VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL

UNIVERSITY
BELAGAVI -590018

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

M S PALYA, BENGALURU-560097.
2021 – 2022
 A REPORT ON
“EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT”
2021-2022

A project report submitted to

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY,
BELAGAVI
In partial fulfillment of the requirement for 6th semester
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
For the Academic year 2021-2022
Submitted by:
GAGAN S
1ST19CV006

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SAMBHRAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
M S PALYA,
BENGALURU-560097.
 VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY,
BELAGAVI

A REPORT ON
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVEP68)
GROUP-2

1 SHIV KUMAR MAHATO 1ST17CV069 8 KHUDESHWAR PD SAH 1ST19CV011

2 AJEET KUMAR 1ST18CV001 9. RANJAN KR SAH 1ST19CV014
3 SHARIQ AHMAD BHAT 1ST18CV050 10 RANJAN YADAV 1ST19CV015
4 SAHANA K C 1ST18CV701 11 SANJAY KUMAR CHAUDHARY 1ST19CV017
5 AMAL GANESH 1ST19CV001 12 SURENDRA BAHADUR KHADKA 1ST19CV018
6 GAGAN S 1ST19CV006 13 ABHINAV KASHYAP G B 1ST18CV700
7 JAYBIR GURUNG 1ST19CV009

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement or the completion of

6th semester in extensive survey lab.
Work carried out at:
ADDE VISHWANATHAPURA,

RAJANKUNTE, BANGALURU
Under the guidance of:
Mr. Vasantha D
Asst. Professor
Civil Engineering Department

SAMBHRAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

M S PALYA, BENGALURU-560097
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
M.S PALYA,
BENGALURU-560097

Certificate

This is to certify that Mr. GAGAN S bearing university number 1ST19CV006 has successfully completed
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT towards partial fulfillmentof the requirement in the project work in 6th
SEMESTER, B.E. (Civil Engineering) prescribed by VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL
UNIVERSITY, BELGAVI.during the academic session 2021-2022. It is certified that all
corrections/suggestion indicated for internal assessment have been incorporated in the report deposited in the
Departmental library. The project report has been approved as it satisfied the academic requirement with
respect to the seminar work prescribed for the said Degree.

Camp officer Head of the Department

Mr. VASANTHA D Dr. MALLIKARJUNA U B
Department of Civil Engg
Asst. Professor
Department of Civil Engg

External viva Name of the examiners Signature with date

1.

2.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

To begin, we would like to express our almost gratitude to all those who helped us in giving
suggestions to successfully complete our EXTENSIVE SURVEY project, on time.
A project is the first step taken by the student in integrating his/her knowledge towards tackling
specific assignments. It is knowledge gained practically and it is natural that during this period, the
students may encounter several problems, which may require an expert’s advice.
We salute our highly esteemed institution SaIT, Bangalore, which is shaping us as effective
engineers of tomorrow.

Firstly, we wish to express a profound sense of gratitude to our respected

Dr. H. G. CHANDRAKANTH. , Principal SaIT. for inspiring us throughout the project.

We acknowledge the efforts of our respected Dr. MALLIKARJUNA U B, HOD, Dept of civil engg.
SaIT, for his whole heartedness in providing the required facilities for carrying out the project.
We also acknowledge our beloved CAMP officers, Mr. Vasantha. D, for kind cooperation and
Guidance throughout the project.

We thank the efforts of our honorable project guides

Mrs. Akshatha A Mulgund, Mrs. Monica M S, Ms. Dilna Jose and Ms. Divyashree S .
Asst. Professors, SaIT Civil department

We also thank all the faculties of civil department who have given their guidelines and support
during the completion of this work.
We also take an opportunity to thank the non-teaching staffs who have given their timely support
during the completion of this work.

Finally I am grateful to my family who has stood by me for providing the best of education. Last
but not least I would thank my group members for their support in completing the project.
 DETAILS OF SITE

Place of project : Adde Vishwanathapura

Distance from Bangalore : 34.2 kms.
Nature of project : Extensive Survey project

DISCRIPTION OF SITE:
Location:

The extensive survey project camp was conducted at Adde Vishwanathapura is a village in the southern
state of Karnataka, India. It is located in the Bangalore North taluk of Bangalore district in Karnataka. This
is one of the major upcoming suburban areas close to Bangalore city of Karnataka. It is at a distance of 34
Kilometers from Bangalore.

This project is meant to develop a New Tank to provide water for multipurpose utility. A canal was
proposed for the distribution of water for Irrigation purposes. A Total Station was used to calculate RL,
distance and contour for calculating the capacity contour. Surveys for an existing tank were done in order
to redesign the bund to increase the storage capacity of the tank. A source of water supply was identified
and surveys were done to provide pipelines and overhead tank for the effective distribution of the water to
the town after necessary purification. Surveys were also conducted for laying out sewer lines to carry the
waste water from the town in a hygienic manner. A highway was realigned for a distance of about 800m for
the better connectivity of the town with the cities as transportation contributes to economic, industrial and
social development.

