A PROJECT REPORT ON

THREE PHASE FAULT ANALYSIS

ABSTRACT

The project is designed to develop an automatic tripping mechanism for

the three phase supply system. The project output resets automatically
after a brief interruption in the event temporary fault while it remains in
tripped condition in case of permanent fault.
The electrical substation which supply the power to the consumers i.e.
industries or domestic can have failures due to some faults which can be
temporary or permanent. These faults lead to substantial damage to the
power system equipment. In India it is common to observe the failures in
supply system due to the faults that occur during the transmission or
distribution. The faults might be LG (Line to Ground), LL (Line to
Line), 3L (Three lines) in the supply systems and these faults in three
phase supply system can affect the power system. To overcome this
problem a system is built, which can sense these faults and automatically
disconnects the supply to avoid large scale damage to the control gears
in the grid sub-stations.
This system is built using three single phase transformers which are
wired in star input and star output, and 3 transformers are connected in
delta connections, having input 220 volt and output at 12 volt. This
concept low voltage testing of fault conditions is followed as it is not
advisable to create on mains line. 555 timers are used for handling short
duration and long duration fault conditions. A set of switches are used to
create the LL, LG and 3L fault in low voltage side, for activating the
tripping mechanism. Short duration fault returns the supply to the load
immediately called as temporary trip while long duration shall result in
permanent trip.
The concept in the future can be extended to developing a mechanism
to send message to the authorities via SMS by interfacing a GSM
modem.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
HARDWARE COMPONENTS:

1. TRANSFORMER (230 – 12 V AC)

2. VOLTAGE REGULATOR (LM 7805)

3. FILTER

4. RECTIFIER

5. 555 TIMER

6. LM358

7. RELAY

8. 1N4007

9. RESISTOR

10. CAPACITOR
TRANSFORMER

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with a

little loss of power. Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down
transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down
transformer to reduce the dangerously high voltage to a safer low
voltage.

A TYPICAL TRANSFORMER

The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the
secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils;
instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the
soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the
circuit symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power
so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is
stepped down and current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn‘s ratio,
determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large
number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the
high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary
(output) coil to give a low output voltage.
TURNS RATIO = (Vp / Vs) = ( Np / Ns )
Where,
Vp = primary (input) voltage.
Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Ip = primary (input) current
Is = secondary (output) current.
Ideal power equation

The ideal transformer as a circuit element

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow,
electrical power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the
secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly efficient; all the
incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the
magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met,
the incoming electric power must equal the outgoing power:
Pincoming=IpVp=Poutgoing=IsVs
Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a
reasonable approximation.
If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same
factor. The impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the
turns ratio. For example, if an impedance Zs is attached across the
terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have
an impedance of (Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the
impedance Zp of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be
(Ns/Np)2Zp.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

Features

• Output Current up to 1A.

• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
• Thermal Overload Protection.
• Short Circuit Protection.
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.
Description

The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are

available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output
voltages, making them useful in a Wide range of applications. Each type
employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe operating
area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat
sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although
designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be
used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents.
Internal Block Diagram

Absolute Maximum Ratings

RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

555 TIMER
The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety
of timer and multivibrator applications. The IC was designed by Hans R.
Camenzind in 1970 and brought to market in 1971 by Signetics (later
acquired by Philips). The original name was the SE555 (metal
can)/NE555 (plastic DIP) and the part was described as ―The IC Time
Machine‖. It has been claimed that the 555 gets its name from the
three 5 Kω resistors used in typical early implementations,[2] but Hans
Camenzind has stated that the number was arbitrary. The part is still in
wide use, thanks to its ease of use, low price and good stability. As of
2003, it is estimated that 1 billion units are manufactured every year.

555TIMER IC
Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes
over 20 transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed
in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP-8). Variants available include
the 556 (a 14-pin DIP combining two 555s on one chip), and the 558 (a
16-pin DIP combining four slightly modified 555s with DIS & THR
connected internally, and TR falling edge sensitive instead of level
sensitive). Ultra-low power versions of the 555 are also available, such
as the 7555 and TLC555. The 7555 is designed to cause less supply
glitching than the classic 555 and the manufacturer claims that it
usually does not require a ―control‖ capacitor and in many cases does
not require a power supply bypass capacitor. The 555 has three
operating modes: 16  Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555
functions as a ―one-shot‖. Applications include timers, missing pulse
detection, bouncefree switches, touch switches, frequency divider,
capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) etc.
Astable – free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses
include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone
generation, security alarms, pulse position modulation, etc.  Bistable
mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin
is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bouncefree
latched switches, etc.
Usage
The connection of the pins is as follows:
Pin Name Purpose
1 GND Ground, low level (0 V)
2 TRIG OUT rises, and interval starts, when this input falls below 1/3
VCC.
3 OUT this output is driven to +VCC or GND.
4 RESET a timing interval may be interrupted by driving this input to
GND.
5 CTRL ―Control‖ access to the internal voltage divider (by default, 2/3
VCC).
6 THR the interval ends when the voltage at THR is greater than at
CTRL.
7 DIS Open collector output; may discharge a capacitor between
intervals.
8 V+, VCC Positive supply voltage is usually between 3 and 15 V
555TIMER PIN DIAGRAM
555 Basics
The 555 timer IC is a simple 8 pin DIL package IC. It can:
 be used as a monostable
 be used as an astable
 source or sink 100Ma
 use supply voltages of 5v to 15v disrupt the power supply – use a
decoupling capacitor!
Using the 555 as a buffer
A buffer circuit allows an input circuit to be connected to an output
circuit, it is like an interface between one circuit and another. The
buffer circuit requires very little input current but should be able to
supply adequate output current. The 555 can supply in excess of 100Ma
of current and so can be used as a convenient buffer for logic gates
which cannot supply much current. The 555 can also ‗sink‘ a similar
amount of current. The circuit used is

555 TIMER AS A BUFFER

The circuit acts like an inverter or NOT gate. When the input is held low,
the output is high and will provide (source) current. When the input is
held high, the output is low and will sink current. Remember, for a
buffer for even higher power devices that require even larger currents,
the 555 buffer can be used to drive a relay or a transistor circuit.
Using the 555 as a monostable
The 555 can be used as a monostable using the circuit shown:

