CLASS XII

CHAPTER 5: MAGNETISM AND MATTER

Difference between Magnetic Field and Electric Field

Magnetic Field Electric Field

Is Produced by moving charges, magnets or Is Produced by stationary charge or varying
varying electric field magnetic field.

Magnetic field lines form closed loops Electric field originates from +ve charge and
terminates at -ve charge. They do not form close
loops.
Force by magnetic field on a moving charge Force by electric field on a charge is always along
is always perpendicular to the direction of the direction of the electric field.
velocity.
Magnitude of force by magnetic field on a Magnitude of force by electric field on a charge
charge depends on velocity of the charge. is independent of the velocity of the charge
Work done by magnetic field is zero ( it can Electric field can do work ( change the speed and
change only direction .Speed of the charged direction of charge moving in it)
particle moving inside magnetic remains
same)
Magnetic field are neither conservative nor Electric field produced by stationary charge is
non conservative field as they never do conservative field while electric field produced
work on a charge moving in the field. by varying magnetic field is non conservative
field.

Gauss’s law of magnetism

Gauss's law for magnetism is one of the four Maxwell's equations that underlie classical
electrodynamics
Gauss's law for magnetism states that NO magnetic monopoles exists and that the
total magnetic flux through a closed surface must be zero.

Since Magnetic field lines

form closed loops, THE
NUMBER OF FIELD LINES
ENTERING AND LEAVING THE
GAUSSIAN SURFACE ARE
SAME HENCE NET MAGNETIC
GAUSSIAN
FLUX THROGUH A CLOSE
SURFACE SURFACE IS ZERO

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Bar magnet as an equivalent Solenoid ( NO DERIVATION – ONLY
FORMULA)
Consider a solenoid of length 2𝑙 containing N number of turns.

x
Due to current
carrying coil

𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝑹𝟐
2l = length of the solenoid B=
𝟐(𝒙𝟐 +𝑹𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐
N= Total number of turns in length 2l
n= turns per unit length
hence N= n2𝑙
a= radius of solenoid
r = distance of observation point P from centre O of solenoid

consider a circular element of thickness dx at a distance x from centre O.

number of turns in thickness dx = n dx
Let I be the current in each turn of the solenoid.
Current in dx length = ndxI

Consider a point P along the axis of solenoid at distance r from centre O.

To find the magnetic field at P due to current in solenoid.
distance of dx element from the point P= r-x
The magnetic field dB at P due to current in dx element

Multiplying and dividing by 2𝝅

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 𝝁𝒐 𝑰 𝒏 𝟐𝒍 𝟐𝝅𝒂𝟐
B= (5.2)
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟑

Replacing n2𝒍 𝑰 x 𝝅𝒂𝟐 = NIA = m = dipole moment of the solenoid

Equation 5.2 can be written as

Torque on a magnetic dipole placed in uniform magnetic field

𝝉 = m B sin 𝜽
⃗⃗⃗ x 𝑩
⃗ =𝒎
𝝉 ⃗⃗⃗
Max torque when 𝒎 ⃗⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗ ( 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎𝒐 )
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = m B
Min torque when 𝒎⃗⃗⃗ ∥ 𝑩⃗⃗⃗ ( 𝜽 = 𝟎𝒐 )
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 0

Work done in rotating a magnetic dipole placed in a uniform magnetic field

W = mB( cos 𝜽𝟏 - cos 𝜽𝟐 )

Question : Find the work done in rotating a magnet from its stable equilibrium to unstable
equilibrium in uniform magnetic field
Ans: W = -mB( cos 𝜃2 - cos 𝜃1 )
0
𝜃1 = 0 ( Stable equilibrium)
𝜃2 = 1800 ( Unstable equilibrium)
W = - mB( cos 1800 - cos 00 )
= - mB ( -1 -1)
W = + 2mB ( positive work means work is done against the restoring torque)

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Question: Find the work done in rotating a magnet from its unstable equilibrium to its
stable equilibrium in uniform magnetic field
Ans: W = -mB( cos 𝜃2 - cos 𝜃1 )
𝜃1 = 1800 ( UnStable equilibrium)
𝜃2 = 00 ( stable equilibrium)
W = - mB( cos 00 - cos 1800 )
= - mB (1- (-1))
W = - 2mB ( Negative work means work is done by the restoring torque)

Potential Energy of the magnetic dipole

U(𝜽) = - mB cos 𝜽 ( where 𝜽 is between 𝒎 ⃗⃗ )
⃗⃗⃗ with the direction of 𝑩

Stable equilibrium.
when between 𝒎 ⃗⃗ , 𝜽 = 00 , the magnet has minimum potential energy
⃗⃗⃗ ∥ 𝑩
U = -mB
In this position the magnet is in Most stable equilibrium.