After the conduction of the surveys a new bund of length 200m was designed to supply irrigation water to
the people of Rajanakunte. In the Old tank survey carried out the height of the bund was increased by 1m
from the existing height so as to increase the storage capacity of the tank. After survey of the town, a
treatment plant was designed with screening, Sedimentation with Coagulation, Filtration, and Disinfection
as treatment units for purification of water. An Over Head Tank was designed for effective distribution of
water to the consumers’ .A sewer system was designed with an oxidation pond for the treatment of waste
water. In the realignment of highway suitable longitudinal gradients were fixed, horizontal and vertical
curves were designed for the smooth movement of traffic.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1-WHAT IS SURVEYING
1.2- NEEDS OF SURVEYING
2. NEW TANK PROJECT
2.1-INTRODUCTION
2.2-TANK IRRIGATION AND RESERVOIR NECESSITY
2.3-SITE LOCATION DETAILS AND TOPOGRAPHY
2.4-AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF NEW TANK PROJECT
2.5-SURVEYING METHODOLOGY ADOPTED
2.6-SURVEYS CONDUCTED
2.6.1-LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS-SECTION OF MAIN BUND
2.6.2-BLOCK LEVELING AT WASTE WEIR SITE
2.6.3-CAPACITY CONTOUR SURVEY
2.7-IRRIGATION
2.7.1-BENEFITS OF IRRIGATION
2.7.2-TYPES OF IRRIGATION
2.7.3-DUTY
2.7.4-DELTA
2.7.5-CROP PERIOD
2.7.6-BASE PERIOD
2.7.7-RELATION BETWEEN DUTY (D), DELTA (D) BASE PERIOD (B) IN METRIC SYSTEM
2.8-TYPES OF CROPS IN INDIA
2.8.1-CROP SEASON OF INDIA
2.9-RESERVOIR
2.9.1-PURPOSE OF RESERVOIR
2.9.2-VARIOUS LEVELS OF A RESERVOIR
2.9.3-TYPES OF RESERVOIRS
2.10-EARTHEN
2.10.1-ADVANTAGES OF EARTHEN DAM.
2.10.2-COMPOSITION OF DAMS.
2.10.3-TYPES OF EARTHEN DAM
2.10.4-EARTHWORK CALCULATION
2.11-CANAL.
2.11.1-CLASSIFICATIONS OF CANALS
2.11.2-CANAL ALIGNMENT.
2.11.3-DESIGN OF LINED AND UNLINED CANALS
2.11.4 DESIGN OF CANAL PARAMETERS.
2.12-WASTE WEIR
2.12.1-PURPOSE OF WASTE WEIR
2.12.2-CLASSIFICATION OF WEIR
2.13-DESIGN OF WASTE WIER
2.14-CAPACITY CONTOUR SURVEY
2.15-DESIGN OF PLUG SLUICE.
2.16-RESORVOIR CAPACITY
2.17-SALIENT FEATURES OF THE PROJECT.
2.18-CONCLUSION
2.19-REFERENCES

3. OLD TANK PROJECT

3.1-SITE LOCATION DETAILS AND TOPOGRAPHY
3.2-AIM OF THE PROJECT.
3.3-OBJECTIVE OF OLD TANK PROJECT
3.4-NECESSITY FOR RESTORATION OF TANK
3.5-SLUICE.
3.5.1-OPERATION OF SLUICE
3.6-WEIR
3.7-EARTHEN DAMS.
3.7.1-ADVANTAGES OF EARTHEN DAM.
3.8-COMPOSITION OF DAM.
3.8.1-TYPES OF EARTHEN DAM.
3.9-SURVEY WORK CONDUCTED
3.9.1-LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS-SECTION OF MAIN BUND
3.9.2-BLOCK LEVELING AT WASTE WEIR SITE
3.9.3-CAPACITY CONTOUR SURVEY
3.10-VOLUME OF EARTH WORK AND DESIGN
3.11-DESIGN OF SURPLUS WEIR
3.12-CONCLUSIONS.
3.13-REFERENCES

4. WATER SUPPLY AND SANITARY PROJECT

4.1-INTRODUCTION
4.2-OBJECTIVES OF THE SURVEY
4.3-SITE LOCATION DETAILS AND TOPOGRAPHY
4.4-NECESSITY OF PLANNED WATER SUPPLY
4.5-POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED
4.6-STEPS INVOLVED IN WATER SUPPLY
4.6.1-COLLECTION WORK
4.6.2-TRANSMISSION WORK
4.6.3-PURIFICATION WORK
4.6.4-DISTRIBUTION WORK
4.7-METHODS OF PURIFICATION
4.8-METHODS OF DISTRIBUTION
4.9-LAYOUT OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM.
4.9.1-PRINCIPAL METHODS OF LAYING DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
4.10-SURVEYING METHODOLOGY ADOPTED
4.11-DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY PROJECT COMPONENTS
4.12-DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY SCHEME.
4.12.1-POPULATION FORECASTING BY GEOMETRIC INCREMENT METHOD
4.13-WATER DEMAND
4.14-PER CAPITA DEMAND
4.15.-QUANTITY OF WATER REQUIRED
4.16-DESIGN OF PUMPS
4.17-DESIGN OF OVER HEAD TANK
4.18-DESIGN OF WATER TREATMENT PLAN
4.19-SANITARY PROJECT
4.19.1-PRINCIPLES OF SANITATION
4.20-CLASSIFICATION OF WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM.
4.21-WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT.
4.22-SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT UNITS
4.23-OXIDATION POND
4.24-CALCULATION OF SEWAGE FLOW
4.24.1-CHECK FOR DETENTION TIME.
4.24.2-DESIGN OF INLET PIPE OF OXIDATION POND
4.25-CONCULSION
4.3-TOWN PLANNING
4.31-INTRODUCTION
4.32DESIGN SPECIFICATION
4.33-METHODOLOGY
4.33.1-FIELD WORK
4.33.2-OFFICE WORK
4.34-PROCEDURE
4.35-EXISTING FACILITIES AVAILABLE
4.36-RECOMMENDATION FOR TOWN DEVELOPMENT
4.37-TOWN PLANNING PROBLEMS
4.38-TOWN PLANNING SOLUTIONS
4.39-CONCLUSIONS
4.4-REFERENCES