555TIMER AS A MONOSTABLE
The output is normally low but will go high for a short length of time
depending on the values of the other components.
R and C determine the time period of the output pulse. The input is
normally high and goes low to trigger the output (falling edge
triggered). The length of the input pulse must be less than the length of
the output pulse. The 47Uf capacitor ‗decouples‘ the supply to avoid
affecting other parts of the circuit. It is standard to add a 10Nf capacitor
from pin5 to gnd.
T = 1.1 R C
T – seconds,
R – ohms,
C – Farads The minimum value of R should be about 1k to avoid too
much current flowing into the 555.
The maximum value of R should be about 1M so that enough current
can flow into the input of the 555 and there is also current to allow for
the electrolytic capacitors leakage current. The minimum value of C =
100Pf to avoid the timing equation being too far off. The maximum
value of C should be about 1000μF as any bigger capacitors will
discharge too much current through the chip. These maximum and
minimum values give a minimum period of 0.1 μs and a maximum
period of 1000s.
Using the 555 as an astable
The 555 can be used as an astable using the circuit shown:

555 TIMER AS A ASTABLE

The output will oscillate between high and low continuously – the
circuit is not stable in any state  Ra, Rb and C determine the time
period of the output  The reset, pin 4, must be held high for the circuit
to oscillate. If pin 4 is held low then the output remains low. Pin 4 can
be used to turn the astable ‗on‘ and ‗off‘ in effect  The 47Uf capacitor
‗decouples‘ the supply to avoid affecting other parts of the circuit  It is
standard to add a 10Nf capacitor from pin5 to gnd.
T = 0.7 ( Ra + 2Rb ) C
T – seconds,
R – ohms,
C – Farads As with the monostable the minimum value of Ra should be
about 1k to avoid too much current Flowing into the 555. The
maximum value of Ra or Rb should be about 1M so that enough current
can flow into the input of the 555 and there is also current to allow for
the electrolytic capacitors leakage current. The minimum value of C =
100Pf to avoid the timing equation being too far off. The maximum
value of C should be about 1000μF as any bigger capacitors will
discharge too much current through the chip. These maximum and
minimum values give a minimum frequency of 0.001 Hz and a
maximum frequency of 4.8 MHz (in reality it would not be able to attain
these frequencies). Considering the oscillations in more detail:  The
output is controlled by the charging and discharging of the capacitor. 
The capacitor charges through Ra and Rb.  But discharges through the
discharge pin (pin 7) and thus only through Rb.  The time that the
capacitor takes to charge or discharge is given as T = 0.7 R C.  Thus the
charge time is 0.7 (Ra + Rb) C.  The discharge time is 0.7 Rb C.  Giving
a total time of (0.7 (Ra + Rb) C) + (0.7 Rb C) = 0.7 (Ra + 2Rb) C.  The
time the output is high (mark) is thus always longer than the time the
output is low (space).  The 555 astable cannot produce a square wave.
Operation of the 555
It is not necessary to know how the 555 works. In fact a systems
approach to electronics would never consider how any such sub-block
works. However, a knowledge of how the 555 functions is useful. A
much simplified block diagram of the 555 timer is shown:
 OPERATION OF 555TIMER

The resistors are arranged across the power supply to form a potential
divider. The voltages at the junctions of the potential divider are 2/3
Vcc and 1/3 Vcc. They are connected to the inputs to a pair of
comparators.  One comparator, switching at 2/3 Vcc is controlled via
the threshold input.  The voltage at which the threshold comparator
switches can be changed from 2/3 Vcc by applying a voltage to the
control pin. This pin is usually decoupled to ground via a 10Nf capacitor
and, in this case, the comparator switches at 2/3 Vcc as expected. 
One comparator, switching at 1/3 Vcc is controlled via the trigger input.
 The outputs from the two comparators control a set-reset flip flop
(bistable).  The reset pin of the 555 (not of the bistable) is usually held
high. Taking this pin momentarily low apply a voltage to the reset pin of
the flip flop and the output falls to zero. 22  The output of the flip flop
is connected to the output pin via a power amplifier circuit which
includes short circuit protection etc.  The output goes high when the
trigger input is less than 1/3 Vcc.  The output then remains high until
the threshold input rises above 2/3 Vcc.  When the output is low, the
discharge pin is connected to ground via a transistor. The capacitor can
be organized to discharge through this pin but the value of the
capacitor should be less than 1000μF to avoid damaging the transistor.

LM358
General Description
The LM358 series consists of two independent, high gain; internally
frequency compensated operational amplifiers which were designed
specifically to operate from a single power supply over a wide range of
voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible and the
low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude of the
power supply voltage. Application areas include transducer amplifiers,
dc gain blocks and all the conventional op amp circuits which now can
be more easily implemented in single power supply systems. For
example, the LM358 series can be directly operated off of the standard
+5V power supply voltage which is used in digital systems and will easily
provide the required interface electronics without requiring the
additional ±15V power supplies.
Unique Characteristics
 In the linear mode the input common-mode voltage range
includes ground and the output voltage can also swing to ground,
even though operated from only a single power supply voltage.
 The unity gain cross frequency is temperature compensated.
 The input bias current is also temperature compensated.
Advantages
 Two internally compensated op amps
 Eliminates need for dual supplies
 Allows direct sensing near GND and VOUT also goes to GND
 Compatible with all forms of logic
 Power drain suitable for battery operation

Features
 Available in 8-Bump micro SMD chip sized package.
 Internally frequency compensated for unity gain.
 Large dc voltage gain: 100 Db.
 Wide bandwidth (unity gain): 1 MHz (temperature compensated
 Wide power supply range:
PIN CONNECTIONS

1 - Output 1
2 - Inverting input
3 - Non-inverting input
4 – VCC-
5 - Non-inverting input 2
6 - Inverting input 2
7 - Output 2
8 – VCC+