Zero Potential Energy : when between 𝒎 ⃗⃗ , 𝜽 = 900

⃗⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝑩
U=0

Unstable equilibrium.
when angle between 𝒎 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ⃗𝑩⃗ , 𝜽 = 1800 , the magnet has maximum potential energy
U = +mB
In this position the magnet is in Most unstable equilibrium.

Question : What is the potential energy of a magnet with its axis inclined at an angle 60 0
with the magnetic field?
Ans: U = -mBcos60
U = -mB/2

Atoms behave like tiny magnets with dipole moment (V V IMP)

Derive the expression for orbital Magnetic dipole moment of Electron revolving around
nucleus. How is the magnetic dipole moment of electron related to angular momentum of the
electron? ( NO DERIVATION – ONLY FORMULA)
To show that each tiny atom behaves like a magnetic dipole
An electron revolving around a nucleus constitute a current 𝐼 whose direction is taken opposite to
the direction of electron motion.
This current gives rise to orbital magnetic dipole moment 𝜇𝑙

𝑚
⃗⃗

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( direction of electron revolving in an orbit)

For a current carrying loop which behaves like a disc magnet, the orbital magnetic dipole moment is
given by
⃗⃗ 𝑙 = 𝐼 𝐴
𝑚 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Direction of magnetic moment given by right hand thumb rule. Curl the fingers of right hand in the
direction of 𝐼 in the circular orbit then thumb points in the direction of magnetic moment.

𝑣 = velocity of electron moving in a circular orbit of radius r.

𝑄 𝑒
𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 = = T = time period
𝑡 𝑇
2𝜋𝑟
T=
𝑣
𝑒𝑣
𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 =
2𝜋𝑟
Orbital magnetic dipole moment 𝑚⃗⃗ 𝑙 = 𝐼 𝐴 ( 𝐼 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑒𝑣
ml = 𝜋𝑟 2
2𝜋𝑟
𝑒𝑣
𝑟 ml =
2
Multiplying and dividing RHS by mass me of electron
𝑒𝑣𝑟 . 𝑚𝑒
ml =
2𝑚𝑒
𝑒 𝑚𝑣𝑟
=
2𝑚𝑒
𝑒𝐿
ml = 𝐿 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
2𝑚
⃗
𝒆𝑳
⃗⃗⃗ 𝒍 = - (
𝒎 )
𝟐𝒎𝒆
Negative sign as the direction of angular momentum vector 𝐿⃗ and orbital dipole moment
vector 𝑚
⃗⃗ are opposite.
Hence each tiny atom due to revolution of electrons behave like a tiny magnet with net
dipole moment ‘𝒎 ⃗⃗⃗ ’

Solution “Magnetic moment of circular coil

M = NIA
M= 2000 x 4 x 1.6 x 10-4 =1.28 Am2

Solution : A bar magnet behaves like a solenoid

a) Magnetic field at axial point ( r>>l)
m=0.48 J/T
r= 0.1 m
𝜇 2𝑚
B = 𝑜 3 where r is distance from centre of magnet
4𝜋𝑟
𝜇𝑜 2𝑚 10−7 𝑥 2 𝑥 0.48
Baxial = = =0.96 x 10-4 T = 0.96 G
4𝜋𝑟 3 0.13
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 b) Magnetic field at equatorial point
𝜇 𝑚
Bequator = 𝑜 3 = ½ Baxial= 0.48 G ( for same r)
4𝜋𝑟

Must every magnetic configuration have north and south pole? What about
toroid?
No, not necessary.
Only in cases if the source of magnetic field has a net magnetic dipole moment, North and
south poles would be present.
In case of a toroid or straight current carrying conductor, net dipole moment can not be
defined hence it has no North and south pole.
Magnetising a material
Some important Terms
An infinitely long solenoid produces a strong and uniform magnetic field (inside it). Hence it
is used to magnetise a material.