5- HIGHWAY PROJECT
5.1-INTRODUCTION
5.2-LOCATION OF THE PROJECT
5.3-CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS.
5.4-METHODS OF CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
5.5-TOPOGRAPHY SHEET
5.6-HIGHWAY PLANNING SURVEYS.
5.7-ENGINEERING STUDIES
5.8-HIGHWAY ALIGNMENTS AND SURVEYS.
5.9-IDEAL HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT.
5.10-FACTORS AFFECTING THE ALINGMENT.
5.11-ENGINEERING SURVEYS
5.12-NEW HIGHWAY PROJECT
5.13-STEPS IN NEW PROJECT.
5.14-NECESSITY OF NEW- ALIGNMENT.
5.15-STEPS IN NEW- ALIGNMENT.
5.16-HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
5.16.1-HIGHWAY CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS
5.16.2-WIDTH OF ROAD LAND, ROAD WIDTH, CARRIAGE WAY AND SHOULDERS
5.16.3-WIDTH OF CARRIAGE WAY
5.16.4-CAMBER
5.16.5-DESIGN SPEED
5.16.6-SIGHT DISTANCE
5.16.7-OVER TAKING SIGHT DISTANCE.
5.17-IMPORTANCE.
5.20.2-WIDENING OF PAVEMENT AND CURVE
5.20.3-SET BACK DISTANCES AT HORIZONTAL DISTANCE
5.21-VERTICAL ALIGNMENT.
5.21.1-VERTICAL CURVES
5.21.2-VALLEY CURVE.
5.22-DESIGN OF PAVEMENTS
5.23-TYPES OF PAVEMENTS
5.23.1-DESIGN OF PAVEMENT THICKNESS
5.24-TRAFFIC DESIGN EVALUATION
5.25-DESIGN DATA AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR ALINGMENT.
5.26-DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
5.26.1-DESIGN TRAFFIC
5.27-PAVEMENT THICKNESS.
5.28-DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL CURVES, TRANSITION CURVE AND SUPERELEVATION
5.28.1-CURVE 1
5.28.2-CURVE 2
5.29-EARTHWORK CALCULATION
5.30-CONCLUSION
5.31-REFERENCE.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1-Topography of Vishwanathapura
Figure 2.2-Countour showing the storage capacity of reservoir
Figure 2.3- Various levels of reservoir
Figure 2.4-Cross-section of an Earthen Dam with Various Components
Figure 2.5-Cross-section of waste weir
Figure 2.6-View of plug sluice
Figure 3.1-Topography of Vishwanathapura
Figure 3.2-Cross section of earthen dams with various component
Figure 3.3-Contour showing the capacity of reservoir
Figure 4.1-View of screens
Figure 4.2-View of rapid sand filters
Figure 4.3- Dead end system
Figure 4.4- Grid iron system
Figure 4.5 Circular or grid system
Figure 4.6- Radial system
Figure 4.7-Seperated systems
Figure 4.8-Combined system
Figure 4.9-Oxidation pond
Figure 4.10-Town planning
Figure 5.1- Topography of Vishwanathapura
Figure no 5.2- Typical section of a highway
Figure no 5.3- Types of camber
Figure no 5.4- Safe sight distance
Figure no 5.5- Elements of pavements
Figure no 5.6-CBR design chart
Figure no 5.7- Different layers
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Type of crops grown in India
Table no-2.2- Earthwork calculations for earthen bund by mean depth method
Table no-2.3- Values of C for soils
Table no-2.4- Reservoir capacity
Table no-2.5-Salient features of the project
Table 3.1- Earthwork calculations for earthen bund by mean depth method
Table no 4.1-Geometric increase method data
Table no-4.2- Domestic demand
Table no-4.3- Assumed per capita demand for Vishwanathapura
Table -5.1- Desirable width of road land (IRC SP 20-
Table no- 5.2- Width of carriageway (IRC SP 20-2002)
Table no -5.3-Design Speeds (km/h) (IRC SP 20-2002)
Table no-5.4-IRC SP: 20-2002 recommendation for speed
Table no-5.5-Minimum Radius of Horizontal Curves for Various Classes of Hill Roads
IRC SP: 20-2002 recommendation
Table no -5.6-Widening of pavement IRC: SP: 20-2002 recommendation
Table no -5.7-Distribution facto
Table -5.8- Vehicle damage factor
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