RELAYS

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an

electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are
also used. Relays are used where
it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete
electrical isolation between
control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the
coil of the relay creates a
magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts.
The coil current can be on or off
so relays have two switch positions and most have double throw
(changeover) switch contacts as shown
in the diagram
Relay showing coil and switch contacts
this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC
current to the larger value required for the relay coil. The maximum
output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices
can supply relay coils directly without amplification. Relays are usually
SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts,
for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily
available. For further information about switch contacts and the terms
used to describe them please see the page on switches. Most relays are
designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pins
providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The
coil will be obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay
coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and
this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage you
must connect a protection diode across the relay coil. The figure shows a
relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a lever on the left
being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever
moves the switch contacts.
There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another
behind them, making the relay DPDT. The relay's switch connections
are usually labelled COM, NC and NO:  COM = Common, always
connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch.  NC = Normally
Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.  NO =
Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
Applications of relays
Relays are used to and for:  Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-
voltage signal, as in some types of modems or audio amplifiers. 
Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter
solenoid of an automobile.  Detect and isolate faults on transmission
and distribution lines by opening and closing circuit breakers.  Time
delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay
closing a set of contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay
would use a copper disk between the armature and moving blade
assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for a
short time, lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a
minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid
that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period can be varied by
increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a
mechanical clockwork timer is installed.

1N4007
Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave
rectifier or full wave rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while
using any type of diode.
1. Maximum forward current capacity
2. Maximum reverse voltage capacity
 3. Maximum forward voltage capacity

1N4007 diodes

The number and voltage capacity of some of the important diodes

available in the market are as follows:  Diodes of number IN4001,
IN4002, IN4003, IN4004, IN4005, IN4006 and IN4007 have maximum
reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum forward current
capacity of 1 Amp.  Diode of same capacities can be used in place of
one another. Besides this diode of more capacity can be used in place
of diode of low capacity but diode of low capacity cannot be used in
place of diode of high capacity. For example, in place of IN4002; IN4001
or IN4007 can be used but IN4001 or IN4002 cannot be used in place of
IN4007.The diode BY125made by company BEL is equivalent of diode
from IN4001 to IN4003. BY 126 is equivalent to diodes IN4004 to 4006
and BY 127 is equivalent to diode IN4007
PN Junction diode