1. Magnetic Intensity ⃗𝑯 ⃗⃗
The strength of magnetic field inside a solenoid can
also be expressed in terms on 𝐻 ⃗ which is known as
Magnetic Intensity
Definition:
The total current per unit length in a solenoid is
known as Intensity of Magnetising Field or
Magnetic intensity. It is denoted by 𝑯 ⃗⃗⃗ . Its direction is in the direction of magnetic field
inside solenoid ( south pole to north pole)
𝒊 = current in each turn
n= number of turns per unit length
⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ = n 𝒊 = total current per unit length
Its SI unit is Ampere/ metre ( A/m)
The magnetic field produced by a long solenoid ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑩𝟎 = 𝝁𝒐 n 𝒊 ( air core)
Magnetic field inside a long solenoid can be written in terms of 𝐻 ⃗ as
Magnetising field ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟎 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑯
𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗
Higher the magnetic intensity, stronger the magnetising field

2. Magnetisation of a material ⃗𝑴⃗⃗

When a material is placed in an external magnetic field like inside a solenoid, its dipole
moments experience torque and rotate and align in one direction producing a net magnetic
dipole moment inside the material.

In absence of Magnetic field In external magnetic field

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 The net magnetic moment per unit volume of a material is called Magnetisation. It is
⃗⃗⃗ . It is a measure of how strongly the material is magnetised.
denoted by 𝑴
⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝒎
⃗𝑴 SI unit is A/m
𝑽
Due to magnetisation , the magnetised material produces its own magnetic field B m
The magnetic field 𝑩𝒎 produced by the magnetised material is given by

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝒎 = 𝝁𝟎 ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗

⃗⃗ : The total magnetic field inside the bar of a magnetised material is

3. Magnetic Induction 𝑩
equal to sum of the external magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝟎 and the magnetic field produced due to
magnetisation ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝒎
⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩 𝑩𝟎 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝒎
⃗⃗ = 𝝁𝒐 𝐻
𝑩 ⃗ + 𝝁𝟎 𝑴 ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗𝑩 = 𝝁𝒐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
(𝐻 + 𝑴 )
SI unit is Tesla.
4. Magnetic Permeability 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝝁𝒎 :
It is the ability of a material to permit the magnetic field lines through it.
It is defined as ratio of magnetic induction ⃗𝑩 ⃗ to the magnetic intensity ⃗𝑯 ⃗⃗
⃗
𝑩
µm =
⃗
𝐻
SI unit is Weber/ ampere- meter
For vacuum it is denoted by µo = 4π x 10-7 Weber/Am
1) If ⃗𝑩
⃗ > ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗
(dipoles align in the direction of external field)
The net magnetic field inside the material > external magnetic field
𝝁𝒎 > 𝟏
2) If ⃗𝑩
⃗ < ⃗𝑯⃗⃗
(dipoles align opposite to the direction of external field)
The net magnetic field inside the material < external magnetic field
𝝁𝒎 < 𝟏
5. Relative Permeability: 𝝁𝑟 : The ratio of permeability of a material µ𝒎 to the
permeability in free space 𝝁𝟎 is called the relative permeability.
µ𝒎
µr = ---------------------------------(ii)
𝝁𝟎
µ𝒎 = µr𝝁𝟎
6. Magnetic Susceptibility χm
⃗⃗⃗ to magnetic intensity 𝑯
For a linear material, the ratio of magnetisation 𝑴 ⃗⃗⃗ is called
magnetic susceptibility.
⃗⃗⃗
𝑴
χm = ⃗⃗⃗ --------------------------------(iii)
𝑯
It is a dimensionless constant.
It is a measure of the degree to which a material becomes magnetized in response to an
external magnetic field.

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 Value of χm can be +ve or -ve.
+ve χm means the dipole moments are aligned in the direction of the magnetising field
-ve χm means the dipole moments are aligned in the direction opposite to the direction of
the magnetising field.
Relation between relative permeability µr and magnetic susceptibility χm
Magnetic induction ⃗𝑩
⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝟎 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝒎

⃗𝑩
⃗ = 𝝁𝒐 𝐻
⃗ + 𝝁𝟎 ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗𝑩 = 𝝁𝒐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝐻 + ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ )
⃗⃗⃗
𝑴
⃗⃗⃗𝑩 = 𝝁𝒐 𝐻 ⃗ (1+ )
𝐻⃗
⃗𝑩
⃗
𝐻⃗
= 𝝁𝒐 ( 1 + χm)