LIST OF DIAGRAMS
BUND ALIGNMENT
ALIGNMENT OF CANAL
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF BUND
PLAN OF BUND
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF CANAL
WATER WEIR CONTOUR
SLUICE GATE CONTOUR
CROSS SECTION OF CANAL
CROSS SECTIONAL OF CANAL
CROSS SECTIONAL OF BUND
LONGITUDINAL SECTIONAL OF BUND
CAPACITY CONTOUR OTP
CROSS SECTION OF BUND
TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF HIGHWAY
CROSS SECTIONAL OF HIGHWAY
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT OF HIGHWAY
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF HIGHWAY
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF WATER SUPPLY
NEW TANK PROJECT 2021-2022

NEW TANK PROJECT REPORT

ABSTRACT:
Tank irrigation and reservoir
servoir are necessary for harvesting and preserving the local rainfall and water froms
treams and rivers for later use, primarily for agriculture and drinking water, Hydroelectricity, Controlling
water courses (Downstream
Downstream water supply, Flood control, Recre
Recreation.
ation. )The purpose of NTP was to build an
earthen bund across an existing water source. The existing system is supplying the water
at a rate which is insufficient for the people.Supply of treated water.This extensive survey project
proj is
conducted at Sreeramanahalliin, Karnataka about 34.2 km (21.25 miles) from from Bangalore, which
is 2867.5 feet (874m)high above sea level.The project site is islocated
located at about 7.8 Km form SAIT
SA college
campus.

Fig.1
Fig.1.Location of Sriramanahalli and NTP site

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 1

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

TYPICAL DETAILS OF THE PROJECT

Table 1: Details of the Project

DETAILS OF THE SITE

Location of the Project : Adde vishwanathapura
Distance from Bangalore : 34Kms
Distance from development : 20Kms from SAIT
Nature of the project : New tank project
Type of bund : Earthen Bund with Homogeneous soil
Topography : Valley with no vegetation
DETAILS OF STORAGE RESERVOIR
Catchment area of tank : 35244 m^2
Proposed crop pattern : Dry crops and vegetables

DETAILS OF BUND
TBM :
Type of bund : Homogeneous Type Earthen Dam
Length of bund : 200m
Top Width of the Bund : 3m
Maximum height of bund : 9m
Top level of bund (TBL) : 822m
Maximum water level : 820.5m
(MWL)
Full tank level (FTL) : 819.5m
Dead storage level (DSL) : 813m
Lowest bed level (LBL) : 808m
Upstream Slope : 2 :1
Downstream Slope : 2 :1
Rock Toe : Provided
Upstream Pitching :
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

DETAILS OF THE WASTE WEIR

Type : : Broad crested surplus weir
Crest level : 814.517m
Depth of Spillage : 1m
Length of the Weir : 33m
Top Width of the Waste Weir : 2m
Bottom Width of the Waster Weir : 6.483m
DETAILS OF MAIN CHANNEL
Channel off taking RL : 813m
Longitudinal Gradient of the bed : 1 in 1000
Bottom Width of the Channel : 3m
Depth of the water : 3.75m
Side slopes : .5:1
Free Board : 1m
Type of Sluice : Plug Sluice
Canal Length Surveyed : 100m

SITE CONDITIONS :
The site is located in a valley through a plane terrain well connected to a village road. The proposed bund had to
be constructed between the valleys.

AIM: -
It is proposed to construct an earthen bund to store water for irrigation purpose. The following works are
required to be taken up for the project.
1. Reconnaissance survey
2. Preliminary investigation
3. Detailed Survey
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT:

1. To supply and distribute clean water to the public.
2. To meet the demands of water requirement.
3. To make design and maintenance costs of bund, waste weir and channel more economical.

Fig.2.Map of proposed bund.

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

1. SURVEYING METHODOLOGY ADOPTED:

1. Longitudinal and Cross sectioning of the main bund.
2. Block leveling at the waste weir site and sluice gate site.
3. Capacity contouring at reservoir
4. Canal alignment
1.01 LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS-SECTION OF MAIN BUND:

OBJECTIVE: To conduct longitudinal and cross section survey along the center line of bund and to
estimate the quantity of different materials required for the bund.
INSTRUMENTS USED:
1. Prismatic compass with stand
2. Ranging rods.
3. Wooden pegs, Plumb bob & Arrows.
4. Dumpy level with stand
5. Leveling staff
6. Chain, Tape & Flags
PROCEDURE:
1. A temporary bench mark is established after carrying out the fly levels from the permanent
benchmark.
2. Starting from the temporary bench mark the reduced level of the lowest level of the valley is
determined by carrying fly levels.
3. From this point, taken along the center line of the bund (called longitudinal section
readings) at 10m interval are taken till the flag post on either side.
4. Cross sectional levels are taken at every 30 m chainages, on either side of the center line of the bund.
The intervals along the transverse line being 5 m for a length of 30 m on both upstream and
downstream side and at lower portion of the valley it may be increased to 45m.
5. The process is continued and RL of flag post P and Q on either side of the center line are determined.
6. The fore bearing of PQ at P and QP at Q is also noted down.

Fig.3. Surveying of proposed bund Terr

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

1.02 BLOCK LEVELING AT WASTE WEIR SITE:

OBJECTIVE: To understand the topographic feature at the waste weir site and to estimate the quantity of
different materials required for construction.