PN JUNCTION OPERATION
Now that you are familiar with P- and N-type materials, how these
materials are joined together to form a diode, and the function of the
diode, let us continue our discussion with the operation of the PN
junction. But before we can understand how the PN junction works, we
must first consider current flow in the materials that make up the
junction and what happens initially within the junction when these two
materials are joined together.
Current Flow in the N-Type Material
Conduction in the N-type semiconductor, or crystal, is similar to
conduction in a copper wire. That is, with voltage applied across the
material, electrons will move through the crystal just as current would
flow in a copper wire. This is shown in figure 1-15. The positive
potential of the battery will attract the free electrons in the crystal.
These electrons will leave the crystal and flow into the positive terminal
of the battery. As an electron leaves the crystal, an electron from the
negative terminal of the battery will enter the crystal, thus completing
the current path. Therefore, the majority current carriers in the N-type
material 30 (electrons) are repelled by the negative side of the battery
and move through the crystal toward the positive side of the battery.
Current Flow in the P-Type Material
Current flow through the P-type material is illustrated. Conduction in
the P material is by positive holes, instead of negative electrons. A hole
moves from the positive terminal of the P material to the negative
terminal. Electrons from the external circuit enter the negative terminal
of the material and fill holes in the vicinity of this terminal. At the
positive terminal, electrons are removed from the covalent bonds, thus
creating new holes. This process continues as the steady stream of
holes (hole current) moves toward the negative terminal
RESISTORS
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose
an electric current by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in
proportion to the current, that is, in accordance with Ohm's law: V = IR
Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits.
They are extremely commonplace in most electronic equipment.
Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well
as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as
nickel/chrome).
The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the
power they can dissipate. Other characteristics include temperature
coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance,
the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted
current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical
resistance depends upon the materials constituting the resistor as well
as its physical dimensions; it's determined by design. Resistors can be
integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits.
Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment
designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat
when dissipating their power. A resistor is a two-terminal passive
electronic component which implements electrical resistance as a
circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a
resistor, a current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to
that voltage. The reciprocal of the constant of proportionality 32 is
known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger value
of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic
circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical
resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as
resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-
chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits,
particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and
printed circuits. The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by
its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a
range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When specifying that
resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the
resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the
chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature
coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision
applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum
power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of
that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power
electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are
physically larger and may require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit,
attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working
voltage of the resistor. The series inductance of a practical resistor
causes its behavior to depart from ohms law; this specification can be
important in some high-frequency applications for smaller values of
resistance. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics
of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise,
and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology
used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified
individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a
particular technology. A family of discrete resistors is also characterized
according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and position
of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical
manufacturing of circuits using them.
Units
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after
Georg Simon Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since
resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large 33 range of
values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ =
103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage. The
reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured
in Siemens (SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is
the reciprocal of an ohm: S = Ω − 1. Although the concept of
conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are
always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than
conductance.
Theory of operation Ohm's law
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship
specified in Ohm's law: Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a
resistor is proportional to the current (I) passing through it, where the
constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). Equivalently, Ohm's
law can be stated: This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a
voltage (V) is present across a resistance (R), a current (I) will flow
through the resistance. This is directly used in practical computations.
For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a
12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes (or 40
milliamperes) will flow through that resistor.
Series and parallel resistors
In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the
same, but the voltage across each resistor will be in proportion to its
resistance. The potential difference (voltage) seen across the network is
the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as the
sum of those resistances: 34 As a special case, the resistance of N
resistors connected in series, each of the same resistance R, is given by
NR. Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same
potential difference (voltage), however the currents through them add.
The conductances of the resistors then add to determine the
conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Req) of
the network can be computed: The parallel equivalent resistance can
be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in geometry)
as a simplified notation. For the case of two resistors in parallel, this
can be calculated using: As a special case, the resistance of N resistors
connected in parallel, each of the same resistance R, is given by R/N. A
resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series
connections can be broken up into smaller parts that are either one or
the other. For instance,
However, some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in
this manner, requiring more sophisticated circuit analysis. For instance,
consider a cube, each edge of which has been replaced by a resistor.
What then is the resistance that would be measured between two
opposite vertices? In the case of 12 equivalent resistors, it can be
shown that the corner-to-corner resistance is 5⁄6 of the individual
resistance. More generally, the Y-Δ transform, or matrix methods can
be used to solve such a problem. One practical application of these
relationships is that a non-standard value of resistance can generally be
synthesized by connecting a number of standard values in series and/or
parallel. This can also be used to obtain a resistance with a higher
power rating than that of the individual resistors used. In the special
case of N identical resistors all connected in series or all connected in
parallel, the power rating of the individual resistors is thereby
multiplied by N.
Power dissipation
The power P dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a
resistor network) is calculated as: The first form is a restatement of
Joule's first law. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be derived.
The total amount of heat energy released over a period of time can be
determined from the integral of the power over that period of time:
Practical resistors are rated according to their maximum power
dissipation. The vast majority of resistors used in electronic circuits
absorb much less than a watt of electrical power and require no
attention to their power rating. Such resistors in their discrete form,
including most of the packages detailed below, are typically rated as
1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt. Resistors required to dissipate substantial
amounts of power, particularly used in power supplies, power
conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally referred to as
power resistors; this designation is loosely applied to resistors with
power ratings of 1 watt or greater. Power resistors are physically larger
and tend not to use the preferred values, color codes, and external
packages described below. If the average power dissipated by a resistor
is more than its power rating, damage to the resistor may occur,
permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the reversible
change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms.
Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature 36 of the
resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit board or adjacent
components, or even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that
fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously. Note that the
nominal power rating of a resistor is not the same as the power that it
can safely dissipate in practical use. Air circulation and proximity to a
circuit board, ambient temperature, and other factors can reduce
acceptable dissipation significantly. Rated power dissipation may be
given for an ambient temperature of 25 °C in free air. Inside an
equipment case at 60 °C, rated dissipation will be significantly less; a
resistor dissipating a bit less than the maximum figure given by the
manufacturer may still be outside the safe operating area and may
prematurely fail.
Resistor marking
Electronic color code Most axial resistors use a pattern of colored
stripes to indicate resistance. Surface-mount resistors are marked
numerically, if they are big enough to permit marking; more-recent
small sizes are impractical to mark. Cases are usually tan, brown, blue,
or green, though other colors are occasionally found such as dark red or
dark gray. Early 20th century resistors, essentially uninsulated, were
dipped in paint to cover their entire body for color coding. A second
color of paint was applied to one end of the element, and a color dot
(or band) in the middle provided the third digit. The rule was "body, tip,
dot", providing two significant digits for value and the decimal
multiplier, in that sequence. Default tolerance was ±20%. Closer-
tolerance resistors had silver (±10%) or gold-colored (±5%) paint on the
other end.
Four-band resistors
Four-band identification is the most commonly used color-coding
scheme on resistors. It consists of four colored bands that are painted
around the body of the resistor. The first two bands encode the first
two significant digits of the resistance value, the third is a power-of-ten
multiplier or number-ofzeroes, and the fourth is the tolerance accuracy,
or acceptable error, of the value. The first three bands are equally
spaced along the resistor; the spacing to the fourth band is wider.
Sometimes a fifth band identifies the thermal coefficient, but this must
be distinguished from the true 5-color system, with 3 significant digits.
37 For example, green-blue-yellow-red is 56×104 Ω = 560 kΩ ± 2%. An
easier description can be as followed: the first band, green, has a value
of 5 and the second band, blue, has a value of 6, and is counted as 56.
The third band, yellow, has a value of 104, which adds four 0's to the
end, creating 560,000 Ω at ±2% tolerance accuracy. 560,000 Ω changes
to 560 kΩ ±2% (as a kilo- is 103). Each color corresponds to a certain
digit, progressing from darker to lighter colors, as shown in the chart
below.
Preferred values
Early resistors were made in more or less arbitrary round numbers; a
series might have 100, 125, 150, 200, 300, etc. Resistors as
manufactured are subject to a certain percentage tolerance, and it
makes sense to manufacture values that correlate with the tolerance,
so that the actual value of a resistor overlaps slightly with its neighbors.
Wider spacing leaves gaps; narrower spacing increases manufacturing
and inventory costs to provide resistors that are more or less
interchangeable. 38 A logical scheme is to produce resistors in a range
of values which increase in a geometrical progression, so that each
value is greater than its predecessor by a fixed multiplier or percentage,
chosen to match the tolerance of the range. For example, for a
tolerance of ±20% it makes sense to have each resistor about 1.5 times
its predecessor, covering a decade in 6 values. In practice the factor
used is 1.4678, giving values of 1.47, 2.15, 3.16, 4.64, 6.81, 10 for the 1-
10 decade (a decade is a range increasing by a factor of 10; 0.1-1 and
10-100 are other examples); these are rounded in practice to 1.5, 2.2,
3.3, 4.7, 6.8, 10; followed, of course by 15, 22, 33, … and preceded by …
0.47, 0.68, 1. This scheme has been adopted as the E6 range of the IEC
60063 preferred number series. There are also E12, E24, E48, E96 and
E192 ranges for components of ever tighter tolerance, with 12, 24, 96,
and 192 different values within each decade. The actual values used are
in the IEC 60063 lists of preferred numbers. A resistor of 100 ohms
±20% would be expected to have a value between 80 and 120 ohms; its
E6 neighbors are 68 (54-82) and 150 (120-180) ohms. A sensible
spacing, E6 is used for ±20% components; E12 for ±10%; E24 for ±5%;
E48 for ±2%, E96 for ±1%; E192 for ±0.5% or better. Resistors are
manufactured in values from a few milliohms to about a gigaohm in
IEC60063 ranges appropriate for their tolerance. Earlier power
wirewound resistors, such as brown vitreous-enameled types, however,
were made with a different system of preferred values, such as some of
those mentioned in the first sentence of this section.
5-band axial resistors
5-band identification is used for higher precision (lower tolerance)
resistors (1%, 0.5%, 0.25%, 0.1%), to specify a third significant digit. The
first three bands represent the significant digits, the fourth is the
multiplier, and the fifth is the tolerance. Five-band resistors with a gold
or silver 4th band are sometimes encountered, generally on older or
specialized resistors. The 4th band is the tolerance and the 5th the
temperature coefficient. 39

CAPACITORS
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting
of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric. When a voltage
potential difference exists between the conductors, an electric field is
present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a
mechanical force between the plates. The effect is greatest between
wide, flat, parallel, narrowly separated conductors.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric
charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. In
practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent
series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field strength limit
resulting in a breakdown voltage. The properties of capacitors in a
circuit may determine the resonant frequency and quality factor of a
resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a digital
logic circuit, energy capacity in a high-power system, and many other
important aspects. A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a
device for storing electric charge. The forms of practical capacitors vary
widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a non-
conductor. 40 Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for
example, consist of metal foils separated by a layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct
current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for
smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that
tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes. A
capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of
conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a
potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric
field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a
mechanical force between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is
characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in
farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential difference between them. The capacitance is greatest when
there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence
capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early
means of construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates
passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field
strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors
and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
Theory of operation
Capacitance
Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal
electric field. A dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the
capacitance.