µ =𝝁𝒐 ( 1 + χ m)
µ
= ( 1 + χ m)
𝝁𝒐
µ r = ( 1 + χ m)
Classification of Materials
1. Diamagnetic Materials: The materials which develop feeble
magnetisation in the direction opposite to the magnetising
field. Such materials which are feebly repelled by a magnet.
unlike the way a magnet attracts metals like iron, it would repel
a diamagnetic substance
Such materials when placed in non-uniform magnetic field
move from stronger magnetic field towards weaker magnetic field. Example: Bismuth,
Magnesium, Antimony , Gold, Copper, Gold , Silver, water, sodium chloride, Nitrogen ,
lead
Origin of DIAGMAGNETISM
The net magnetic moment of Diamagnetic materials in absence of magnetic field is zero. In
diamagnetic materials atoms have paired electrons (in their p and d orbitals). In each pair one
electron revolves clockwise and the other anticlockwise around the nucleus. These two
electrons act as current loops with equal orbital magnetic moment (𝑚 ⃗⃗ ) but in opposite
direction.
In absent of external magnetic field the net magnetic moment due to the paired electrons is
zero.
Magnesium

(paired electrons in s orbital cannot be easily magnetised due to their strong attraction to the nucleus as
compared to p and d electrons

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When an external magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ is applied perpendicular to the orbital plane and pointing
⃗ ).
downwards. Each electron experience magnetic force FM = - e ( 𝑣 x 𝐵

This magnetic force acts radially outwards (opp to centripetal force) for an electron revolving in
anticlockwise direction and radially inwards ( in the direction of centripetal force) for electron
revolving clockwise direction.
Due to this, force on the electron revolving anticlockwise decreases and the force on electron
revolving in clockwise direction increases.
Due to this the for the electron (anti clockwise) whose magnetic moment is in the direction of external
field ,slows down ( 𝑣 − ∆𝑣) and electron ( clockwise) whose magnetic moment is opposite to the
external field, speeds up ( 𝑣 + ∆𝑣).
Magnetic moment m = evr/2
Thus magnetic moment of electron (anti clockwise) decreases by (m - ∆𝑚) and magnetic moment of
and electron ( clockwise) increases by (m + ∆𝑚) .
This net magnetic moment of the atom is
mnet = ( m + ∆𝑚) – (m - ∆𝑚) = 2 ∆𝑚
the net magnetic moment points in the direction opposite to that of applied magnetic field. Hence
they are feeble repelled by magnetic field.

. Diamagnetism is present in all the substances. However, the effect is so weak in most cases that it
gets shifted by other effects like paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, etc

Perfect Diamagnet: Super conductors are metals which when cooled to a very low
temperature exhibit both perfect conductivity( zero resistance) and perfect diamagnetism.

Here the field lines are completely expelled. For superconductors χm = -1 and µr = 0.
The phenomenon of perfect diamagnetism in super conductors is known as
Meissner Effect

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 Superconductor completely expel the magnetic field
Examples of superconductors: niobium, magnesium diboride

Superconductor

Dependence of temperature of diagmagnets

Diamagnetism is independent of temperature. Variation of temperature does not affect the
diamagnetic properties. The magnetic dipole moments align in a direciton opposite to the
magnetising field H at all temperatures.
Diamagnetism is present in all the substances( due to paired electrons in p
and d orbitals). However, the effect is so weak in most cases that it gets
shifted by other effects like paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, etc

Properties of diamagnetic Substance

1. They are feebly magnetized in a direction opposite to the external magnetic field.

2. Net magnetic dipole moment opposite to direction of external field)

3. They are feebly repelled by a magnet
4. They repel external magnetic field liens. Field lines inside are less
concentrated than field line outside

5. If a diamagnetic substance in (bar shape) suspended in uniform

magnetic field, it will align ⊥ to the magnetic field lines )

6. When placed in non uniform magnetic field , they move from a region of STRONGER
MAGNETIC FIELD to a region of WEAKER MAGNETIC FIELD

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 7. Magnetic Susceptibilty -1 ≤χ < 0
8. Relative permeability 0 ≤ µr < 1
9. Permeability µ < µo

Paramagnetic Materials: .
The materials which develop feeble magnetisation in the direction of the magnetising field. Such materials
are feebly attracted by a magnet. Such materials when placed in non-uniform magnetic field move
from weaker magnetic field to stronger magnetic field.
Example: Aluminium, Chromium, alkali and alkaline metals, oxygen (STP), Iron oxide, Sodium,
Calcium, Copper Chloride
ORIGIN OF PARAMAGNETIC MATERIAL
Atom with one or more unpaired electrons ( in p and d orbitals) is termed as paramagnetic . In a
paramagnetic material. Individual atoms have permanent orbital dipole moment due to the
unpaired electrons. and behaves like magnetic dipoles. But due to thermal motion, their dipole
moment is randomly oriented. Hence in absence of external magnetic field , the net magnetic dipole
moment is zero.

