a) Briefly Discuss Russell's Paradox in the context of theory of computation.

Russell's Paradox is a famous paradox in logic that arises from considering sets that contain
themselves. In the context of theory of computation, it can be related to the concept of self-
reference in programming languages and formal systems.

One way to think about it is the notion of a program that can determine whether another program
halts. If such a program existed, we could construct a paradoxical program that halts if and only if it
doesn't halt. This paradox highlights the limitations of formal systems and the inherent
incompleteness of certain types of mathematical theories.

b) Draw a FA accepting the language L over {a, b} where L = "The language of all strings in which
the number of a's is even."

Here's a Finite Automaton (FA) accepting the language L:

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Finite Automaton for even number of a's

The FA has two states: q0 (initial state) and q1. The transitions are as follows:

 From q0, on input 'a', transition to q1.

 From q1, on input 'a', transition back to q0.

 From either q0 or q1, on input 'b', stay in the same state.

The final state is q0, indicating that the number of 'a's is even.

c) Give the mathematical definition of Mealy Machine.

A Mealy machine is a finite-state machine that produces an output based on the current state and
the input symbol. It is formally defined as a 5-tuple:

M = (Q, Σ, Δ, q0, δ)

Where:

 Q is a finite set of states.

 Σ is a finite input alphabet.

 Δ is the transition function, which maps a state and an input symbol to a new state and an
output symbol: Δ : Q × Σ → Q × Σ.

 q0 ∈ Q is the initial state.

  δ is the output function, which maps a state and an input symbol to an output symbol: δ : Q
× Σ → Σ.

d) What are the closure properties of regular languages?

Regular languages are closed under the following operations:

 Union: The union of two regular languages is also a regular language.

 Concatenation: The concatenation of two regular languages is also a regular language.

 Kleene Star: The Kleene star of a regular language is also a regular language.

 Intersection: The intersection of two regular languages is also a regular language.

 Complementation: The complement of a regular language is also a regular language.

e) How can we determine that a given grammar is ambiguous?

A grammar is ambiguous if there exists a string in the language that can be derived in two or more
different ways. To determine ambiguity, we can use the following methods:

 Parsing Trees: If a string can be parsed into two or more different parse trees, the grammar is
ambiguous.

 CYK Algorithm: The CYK algorithm can be used to determine if a string can be derived from a
given grammar in multiple ways.

f) Are Deterministic PDA (DPDA) and Non-deterministic PDA (NDPA) equivalent? Give an example.

No, DPDAs and NPDAs are not equivalent. NPDAs can recognize a larger class of languages than
DPDAs.

Example:

Consider the language L = {a^nb^n | n >= 0}. This language can be recognized by an NPDA but not by
a DPDA. The NPDA can non-deterministically guess the number of 'a's and then check if the number
of 'b's matches. A DPDA, on the other hand, cannot do this without unbounded memory.

g) Give an example of language which is accepted by Turing machine but not by linear bounded
automata.

The language L = {ww^R | w ∈ {a, b}*} is an example of a language that can be accepted by a Turing
machine but not by a linear bounded automaton. This language consists of strings that are
palindromes, and a Turing machine can check for palindromes by scanning the input from both ends
simultaneously. However, a linear bounded automaton, which has limited memory, cannot perform
this task efficiently.

h) Show that if L1 and L2 are recursive languages, then L1 ∩ L2 is also recursive.

If L1 and L2 are recursive languages, then there exist Turing machines M1 and M2 that can decide L1
and L2, respectively. We can construct a new Turing machine M that decides L1 ∩ L2 as follows:

1. On input w, M simulates M1 on w.

2. If M1 accepts w, M simulates M2 on w.

3. If both M1 and M2 accept w, M accepts w. Otherwise, M rejects w.

Since M can decide L1 ∩ L2, L1 ∩ L2 is also recursive.

i) Does the PCP with two lists x = (b, bab³, ba) and y = (b³, ba, a) have a solution?

No, the PCP with the given lists does not have a solution.

j) What are P and NP class of problems? Give examples of each type.

P (Polynomial Time): The class of decision problems that can be solved by a deterministic Turing
machine in polynomial time.

 Examples: Sorting, searching, matrix multiplication.

NP (Non-deterministic Polynomial Time): The class of decision problems that can be verified by a
deterministic Turing machine in polynomial time.