A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive
region. The non-conductive region is called the dielectric or sometimes
the dielectric medium. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an
electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper,
vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically
identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained
and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any
external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite
charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric
field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of
charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the
device. The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields
within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a
constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge ±Q on each
conductor to the voltage V between them: Sometimes charge build-up
affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In
this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge
between the conductors in a capacitor. When the external influence is
removed the charge separation persists in the electric field and energy
is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its
equilibrium position. The work done in establishing the electric field,
and hence the amount of energy stored, is given by: 42
Current-voltage relation

The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined

as the rate of flow of a charge q(t) passing through it, but actual
charges, electrons, cannot pass through the dielectric layer of a
capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for
each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron
depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is
equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other.
Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current
as well as proportional to the voltage as discussed above. As with any
antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to represent the initial
voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation, .
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative
form, . The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in
the magnetic field rather than the electric field. Its current-voltage
relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the capacitor
equations and replacing C with the inductance L.
DC circuits
RC circuit A simple resistor-capacitor circuit demonstrates charging of a
capacitor. A series circuit containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a
switch and a constant DC source of voltage V0 is known as a charging
circuit. If the 43 capacitor is initially uncharged while the switch is open,
and the switch is closed at t = 0, it follows from Kirchhoff's voltage law
that Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a first-order
differential equation, At t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero
and the voltage across the resistor is V0. The initial current is then i (0)
=V0 /R. With this assumption, the differential equation yields where τ0
= RC is the time constant of the system. As the capacitor reaches
equilibrium with the source voltage, the voltage across the resistor and
the current through the entire circuit decay exponentially. The case of
discharging a charged capacitor likewise demonstrates exponential
decay, but with the initial capacitor voltage replacing V0 and the final
voltage being zero.
AC circuits
reactance (electronics) and electrical impedance#Deriving the device
specific impedances Impedance, the vector sum of reactance and
resistance, describes the phase difference and the ratio of amplitudes
between sinusoidally varying voltage and sinusoidally varying current at
a given frequency. Fourier analysis allows any signal to be constructed
from a spectrum of frequencies, whence the circuit's reaction to the
various frequencies may be found. The reactance and impedance of a
capacitor are respectively 44 Where j is the imaginary unit and ω is the
angular velocity of the sinusoidal signal. The - j phase indicates that the
AC voltage V = Z I lags the AC current by 90°: the positive current phase
corresponds to increasing voltage as the capacitor charges; zero current
corresponds to instantaneous constant voltage, etc. Note that
impedance decreases with increasing capacitance and increasing
frequency. This implies that a higher-frequency signal or a larger
capacitor results in a lower voltage amplitude per current amplitude—
an AC "short circuit" or AC coupling. Conversely, for very low
frequencies, the reactance will be high, so that a capacitor is nearly an
open circuit in AC analysis—those frequencies have been "filtered out".
Capacitors are different from resistors and inductors in that the
impedance is inversely proportional to the defining characteristic, i.e.
capacitance.

Parallel plate model

Dielectric is placed between two conducting plates, each of area A and

with a separation of d. The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel
conductive plates separated by a dielectric with permittivity ε (such as
air). The model may also be used to make qualitative predictions for
other device geometries. The plates are considered to extend uniformly
over an area A and a charge density ±ρ = ±Q/A exists on their surface.
Assuming that the width of the plates is much greater than their
separation d, the electric field near the centre of the device will be
uniform with the magnitude E = ρ/ε. The voltage is defined as the line
integral of the electric field between the plates Solving this for C = Q/V
reveals that capacitance increases with area and decreases with
separation 45 . The capacitance is therefore greatest in devices made
from materials with a high permittivity. Several capacitors in parallel.
Networks
Series and parallel circuits For capacitors in parallel Capacitors in a
parallel configuration each have the same applied voltage. Their
capacitances add up. Charge is apportioned among them by size. Using
the schematic diagram to visualize parallel plates, it is apparent that
each capacitor contributes to the total surface area. For capacitors in
series Several capacitors in series. Connected in series, the schematic
diagram reveals that the separation distance, not the plate area, adds
up. The capacitors each store instantaneous charge build-up equal to
that of every other capacitor in the series. The total voltage difference
from end to end is apportioned to each capacitor according to the
inverse of its capacitance. The entire series acts as a capacitor smaller
than any of its components. 46 Capacitors are combined in series to
achieve a higher working voltage, for example for smoothing a high
voltage power supply. The voltage ratings, which are based on plate
separation, add up. In such an application, several series connections
may in turn be connected in parallel, forming a matrix. The goal is to
maximize the energy storage utility of each capacitor without
overloading it. Series connection is also used to adapt electrolytic
capacitors for AC use.
Non-ideal behaviour
Capacitors deviate from the ideal capacitor equation in a number of
ways. Some of these, such as leakage current and parasitic effects are
linear, or can be assumed to be linear, and can be dealt with by adding
virtual components to the equivalent circuit of the capacitor. The usual
methods of network analysis can then be applied. In other cases, such
as with breakdown voltage, the effect is non-linear and normal (i.e.,
linear) network analysis cannot be used, the effect must be dealt with
separately. There is yet another group, which may be linear but
invalidate the assumption in the analysis that capacitance is a constant.
Such an example is temperature dependence.