INSTRUMENTS USED:
1. Dumpy Level with stand
2. Leveling staff
3. Chain, Tape and Arrows
4. Prismatic Compass with stand
5. Ranging rods
The following are the works are to be carried out.
1. The direction of the center line of the waste weir is fixed with reference to the center line of the main bund
and the bearing of the line is noted down.
2. Blocks of 5 m. are formed for a length of 90 along the center line of bund 45m downstream and 30m
upstream of center line of bund.
3. The leveling is carried out to establish the reduced levels of the corners of the square block.
4.
THE SCHEMATIC SKETCH OF BLOCK LEVEL PROCESS IS SHOWN IN FIGURE

Fig.4.Block Levelling

1.03 CAPACITY CONTOUR SURVEY:

INSTRUMENTS USED:
1. Level with stand
2. Leveling staff
3. Plane table with accessories
4. Chain and Tape
5. Ranging rods
6. Arrows
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

PROCEDURE
1. Carry the fly levels from the nearest temporary bench mark until the height of instrument obtained is greater
than the required contour to be plotted.
For example, suppose the contour is 110.000 m is to be plotted say, the height of instrument obtained should
be more then 110.000, say 112.500 m the required staff reading is (H.I. - contour level).
= 112.500 - 110.000 = 2.50 m.
2. The Centre line of the bund (PQ) is located on the plane table by the method of intersection. The plane table
is to be shifted on to the Centre line of the bund at station say 'S' (contour R.L. 110.000 m whose position has
been located by leveling. The level and the plane table are placed as close as possible.
3. The required staff reading 2.500 m. is searched in the ground. The staff man moves in the direction indicated
by the person at the leveling instrument. Once the staff reading is bisected, a ray is drawn on the plane table
by bisecting the staff and the distance is plotted on the sheet by drawing a arc from the previous station in the
plane table with necessary distance to scale.
4. The distances obtained are plotted to a scale of 1 cm = 10 m. The contour points must be located at closer
intervals to get a clear perfect contour.
5. Details regarding type of land (cultivable barren, rocky) through which the contour passes the road and other
details of topography should also be marked /plotted on the drawing sheet during the plotting work.
6. In order to get a good spread of the contour the plane table and instrument should be shifted a number of
times depending on the topography of the area and each time the required new staff reading for the particular
height of instruments & R.L. of the contour has to be calculated.

1.04 CANAL ALIGNMENT:

INSTRUMENTS USED:
1. Leveling staff
2. Chain, Tape and Arrows
3. Plain table with its accessories
4. Ranging rods
5. Wooden pegs, Plumb bob
6. Level with stand

The proposed canal is a contour canal in a falling gradient of 0.5 m. per km. i.e., 1 in 1000.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

PROCEDURE:
1. Fly levels are carried from the known R.L until the R.L of starting point is obtained on the Centre line of
bund at say
2. The Centre line of the bund PQ and starting point of the channel T' is plotted on the plane table sheet by the
method of intersection.
3. Set up the level at a commanding position and find the height of instrument by taking back sights on station
point
4. The plane table is centered over station point T' and oriented by back orientation to the previous station.

5. Required a fall in gradient of 0.015 m. for every 30 m. The required staff reading to obtain this falling
gradient for the particular set up of the instrument is calculated.

E.g.: suppose back sight reading on station T is 1.250 m.

H.I. = R.L. of station T' + back sight
= 102.500 + 1.250
= 103.750 m.
R.L @ 30 m. Chainage = R.L of sill level - fall in gradient
= 102.500 - 0.015
= 102.485 m.
Required staff reading = H.I - R.L. @ 30m. Chainage
= 103.650 - 102.485
= 1.165 m
6. With the zero end of the tape held at station T' swing an arc at a distance of 30 m. Move the staff along the
length of the arc till 1.165 m staff reading is obtained. Drive a peg to indicate the first falling contour point.
7. A ranging rod is held at first point, the surveyor at the plane table bisects the point and a ray is drawn in that
direction and the distance between station T and first point is drawn to a scale of 1:1000

8. Pegs are driven at every 30 m Intervals along the L/s of the channel and cross section are taken at every 60
m. intervals for a distance of 12 m on either side at an interval of 4 m.
9. The plane table work should have the check points, around features such as villages, stream (mother valley),
hills, cultivated land, barren land etc., on either side of the canal alignment.
10. The above steps are to be repeated.

1.1 IRRIGATION:
Irrigation may be defined as the process of artificially supplying water to soil for rising crops. India is basically
an agricultural country and its economy depends to a great extent on the agricultural output. Water is evidently
the most vital element in the plant life. Water is normally supplied to the plants by nature through rains.
However, the total rainfall in a particular area may be either insufficient or ill timed. In order to get the
maximum yield, it is essential to supply the optimum quantity of water and to maintain correct timing of
watering. This is possible only through a systematic irrigation system that is collecting water
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)
during the periods of excess rainfall and releasing it to the crop as and when required. The need for irrigation
can be summarized in the following four points:

LESS RAINFALL: When the total rainfall is less than that needed for the crop, artificial supply of water
is necessary. In such a case, irrigation system should be developed at the place where more water is available
and then, the means to convey water to the area where there is deficiency.

NON-UNIFORM RAINFALL: The rainfall in a particular area may not be uniform throughout the crop
period. During the early periods of the crop rains may be there, but no water may be available at the end, with
the result, that either, the yield may be less or the crop may wither. But the accumulated or stored water during
the excess rainfall period may be supplied to the crop during the period when there may be no rainfall, but
there is a need for watering.