 Examples: Satisfiability problem, Hamiltonian cycle problem, Traveling salesman problem.

NP-complete problems are the hardest problems in NP, and it is believed that they cannot be solved
efficiently by any known algorithm.

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a) Acceptability of a String

Acceptability of a string in the context of formal languages and automata theory refers to whether a
given string belongs to a particular language defined by a formal grammar or automaton. It's a
fundamental question in determining the correctness of a language recognition process.

To determine the acceptability of a string, we typically use parsing techniques or simulation of

automata. A parser analyzes the string's structure according to the grammar's rules, and an
automaton processes the string symbol by symbol, transitioning between states based on the input
and the current state.

b) Left Derivate

A left derivation is a sequence of grammar productions used to derive a string in a context-free

grammar (CFG). It starts with the start symbol and repeatedly applies production rules to the
leftmost non-terminal symbol until the entire string is derived.

Example:

Consider the following grammar:

S -> AB

A -> aA | ε

B -> bB | ε

A left derivation for the string "aab" might be:

1. S => AB

2. S => aAB

3. S => aaB

4. S => aab

c) Ambiguity

Ambiguity in a grammar occurs when a string in the language can be derived in multiple ways,
leading to multiple parse trees. This can cause difficulties in parsing and semantic interpretation.

Example:

The grammar S -> SS | a | b is ambiguous because the string "aa" can be derived in two ways:

1. S -> SS -> aS -> aa

2. S -> SS -> Sa -> aa

d) CFL

Context-Free Language (CFL) is a language generated by a context-free grammar. In a context-free

grammar, the production rules are of the form A -> α, where A is a non-terminal symbol and α is a
string of terminals and non-terminals.

CFLs are a more powerful class of languages than regular languages. They can recognize languages
with nested structures, such as balanced parentheses or nested blocks in programming languages.

e) Type-0 grammar

A Type-0 grammar is the most general type of formal grammar, also known as a phrase-structure
grammar or unrestricted grammar. It allows for arbitrary production rules, where the left-hand side
can be any string of terminals and non-terminals, and the right-hand side can also be any string of
terminals and non-terminals.

Type-0 grammars can generate any recursively enumerable language, which is the class of languages
recognized by Turing machines.

f) Transition Table

A transition table is a tabular representation of the transition function of a finite automaton. It

shows the next state and the output (if applicable) for each combination of the current state and
input symbol.

Example:

Consider a finite automaton with two states, Q = {q0, q1}, and an input alphabet Σ = {a, b}. The
transition table might look like this:
State Input Next State Output

q0 a q1 0

q0 b q0 1

q1 a q0 1

q1 b q1 0

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g) Moore machines

A Moore machine is a finite-state automaton where the output is solely determined by the current
state, independent of the input symbol. It is a simplified version of a Mealy machine, where the
output is associated with each state.

h) Right context

Right context refers to the symbols that appear to the right of a non-terminal symbol in a production
rule of a grammar. Right-context-sensitive grammars, also known as type-2 grammars, restrict the
applicability of production rules based on the symbols to the right of the non-terminal.

i) Language

In the context of formal language theory, a language is a set of strings over a given alphabet. It is
defined by a grammar or automaton that specifies the rules for generating or recognizing valid
strings in the language.

j) Chain Rule Shell

A chain rule shell is a grammar rule of the form A -> BC, where A, B, and C are non-terminal symbols.
These rules can be used to decompose non-terminals into smaller non-terminals, which can then be
further expanded using other production rules. Chain rule shells can be useful in simplifying
grammars and improving parsing efficiency.

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a) CFG.
Context-Free Grammar (CFG) is a formal grammar that defines a formal language. It consists of a set
of production rules of the form:

A -> α

where A is a non-terminal symbol and α is a string of terminals and/or non-terminals.

Key properties of CFGs:

 Non-terminal symbols: Represent syntactic categories (e.g., noun phrase, verb phrase).

 Terminal symbols: Represent the actual symbols of the language (e.g., letters, digits).

 Production rules: Define how non-terminal symbols can be replaced with strings of terminals
and non-terminals.

 Start symbol: The starting point of a derivation.

Example:

Consider the following grammar for simple arithmetic expressions:

E -> E + T | T

T -> T * F | F

F -> (E) | id

This grammar can generate expressions like (a+b)*(c+d).

b) Explain tractable problems with an example.

