between the conductors
depends on their currents I
and I’ and their separation
r. The definition of the
ampere is based on this
relation.
The law of Biot and Savart 𝐵𝑥 =

allots us to calculate the 𝜇 0 𝐼𝑎 2
magnetic field produced 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 3/2
along the axis of a circular Circular loop
𝜇 0 𝑁𝐼
conducting loop of radius a 𝐵𝑥 = 2𝑎
carrying current I. the field (centre of N
depends on the distance x circular loop)
along the axis from the center
of the loop to the field point.
If there are N loops, the field
is multiplied by N. at the
center of the loop x = 0.
Ampere’s law sates that the 𝐵 . 𝑑𝐼 =

line integral 𝐵 of around any 𝜇0 𝐼encl
closed path equals times the
net current through the area
enclosed by the path. The
positive sense of current is
determined by a right-hand
rule.
The following table lists fields caused by several current distributions. In each the conductor is
carrying current I.
Current Distribution Point in Magnetic Field Magnetic Field Magnitude
𝜇 0𝐼
Long , straight conductor Distance r from conductor 𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑟
Circular loop of radius a On axis of loop 𝜇 0 𝐼𝑎 2

𝐵=2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 3/2
𝜇 𝐼
At center of loop 𝐵 = 2𝑎0
(for N loops, multiply these
Page 80
expressions by N)
𝜇 𝐼 𝑟
Long cylindrical conductor of Inside conductor, r < R 𝐵 = 2𝜋0 𝑅 2
radius R Outside conductor, r > R 𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
Long, closely wound solenoid Inside solenoid, near center 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
with n turns per unit length, Outside solenoid 𝐵≈0
near its midpoint
𝜇 𝑁𝐼
Tightly wound toroidal With the space enclosed by 0
𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑟
solenoid (toroid) with N the windings, distance r B≈0
turns from symmetry axis Outside
the space enclosed by the
windings
When magnetic materials are present, the magnetization of the material causes an additional
contribution to 𝐵. For paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials, μ0 is replaced in magnetic–field
expressions by 𝜇 = 𝐾𝑚 𝜇0 . Where μ is the permeability of the material and Km is its relative
permeability. The magnetic susceptibility Xm is defined as Xm = Km – 1. Magnetic susceptibilities
for paramagnetic materials are small positive quantities; those for diamagnetic materials are small
negative quantities. For ferromagnetic materials, Km is much larger than unity and is not constant.
Some ferromagnetic materials are permanent magnets, retaining their magnetization even after the
external magnetic field is removed.
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Chapter Moving Charge in

Magnetic Field Lines and Magnetic Flux Caution

Question Practice Online

Motion of Charged Particles in a Magnetic Field

When θ is other than 0o, 180o or 90o

Thomson’s e/m Experiment

(b) 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝑟(2𝛼)

Question Practice Online

2. Deviation of a charged particle in magnetic field

Question Practice Online

Path of a charged particle in both electric and magnetic field

(a) qBd/m (b) qBd/2eB

Question Practice Online

Magnetic Field of a Straight Current- Carrying Conductor

Magnetic Field of a Circular Current Loop

(a) By/Bx = 1 (b) By/Bx = 2

Question Practice Online

Field inside a long cylindrical conductor

Question Practice Online

Magnetic Force on a Current – Carrying Conductor

Force on a moving positive charge in a

A straight wire segment of length

𝐹 = 𝑛𝐴𝑙 𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝐵 = 𝑛𝑞𝑣𝑑 (𝑙𝐵)

(a) Magnetic field B, length 𝑙 and force (b) Reversing B reversed F

(c) Also reversing the current reversed

Force and Torque on a Current Loop

The right – hand rule determines the

𝜏 = 𝐼𝐵𝐴 sin 𝜙 (magnitude of torque on a current loop)

The torque τ = μ × B on this solenoid in a

Question Practice Online

Question Practice Online

And because the electron is negatively charged, 𝜇 is antiparallel to L.

Question Practice Online

The magnetic flux through an area element

The magnetic flux through an area element

Faraday’s law of induction states

Direction of Induced EMF

The induced current due to the change in 𝐵 is

The initial flux 𝜙1 is zero, and the final flux 𝜙2 is

Question Practice Online

A current i1 in coil 1 gives rise to a

The current i in the circuit causes a

A circuit containing a source of emf

Resistor with current i flowing from a to b

(a) The potential difference across a resistor depends on the current.

inductor with current I flowing from a to

Magnetic – field energy

Resistor with current i: Inductor with current i:

Current Growth in an R – L circuit

An R–L circuit. Closing switch S1 connects

Graph of i versus t for growth of current

Current decay in an R – L circuit

Graph of i versus t for decay of current

Question Practice Online

Question Practice Online

In this drawing adapted from a

A magnetization curve for

The law of Biot and Savart 𝜇 𝐼𝑑 𝐼 ×𝑟

The law of Biot and Savart 𝐵𝑥 =

Ampere’s law sates that the 𝐵 . 𝑑𝐼 =