COMMERCIAL CROP WITH ADDITIONAL WATER: The rainfall in a particular area may
be just sufficient to raise the usual crops, but more water may be necessary for raising commercial or cash
crops, in addition to increasing the annual output by adopting multiple cropping patterns distributed throughout
the year.

CONTROLLED WATER SUPPLY: By constructing a proper distribution system, the yield of crop
may be increased. Application of water to the soil by modern methods of irrigation serves the following
purpose:
It adds water to the soil to supply moisture essential for the plant growth.
It washes out all diluted salts in the soil.
It reduces the hazard of soil piping.
Flood irrigation.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF IRRIGATION

DUTY: Duty represents the irrigating capacity of a unit of water. It is the relation between the area of a crop
irrigated and the quantity of irrigation water required during the entire period of growth of that crop. For
example, if 3 cumecs of water supply is required for a crop sown in an area of 5100 hectares, the duty of
irrigation water will be 5100/3 = 1700 hectares/cumec, and the discharge of 3 cumecs will be required
throughout the base period.

DELTA: Delta is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire period from the day of sowing
to harvesting. For example, if a crop requires about 12 watering at an interval of 10 days and a water depth of
10 cm in every watering then the delta for that crop will be 12x10 = 120 cm = 1.2 m. If the area under that crop
is A hectares, the total quantity will be 1.2 x A = 1.2A hectare-meters in a period of 120 days.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

CROP PERIOD: Crop period is the time, in days, that a crop takes from the instant of its sowing to its
harvesting.

BASE PERIOD: Base period for a crop refers to the whole period of cultivation from the time of first
watering for sowing the crop, to the last watering before harvesting. The duty of water is reckoned in the
following four ways:
By the number of hectares that 1 cumec of water can irrigate during the base period, i.e., 1700 hectares
per cumec
By total depth of water, i.e., 1.20 meters.
By number of hectares that can be irrigated by a million cubic meter of stored water. This system is
also used for tank irrigation.
By the number of hectare meters expended per hectare irrigated. This is also used in tank irrigation.

RELATION BETWEEN DUTY (D), DELTA (D) AND BASE PERIOD (B) IN METRIC
SYSTEM
Let there be a crop of base period b days. Let one cumec of water be applied to this crop on the
field for B days.
Now, the volume of water applied to this crop during B days (V)
V = (1x60x60x24) m3 = 86,400 (cubic meter)
By definition of duty (D), one cubic meter supplied for B days matures D hectares of land.
Therefore this quantity of water (V) matures D hectares of land or 104 D square meters of area.
Total depth of water applied on this land= Volume/Area
= 86,400 B/104 D meters
= 8.64 B/D meters
By definition, this total depth of water is called delta (D).
Therefore D = 8.64 B/D meters
Or
D = 864 B/D cm.
Where, D is in cm or m, B in days, and D is duty in hectares/cumec.

CULTIVABLE COMMANDED AREA: The gross commanded area also contains unfertile barren
land, alkaline soil, local ponds, villages and other areas as habitation. These areas are known as uncultivable
areas. The remaining area on which crops can be grown satisfactorily is known as cultivable commanded area.
The cultivable commanded area can be further classified as cultivable cultivated area and cultivable
uncultivated area.
GROSS COMMENDED AREA: An area is usually divided into a number of watersheds and drainage
valleys. The canal usually runs on the watershed and water can flow from it, on both side, due to gravitational
action only up-to drainage boundaries. Thus, in a particular area lying under the canal system, the irrigation
can be done only up-to the drainage boundaries, which can be commanded or irrigated by a canal syst
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

CULTIVABLE COMMANDED AREA: The gross commanded area also contains unfertile barren
land, alkaline soil, local ponds, villages and other areas as habitation. These areas are known as uncultivable
areas. The remaining area on which crops growth, including water consumed by accompanying week growth.
GROSS COMMANDED AREA: An area is usually divided into a number of watersheds and drainage
valleys. The canal usually runs on the watershed and water can flow from it, on both sides, due to gravitational
action only up-to drainage boundaries. Thus, in a particular area lying under the canal system, the irrigation
can be done only up-to the drainage boundaries. The gross commanded area is thus the total area lying between
drainage boundaries, which can be commanded or irrigated by a canal system.
ADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION:
For proper nourishment of crops certain amount of water is required. If rainfall is insufficient there will
be deficiency in fulfillment of water requirement. Irrigation tries to remove this deficiency caused due
to inadequate rainfall. Thus, irrigation comes to rescue in dry years.

Irrigation improves the yield of crops and makes people prosperous. The living standard of the people
is thereby improved.

Irrigation also adds to the wealth of the country in two ways. Firstly as bumper crops are produced due
to irrigation it makes country self-sufficient in food requirements. Secondly as the irrigation water is
taxed when it is supplied to the cultivators, it adds to the revenue.

Irrigation makes it possible to grow cash crops which give good returns to the cultivators than the
ordinary crops they might have grown in absence of irrigation. Fruit gardens, sugarcane, potato, tobacco
etc., are the cash crops.

The falls which come across the irrigation channels can be utilized for producing hydroelectric power.

Domestic advantages should not be overlooked. Irrigation facilitates bathing, cattle watering etc., and
improves freshwater circulation.

Irrigation improves the groundwater storage as water lost due to seepage adds to the groundwater
storage.

Along the banks of large irrigation channels plantation can be successfully done which not only helps
introducing social forestry but also improves environmental status of the region.