Tractable problems are those that can be solved by algorithms with polynomial time complexity. This
means that the time it takes to solve the problem grows polynomially with the size of the input.

Example:

 Sorting algorithms: Algorithms like Merge Sort and Quick Sort have polynomial time
complexity, making them tractable for large datasets.

 Matrix multiplication: Standard matrix multiplication algorithms have a time complexity of

O(n^3), which is polynomial.

c) How will explain Russell's paradox?

Russell's Paradox is a famous paradox in set theory that arises from considering sets that contain
themselves. It can be stated as follows:

Consider the set of all sets that do not contain themselves. Does this set contain itself?

If it does contain itself, then by definition, it shouldn't. If it doesn't contain itself, then it should,
according to its definition. This paradox highlights the limitations of naive set theory and has led to
the development of more rigorous axiomatic set theories.

d) Discuss about Moore machine.

A Moore machine is a finite-state automaton where the output is solely determined by the current
state, independent of the input symbol. It is a simplified version of a Mealy machine, where the
output is associated with each state.

Key components of a Moore machine:

 States: A finite set of states that the machine can be in.

 Input alphabet: The set of possible input symbols.

 Output alphabet: The set of possible output symbols.

 Transition function: A function that maps a state and an input symbol to a new state.

 Output function: A function that maps a state to an output symbol.

Moore machines are often used to model sequential circuits and other systems with discrete inputs
and outputs.

e) Differentiate PDA and NPDA.

Pushdown Automata (PDA) are a type of automaton that uses a stack to recognize context-free
languages.

Deterministic PDA (DPDA):

 For a given state and input symbol, there is at most one possible transition.

 Can only recognize deterministic context-free languages (DCFLs).

Non-deterministic PDA (NPDA):

 For a given state and input symbol, there can be multiple possible transitions.

 Can recognize a wider range of languages, including all context-free languages.

f) Explain steps for simplification of CFG.

Simplification of CFG involves reducing the number of production rules and non-terminal symbols in
a grammar without changing the language it generates. Here are some common techniques:

1. Elimination of useless symbols: Remove non-terminals that cannot be reached from the
start symbol or cannot derive any terminal string.

2. Unit production elimination: Remove productions of the form A -> B, where A and B are
non-terminals.

3. Useless symbol elimination: Remove non-terminals that cannot derive any terminal string.

4. Chain rule elimination: Remove productions of the form A -> B.

5. Null production elimination: Remove productions of the form A -> ε, but handle the cases
where ε-productions are necessary.

g) Define halting problem.

The halting problem is a classic undecidable problem in computer science. It asks whether a given
program will eventually halt or run forever on a particular input. It has been proven that there is no
algorithm that can correctly determine the halting behavior of all possible programs.

h) What is the unrestricted grammar?

An unrestricted grammar is a type of formal grammar that allows arbitrary productions. It is the
most powerful type of grammar and can generate any recursively enumerable language. Unrestricted
grammars are equivalent to Turing machines.

i) How to perform lexical analysis?

Lexical analysis is the process of breaking down a sequence of characters into meaningful tokens,
such as keywords, identifiers, operators, and literals. It is the first phase of a compiler or interpreter.

Steps in lexical analysis:

1. Scanning: The input text is scanned character by character.

2. Tokenization: The characters are grouped into meaningful tokens.

3. Lexical analysis: The tokens are classified into different categories (e.g., keywords, identifiers,
operators).

4. Error detection: The lexical analyzer checks for lexical errors, such as invalid characters or
misspellings.

j) Explain the parse tree representation.

A parse tree is a tree-like structure that represents the syntactic structure of a string in a formal
language. Each node in the tree corresponds to a non-terminal symbol in the grammar, and the
leaves of the tree correspond to the terminal symbols of the string.

Example:

Consider the grammar:

S -> NP VP

NP -> Det N

VP -> V NP

Det -> the | a

N -> boy | girl

V -> saw | liked

The parse tree for the sentence "the boy saw a girl" would look like:

/\

NP VP

/\/\
 Det N V NP

/\/\/\

the boy saw Det N

/\

a girl

Parse trees are used in compilers and interpreters to analyze the syntactic structure of programs and
natural language sentences.