In the presence of strong external magnetic field and at low temperature, the atomic dipoles get
aligned in the direction of the magnetic field. The material as a whole acquires a net magnetic
moment in the direction of the magnetic field.
Spin dipole moment is given by 0

Curie Law for Paramagnets

Experimentally, one finds that the magnetisation M of a paramagnetic material is directly proportional to
the magnetising field strength B0 and inversely proportional to the absolute temperature T,

⃗)
(𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 =B0 = 𝜇0 𝐻

𝑀
(𝐻=𝜒)

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 This is known as Curie’s law, after its discoverer Pieree Curie (1859- 1906). The constant C
is called Curie’s constant.
Thus, for a paramagnetic material both χ and µr depend not only on the material, but also on the sample
temperature. As the field is increased or the temperature is lowered, the magnetisation increases until it
reaches the saturation value Ms, at which point all the dipoles are perfectly aligned with the field.
Beyond this, Curie’s law is no longer valid

Properties of Paramagnetic Substance

1. They are feebly magnetized in the direction of the external magnetic field.
2. Net magnetic dipole moment is in the direction of external field)
3. They are feebly attracted by a magnet
4. They attract external magnetic field liens. Field lines
inside are more concentrated than field line outside

5. When a bar shaped paramagnet is suspended in uniform magnetic field , it aligns parallel
to the magnetic field.

6. When placed in non uniform magnetic field , they move from a region of WEAKER
MAGNETIC FIELD to a region of STRONGER MAGNETIC FIELD

7. Magnetic Susceptibilty 0< χ < 𝜺

8. Relative permeability 1 < µr < 1+ 𝜺
9. Permeability µ > µo
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 Ferromagnetic Materials: The materials which develop strong magnetisation in the
direction of the magnetising field. Such materials are strongly attracted by a magnet. Such
materials when placed in non-uniform magnetic field move from weaker magnetic field to
stronger magnetic field.
Example: Iron, Nickel , Cobalt , Gadolinium
Origin of ferromagnetism

According to Weiss in a ferromagnetic substance each atom behaves like a tiny magnetic dipole
but they do not act independently. In a small microscopic region (1mm) the nearby atoms (1013)
interact with other and the magnetic dipole of all these atoms in this region align in one particular
direction. These microscopic regions are called domains.
In absence of external magnetic field the magnetic dipoles of different domains are aligned
randomly and net dipole moment = 0

domains

When a strong external magnetic field is applied to ferrromagnets, the dipoles alighn in the
direction of the applied field and turn into a strong ferromagnet.

In some ferromagnetic materials the magnetisation persists. Such materials are called hard
magnetic materials or hard ferromagnets. Alnico, an alloy of iron, aluminium, nickel, cobalt are
such material. The naturally occurring lodestone is another. Such materials form permanent
magnets to be used among other things as a compass needle.
On the other hand, there is a class of ferromagnetic materials in which the magnetisation
disappears on removal of the external field. Such materials are called soft magnetic materials or
soft ferromagnets Soft iron ( iron mixed with carbon.) is one such material.
Weiss Curie’s Law for ferromagnets turned to paramagnets

With increase in temperature the magnetism of ferromagnets decreases due to thermal

agitation of the magnetic dipoles. As the temperature is further increased at a particular high
temperature TC the ferrormagnet turns in to a paramagnet. This temperature TC is called
Curie temperature.
The modified Curie law for ferromagnets turned into paramagnets is
For temperature T> TC
𝐶′
𝟀= ( C’´= Material specific Curie, TC = Curie temperature)
𝑇−𝑇𝐶
Hence magnetic susceptibily of a ferromagnet turned into a paramagnet above the curie
temperature is inversely proportional to excess of temperature above the curie
temparature.

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Properties of Ferromagntic Substance
1. They are strongly magnetized in the direction of the external magnetic field.
2. Net magnetic dipole moment is in the direction of external field)
3. They are strongly attracted by a magnet
4. They attract external magnetic field lines. Field lines
inside are highly concentrated than field line outside

5. When a bar shaped ferromagnet is suspended in

uniform magnetic field , it aligns parallel to the magnetic field.

6. When placed in non uniform magnetic field , they move from a region of WEAKER
MAGNETIC FIELD to a region of STRONGER MAGNETIC FIELD

7. Magnetic Susceptibilty χ >> 1

8. Relative permeability µr >> 1
9. Permeability µ >> µ o

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