New irrigation works are started at the time of famines to provide employment to a large number of
populations. These works are called famine works or relief works.

When watering facility is provided to a barren land, the value of this land gets appreciate
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

1.30 TYPES / SYSTEMS OF IRRIGATION:

Fig.5.Types of Irrigation

LIFT IRRIGATION:
It is that system of irrigation in which irrigation water is available at a level lower than that of the land to be
irrigated and hence water is lifted by pumps or other mechanism (Hydraulic ram and siphon action) and then
conveyed to agriculture fields by gravity flow. Irrigation through wells is an example of lift irrigation. Water
from canals or any other source can also be lifted when the level of water is lower than that of the area to be
irrigated.

INUNDATION IRRIGATION:
It is that system of irrigation in which large quantity of water flowing in a river is allowed to flood or inundate
the fields to be cultivated. The land becomes thoroughly saturated. Excess water is drained off and the land is
prepared for cultivation. Moisture stored in the soil is sufficient to bring the crop to maturity. Inundation
irrigation is commonly practiced in delta region of rivers. Canals may be also employed to inundate the fields
when water is available in plenty.

PERENNIAL IRRIGATION:
It is that system of irrigation in which irrigation water is supplied as per the crop requirements at regular
intervals throughout the crop period. The source of irrigation water may be a perennial river, stored water in
reservoirs or ground water drawn from open wells or bore wells. This is the most commonly adopted irrigation
system.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

DIRECT IRRIGATION:
It is a type of flow irrigation in which water from rivers and streams are conveyed directly to agricultural
fields through a network of canals, without making any attempt to store water this is practiced in areas where
the rivers and streams are perennial. Small diversion dams or barrages may be constructed areasthe
rivers to raise the water level and then divert the water into canals.

Fig.6.Direct irrigation

STORAGE IRRIGATION:

Dams are constructed across rivers which are non- perennial. The discharge in such rivers may be very high
during rainy season and may become less during dry stream. By constructing dams across such rivers water
can be stored as reservoir during excess flow and can be utilized or diverted to agriculture fields through canals
as and when required. Such a system is known as storage irrigation.

Fig.7.Storage irrigation
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BANDHARA IRRIGATION:
It is a special irrigation scheme adopted across small perennial rivers. This system lies
somewhere between inundation type and permanent type of irrigation. A Bandara is a low
masonry weir (obstruction) of height 1.2m to 4.5m constructed across the stream to divert water
into a small canal. The canal usually takes off from one side and the flow into the canal is
controlled by a head regulator.

Fig.8.Bandhara irrigation

The length of the main canal is usually restricted to about 8km. A series of Bandharas may be
constructed one below the other on the same stream so that water spilling over from one Bandhara is
checked by another Bandhara. The irrigation capacity of each Bandhara is may be about 400 hectares.
Bandharas are adopted across small streams having isolated catchments which are considered to be non-
feasible or uneconomical to be included under a large irrigation scheme.
This method of irrigation is followed in Central Maharashtra and is commonly known there as the
`Phad
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)
THE VARIOUS METHODS OF IRRIGATION:

Fig.9.Methods of irrigation

1.04 NECESSITY OF PROPOSING A NEW TANK:

1. The undulating relief and hard make it difficult to dig canals and wells.
2. There is little percolation of rain water due to hard rock structure and ground water is not
available in large quantity.
3. Most of the rivers of this region are seasonal and dry up in summer season. Therefore, they
cannot supply water to canals throughout the year.
4. There are several streams which become torrential during rainy season. The only way to make
best use of this water is to impound it by constructing bunds and building tanks. Otherwise this
water would go waste to the sea.
5. The scattered nature of population and agricultural fields also favored by tank irrigation.

1.41 MAJOR IRRIGATION PROJECT:

Projects which have a Cultivable Command Area (CCA) of more than 10,000 hector are termed
as Major Projects. Major projects mostly exploit surface water resources. For the country as a
whole, 66% of the ultimate irrigation potential of major and medium projects has been created.
The average rate of creation of irrigation potential through Major and Medium projects from 1951
to 1997 has been found to be of the order of 0.51 Mha per year. During the year 1997 to 2005, the
rate for creation has been found to be 0.92 Mha per year. The pace of creation of new irrigation
potential through Major and Medium projects has increased in the recent past.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)
1.41 MINOR IRRIGATION PROJECTS:

Irrigation Projects which have a CCA of 2,000 hector or less are known as Minor projects. Minor
irrigation projects have both surface and ground water as their source. There is considerable
variation in creation of irrigation potential through minor irrigation (both surface and ground
water) schemes from State to State. While full potential through minor irrigation has been tapped
in some of the States, it is relatively very low in others. The Report of the National Commission
for Integrated Water Resources Development points out that the carrying capacity of tanks has
decreased over time for a variety of reasons and that the restoration and renovation of tanks and
other local sources is a priority task. Since 2004-
restoration of water bodies directly linked to has been taken up by the Government as
a state-sector scheme in the 16 districts of the country which is proposed to be expanded.

1.50 RESERVOIR:
A reservoir is a storage space for fluids. These fluids may be water, hydrocarbons or gas. A
reservoir usually means an enlarged natural or artificial lake, storage pond
or impoundment created using a dam or lock to store water. Reservoirs can be created by
controlling a stream that drains an existing body of water. They can also be constructed in river
valleys using a dam. Alternately, a reservoir can be built by excavating flat ground and/or
constructing retaining walls and levees. Tank reservoirs store liquids or gases in storage tanks that
may be elevated, at grade level, or buried. Tank reservoirs for water are also called cisterns.