Breakdown voltage
Breakdown voltage Above a particular electric field, known as the
dielectric strength Eds, the dielectric in a capacitor becomes
conductive. The voltage at which this occurs is called the breakdown
voltage of the device, and is given by the product of the dielectric
strength and the separation between the conductors, Vbd = Edsd The
maximum energy that can be stored safely in a capacitor is limited by
the breakdown voltage. Due to the scaling of capacitance and
breakdown voltage with dielectric thickness, all capacitors made with a
particular dielectric have approximately equal maximum energy
density, to the extent that the dielectric dominates their volume. For air
dielectric capacitors the breakdown field strength is of the order 2 to 5
MV/m; for mica the breakdown is 100 to 300 MV/m, for oil 15 to 25
MV/m, and can be much less when other materials are used for the
dielectric. The dielectric is used in very thin layers and so absolute
breakdown voltage of capacitors is limited. Typical ratings for
capacitors used for general electronics applications range from a few
volts to 100V or so. As the voltage increases, the dielectric must be
thicker, making high-voltage capacitors larger than those rated for
lower voltages. The breakdown voltage is critically affected by 47
factors such as the geometry of the capacitor conductive parts; sharp
edges or points increase the electric field strength at that point and can
lead to a local breakdown. Once this starts to happen, the breakdown
will quickly "track" through the dielectric till it reaches the opposite
plate and cause a short circuit. The usual breakdown route is that the
field strength becomes large enough to pull electrons in the dielectric
from their atoms thus causing conduction. Other scenarios are possible,
such as impurities in the dielectric, and, if the dielectric is of a
crystalline nature, imperfections in the crystal structure can result in an
avalanche breakdown as seen in semi-conductor devices. Breakdown
voltage is also affected by pressure, humidity and temperature.
Equivalent circuit

Two different circuit models of a real capacitor An ideal capacitor only

stores and releases electrical energy, without dissipating any. In reality,
all capacitors have imperfections within the capacitor's material that
create resistance. This is specified as the equivalent series resistance or
ESR of a component. This adds a real component to the impedance: As
frequency approaches infinity, the capacitive impedance (or reactance)
approaches zero and the ESR becomes significant. As the reactance
becomes negligible, power dissipation approaches PRMS = VRMS²
/RESR. Similarly to ESR, the capacitor's leads add equivalent series
inductance or ESL to the component. This is usually significant only at
relatively high frequencies. As inductive reactance is positive and
increases 48 with frequency, above a certain frequency capacitance will
be canceled by inductance. High-frequency engineering involves
accounting for the inductance of all connections and components. If the
conductors are separated by a material with a small conductivity rather
than a perfect dielectric, then a small leakage current flows directly
between them. The capacitor therefore has a finite parallel resistance,
and slowly discharges over time (time may vary greatly depending on
the capacitor material and quality).
Ripple current
Ripple current is the AC component of an applied source (often a
switched-mode power supply) whose frequency may be constant or
varying. Certain types of capacitors, such as electrolytic tantalum
capacitors, usually have a rating for maximum ripple current (both in
frequency and magnitude). This ripple current can cause damaging heat
to be generated within the capacitor due to the current flow across
resistive imperfections in the materials used within the capacitor, more
commonly referred to as equivalent series resistance (ESR). For
example electrolytic tantalum capacitors are limited by ripple current
and generally have the highest ESR ratings in the capacitor family, while
ceramic capacitors generally have no ripple current limitation and have
some of the lowest ESR ratings.
Capacitance instability
The capacitance of certain capacitors decreases as the component
ages. In ceramic capacitors, this is caused by degradation of the
dielectric. The type of dielectric and the ambient operating and storage
temperatures are the most significant aging factors, while the operating
voltage has a smaller effect. The aging process may be reversed by
heating the component above the Curie point. Aging is fastest near the
beginning of life of the component, and the device stabilizes over time.
Electrolytic capacitors age as the electrolyte evaporates. In contrast
with ceramic capacitors, this occurs towards the end of life of the
component. Temperature dependence of capacitance is usually
expressed in parts per million (ppm) per °C. It can usually be taken as a
broadly linear function but can be noticeably non-linear at the
temperature extremes. The temperature coefficient can be either
positive or negative, sometimes even amongst different samples of the
same type. In other words, the spread in the range of temperature
coefficients can encompass zero. See the data sheet in the leakage
current section above for an example. Capacitors, especially ceramic
capacitors, and older designs such as paper capacitors, can absorb
sound waves resulting in a microphonic effect. Vibration moves the
plates, causing the capacitance to vary, in 49 turn inducing AC current.
Some dielectrics also generate piezoelectricity. The resulting
interference is especially problematic in audio applications, potentially
causing feedback or unintended recording. In the reverse microphonic
effect, the varying electric field between the capacitor plates exerts a
physical force, moving them as a speaker. This can generate audible
sound, but drains energy and stresses the dielectric and the electrolyte,
if any.
Capacitor types
Types of capacitor Practical capacitors are available commercially in
many different forms. The type of internal dielectric, the structure of
the plates and the device packaging all strongly affect the
characteristics of the capacitor, and its applications. Values available
range from very low (picofarad range; while arbitrarily low values are in
principle possible, stray (parasitic) capacitance in any circuit is the
limiting factor) to about 5 kF supercapacitors. Above approximately 1
microfarad electrolytic capacitors are usually used because of their
small size and low cost compared with other technologies, unless their
relatively poor stability, life and polarised nature make them
unsuitable. Very high capacity supercapacitors use a porous carbon-
based electrode material.
Dielectric materials

Capacitor materials. From left: multilayer ceramic, ceramic disc,

multilayer polyester film, tubular ceramic, polystyrene, metalized
polyester film, aluminum electrolytic.

Major scale divisions are in centimeters. Most types of capacitor

include a dielectric spacer, which increases their capacitance. These
dielectrics are most often insulators. However, low capacitance devices
are available with a vacuum between their plates, which allows
extremely high voltage operation and low losses. Variable capacitors
with their plates open to the atmosphere were commonly used in radio
tuning circuits. Later designs use polymer foil dielectric between the
moving and stationary plates, with no significant air space between
them. 50 In order to maximise the charge that a capacitor can hold, the
dielectric material needs to have as high a permittivity as possible,
while also having as high a breakdown voltage as possible. Several solid
dielectrics are available, including paper, plastic, glass, mica and
ceramic materials. Paper was used extensively in older devices and
offers relatively high voltage performance. However, it is susceptible to
water absorption, and has been largely replaced by plastic film
capacitors. Plastics offer better stability and aging performance, which
makes them useful in timer circuits, although they may be limited to
low operating temperatures and frequencies. Ceramic capacitors are
generally small, cheap and useful for high frequency applications,
although their capacitance varies strongly with voltage and they age
poorly. They are broadly categorized as class 1 dielectrics, which have
predictable variation of capacitance with temperature or class 2
dielectrics, which can operate at higher voltage. Glass and mica
capacitors are extremely reliable, stable and tolerant to high
temperatures and voltages, but are too expensive for most mainstream
applications. Electrolytic capacitors and supercapacitors are used to
store small and larger amounts of energy, respectively, ceramic
capacitors are often used in resonators, and parasitic capacitance
occurs in circuits wherever the simple conductor-insulator-conductor
structure is formed unintentionally by the configuration of the circuit
layout. Electrolytic capacitors use an aluminium or tantalum plate with
an oxide dielectric layer. The second electrode is a liquid electrolyte,
connected to the circuit by another foil plate. Electrolytic capacitors
offer very high capacitance but suffer from poor tolerances, high
instability, gradual loss of capacitance especially when subjected to
heat, and high leakage current. Poor quality capacitors may leak
electrolyte, which is harmful to printed circuit boards. The conductivity
of the electrolyte drops at low temperatures, which increases
equivalent series resistance. While widely used for power-supply
conditioning, poor high-frequency characteristics make them
unsuitable for many applications. Electrolytic capacitors will self-
degrade if unused for a period (around a year), and when full power is
applied may short circuit, permanently damaging the capacitor and
usually blowing a fuse or causing arcing in rectifier tubes. They can be
restored before use (and damage) by gradually applying the operating
voltage, often done on antique vacuum tube equipment over a period
of 30 minutes by using a variable transformer to supply AC power.
Unfortunately, the use of this technique may be less satisfactory for
some solid state equipment, which may be damaged by operation
below its normal power range, requiring that the power supply first be
isolated from the consuming circuits. Such 51 remedies may not be
applicable to modern high-frequency power supplies as these produce
full output voltage even with reduced input. Tantalum capacitors offer
better frequency and temperature characteristics than aluminum, but
higher dielectric absorption and leakage. OS-CON (or OC-CON)
capacitors are a polymerized organic semiconductor solid-electrolyte
type that offer longer life at higher cost than standard electrolytic
capacitors. Several other types of capacitor are available for specialist
applications. Supercapacitors store large amounts of energy.
Supercapacitors made from carbon aerogel, carbon nanotubes, or
highly porous electrode materials offer extremely high capacitance (up
to 5 kF as of 2010) and can be used in some applications instead of
rechargeable batteries. Alternating current capacitors are specifically
designed to work on line (mains) voltage AC power circuits. They are
commonly used in electric motor circuits and are often designed to
handle large currents, so they tend to be physically large. They are
usually ruggedly packaged, often in metal cases that can be easily
grounded/earthed. They also are designed with direct current
breakdown voltages of at least five times the maximum AC voltage.

Structure

Capacitor packages: SMD ceramic at top left; SMD tantalum at bottom

left; through-hole tantalum at top right; through-hole electrolytic at
bottom right. Major scale divisions are cm. The arrangement of plates
and dielectric has many variations depending on the desired ratings of
the capacitor. For small values of capacitance (microfarads and less),
ceramic disks use metallic coatings, with wire leads bonded to the
coating. Larger values can be made by multiple stacks of plates and
disks. Larger value capacitors usually use a metal foil or metal film layer
deposited on the surface of a dielectric film to make the plates, and a
dielectric film of impregnated paper or plastic – these are rolled up to
save space. To reduce the series resistance and inductance for long
plates, the plates and dielectric 52 are staggered so that connection is
made at the common edge of the rolled-up plates, not at the ends of
the foil or metalized film strips that comprise the plates. The assembly
is encased to prevent moisture entering the dielectric – early radio
equipment used a cardboard tube sealed with wax. Modern paper or
film dielectric capacitors are dipped in a hard thermoplastic. Large
capacitors for high-voltage use may have the roll form compressed to
fit into a rectangular metal case, with bolted terminals and bushings for
connections. The dielectric in larger capacitors is often impregnated
with a liquid to improve its properties. Capacitors may have their
connecting leads arranged in many configurations, for example axially
or radially. "Axial" means that the leads are on a common axis, typically
the axis of the capacitor's cylindrical body – the leads extend from
opposite ends. Radial leads might more accurately be referred to as
tandem; they are rarely actually aligned along radii of the body's circle,
so the term is inexact, although universal. The leads (until bent) are
usually in planes parallel to that of the flat body of the capacitor, and
extend in the same direction; they are often parallel as manufactured.
Small, cheap discoidal ceramic capacitors have existed since the 1930s,
and remain in widespread use. Since the 1980s, surface mount
packages for capacitors have been widely used. These packages are
extremely small and lack connecting leads, allowing them to be
soldered directly onto the surface of printed circuit boards. Surface
mount components avoid undesirable high-frequency effects due to the
leads and simplify automated assembly, although manual handling is
made difficult due to their small size. Mechanically controlled variable
capacitors allow the plate spacing to be adjusted, for example by
rotating or sliding a set of movable plates into alignment with a set of
stationary plates. Low cost variable capacitors squeeze together
alternating layers of aluminium and plastic with a screw. Electrical
control of capacitance is achievable with varactors (or varicaps), which
are reverse-biased semiconductor diodes whose depletion region width
varies with applied voltage. They are used in phaselocked loops,
amongst other applications.
DESCRIPTION COMPARATOR

How an op-amp can be used as a comparator?

Potential dividers are connected to the inverting and non inverting inputs
of the op-amp to give
some voltage at these terminals. Supply voltage is given to +Vss and –
Vss is connected to ground. The
output of this comparator will be logic high (i.e., supply voltage) if the
non-inverting terminal input is
greater than the inverting terminal input of the comparator.
i.e., Non inverting input (+) > inverting input (-) = output is logic high
If the inverting terminal input is greater than the non-inverting terminal
input then the output of
the comparator will be logic low (i.e., gnd)
i.e., inverting input (-) > Non inverting input (+) = output is logic low
OPERATION EXPLANATION
WORKING
The project uses 6numbers step-down transformers for handling the
entire circuit under low voltage conditions of 12v only to test the 3
phase fault analysis. The primary of 3 transformers are connected to a 3
phase supply in star configuration, while the secondary of the same is
also connected in star configuration. The other set of 3 transformers
with its primary connected in star to 3 phase have their secondary‘s
connected in delta configuration. The output of all the 6 transformers
are rectified and filtered individually and are given to 6 relay coils. 6
push buttons, one each connected across the relay coil is meant to
create a fault condition either at star i.e. LL Fault or 3L Fault. The NC
contacts of all the relays are made parallel while all the common points
are grounded. The parallel connected point of NC are given to pin2
through a resistor R5 to a 555 timer i.e. wired in monostable mode. The
output of the same timer is connected to the reset pin 4 of another 555
timer wired in astable mode. LED‘S are connected at their output to
indicate their status. The output of the U3 555 timer from pin3 is given
to an Op-amp LM358 through wire 11 and d12 to the non-inverting
input pin3, while the inverting input is kept at a fixed voltage by a
potential divider RV2. The voltage at pin2 coming from the potential
divider is so held that it is higher than the pin3 of the Op-amp used as a
comparator so that pin1 develops zero logic that fails to operate the
relay through the driver transistor Q1. This relay Q1 is ‗3CO‘ relay i.e. is
meant for disconnecting the load to indicate fault conditions.
OPERATING PROCEDURE
While the board is powered from a 3phase supply all the 6 relay coils
get DC voltage and their common point disconnects from the NC and
moves on to the NO points there by providing logic high at pin2 of 555
timer U1 i.e. that is kept on monostable mode. While any push button
across the relay is pressed it disconnects that relay and in the process in
common contacts moves to the NC position to provide a logic low at
trigger pin of 555 timer to develop an output that brings the U3 555
timer which is used in astable mode for its reset pin to high such that
the astable operation takes place at its output which is also indicated
by flashing D11 LED. If the fault is off temporary in nature i.e. if the
push button pressed is released immediately the U1 monostable
disables U3 the output of which goes to zero in the event of any push
button kept pressed for a longer duration the monostable output
provides a longer 56 duration active situation for U3 the astable timer
the output of which charges capacitor C13 through R11 such that the
output of the comparator goes high that drives the relay to switch off
three phase load. The output of Op-amp remains high indefinitely
through a positive feedback provided for its pin1 to pin3 through a
forward biased diode and a resistor in series. This results in the relay
permanently switched on to disconnect the load connected at its NC
contacts permanently off. In order to maintain the flow of DC supply
the star connected secondary set DC‘S are paralleled through D8,D9 &
D10 for uninterrupted supply to the circuit voltage of 12v DC and 5v DC
derived out of voltage regulator IC 7805
HARDWARE TESTING
CONTINUITY TEST
In electronics, a continuity test is the checking of an electric circuit to
see if current flows (that it is in fact a complete circuit). A continuity
test is performed by placing a small voltage (wired in series with an LED
or noise-producing component such as a piezoelectric speaker) across
the chosen path. If electron flow is inhibited by broken conductors,
damaged components, or excessive resistance, the circuit is "open".
Devices that can be used to perform continuity tests include multi
meters which measure current and specialized continuity testers which
are cheaper, more basic devices, generally with a simple light bulb that
lights up when current flows. An important application is the continuity
test of a bundle of wires so as to find the two ends belonging to a
particular one of these wires; there will be a negligible resistance
between the "right" ends, and only between the "right" ends. This test
is the performed just after the hardware soldering and configuration
has been completed. This test aims at finding any electrical open paths
in the circuit after the soldering. Many a times, the electrical continuity
in the circuit is lost due to improper soldering, wrong and rough
handling of the PCB, improper usage of the soldering iron, component
failures and presence of bugs in the circuit diagram. We use a multi
meter to perform this test. We keep the multi meter in buzzer mode
and connect the ground terminal of the multi meter to the ground. We
connect both the terminals across the path that needs to be checked. If
there is continuation then you will hear the beep sound.
POWER ON TEST
This test is performed to check whether the voltage at different
terminals is according to the requirement or not. We take a multi meter
and put it in voltage mode. Remember that this test is performed
without ICs. Firstly, if we are using a transformer we check the output
of the transformer; whether we get the required 12V AC voltage
(depends on the transformer used in for the circuit). If we use a battery
then we check if the battery is fully charged or not according to the
specified voltage of the battery by using multimeter. Then we apply this
voltage to the power supply circuit. Note that we do this test without
ICs because if there is any excessive voltage, this may lead to damaging
the ICs. If a circuit consists of 59 voltage regulator then we check for
the input to the voltage regulator (like 7805, 7809, 7815, 7915 etc) i.e.,
are we getting an input of 12V and a required output depending on the
regulator used in the circuit. EX: if we are using 7805 we get output of
5V and if using 7809 we get 9V at output pin and so on. This output
from the voltage regulator is given to the power supply pin of specific
ICs. Hence we check for the voltage level at those pins whether we are
getting required voltage. Similarly, we check for the other terminals for
the required voltage. In this way we can assure that the voltage at all
the terminals is as per the requirement. 60
RESULTS
Unlike Director Current Circuits, where only resistance restricts the
current flow, in Alternating Current Circuits, there are other circuits
aspects which determines the current flow; though these are akin to
resistance, they do not consume power, but loads the system with
reactive currents; like D.C. circuits where the current multiplied by
voltage gives watts, here the same gives only VA. Like resistance, these
are called ―Reactance‖. Reactance is caused by either inductance or by
capacitance. The current drawn by inductance lags the voltage while
the one by capacitance leads the voltage. Almost all industrial loads are
inductive in nature and hence draw lagging wattles current, which
unnecessarily load the system, performing no work. Since the
capacitive currents is leading in nature, loading the system with
capacitors wipes out them.