1.51 PURPOSE OF RESERVOIR:

1. Direct water supply
2. Hydroelectricity generation
3. Controlling watercourses
Downstream water supply
Irrigation
Flood control
Recreation
4. Flow balancing
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

TYPES OF STORAGE:

Fig.10.Storage Zones of Reservoir

1) LIVE STORAGE OR USEFUL STORAGE:

It is the amount of water available or stored between the minimum pool level (LWL) and the full
reservoir level (FRL).Minimum pool level or low water level is fixed after considering the
minimum working head required for efficient working of the turbines.

2) SURCHARGE STORAGE:
It is the volume of water stored above the full reservoir level (FRL) up to the maximum water level
(MWL). In case of multi-purpose reservoir, useful storage or live storage is divided into

Conservation storage
Flood control storage

3) DEAD STORAGE:
It is the volume of water held down below the minimum pool level. This storage is not useful and
hence cannot be used for any purpose under ordinary operating conditions.

4) BANK STORAGE:
It is the water stored in the banks of the river. In most of the reservoirs the bank storage is small
since the banks are generally impervious.

5) VALLEY STORAGE:
It is the volume of water held by the natural river channel in its valley up to the top of its banks
before the construction of the reservoir. The valley storage depends upon the cross section of the
river, the length of the river and its water level.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)
1.53 DIFFERENT LEVELS IN RESERVOIR:

1) FULL TANK LEVEL (FTL)

The full tank level is the highest level which water could be stored in the tank. Since or any excess
water will go out through the surplus weir. The height of the surplus weir is same as the full tank
level. The full tank level and the height of the tank depend upon the storage of the tank, strength
of the bund, and type of soil. In some of the rocky areas, the full tank level is low because of the
tank is shallow. If the full tank level is high, more water could be stored in the tank leading to an
increase in the ground water table.

2) MAXIMUM WATER LEVEL (MWL)

The maximum water level is higher than full tank level in the water spread area of the tank for
storing the water. When the inflow is higher than outflow of water in surplus weirs that time the
water could reach the maximum water level. It restricted to store the water up to this maximum
water level during rainy days. The full tank level and maximum water level differs in small tanks
and big tanks respectively 0.45m to 0.90m and 1.2m to 2.4m. We could assume that when the rainy
season is over, the neerkatti could store the water up to this maximum water level with the help of
wood by insert a wood in the crust weir. Or water could store up to the maximum water level when
the inflow is low compare to outflow.

3) FREE BOARD

The free board is the difference in height between the top of the bund and the maximum water
level. If we store water up to free board level, the bund will definitely be damaged because during
the rainy season, the soil of the bund might erode.

4) TANK BUND LEVEL (TBL)

The tank bund level is the level of the top of the bund. The tank bund level is equal to the free
board level and is higher than the maximum water level. The height of the tank bund level depends
upon the type of the soil, topography or slope of the area, and the depth of the tank.

5) SILL LEVEL OF SLUICE

Sluice sill is the bottom surface of sluice of barrel that sluice will not suitable to draw water belowthe sill
level of the sluice. So the water disposes between the sill level and full tank level. Below the sill level the
water could not dispose to the channel. So that water stored within the tank and itmixer of silt. This level
water use for fish rearing or growing the social forest inside the tank. Then the income from this resources
use by local governance in the village
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

6) DEEP BED LEVEL

The deep bed level is the lowest level of the tank bed. It is the part below the sill level. This storage
water is called dead storage, and is not used for irrigation purpose but is used for drinking water
for livestock. Now a day the farmers using this water by pumping from the tank and irrigate to
their land on dry seasons or the crop when it is critical situation for grow.

7) FULL SUPPLY LEVEL (FSL)

Full supply level is the maximum level of water dispose from the tank to distribution channels.
The flow of water and gravity is high. On the rainy days the flow of water will be high. Whenever
the sluice is opened to reduce the storage of water, the gravity will be very high.

1.60 EARTHEN DAM (EARTH DAM):

A dam built of soil materials (sand, loam, clay, and so on), with a trapezoidal or nearly trapezoid
al cross section. Earthen dams are usually of the fixed type (without the flow of water over the
crown); they are commonly used in many countries because of their simplicity of construction
and maintenance. Six main types of earthen dams are distinguished, depending on the materials
used for the body of the dam and the methods of providing water impermeability.

1.61 NECESSITY:

Can be constructed using locally available material

No special foundation is required for the construction of these dams
Skilled labor is not required
Modern earth moving equipment can be used to construct such type of dams.
The most economical type.
Since the required bund is of low height, earthen bund has been adopted.

1.62 TYPES OF EARTH DAMS:

BASED ON METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION:

1. ROLLED FILL EARTHEN DAMS:-In this type of dams, successive layers of

moistened or damp soil is placed one above the other. Each layer not exceeding 20 cm in
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

thickness is properly consolidated at optimum moisture content maintained by sprinkling

water. It is compacted by a mechanical roller and only then the next layer is laid.

2. HYDRAULIC FILL EARTHEN DAM:- In this type of dams, the construction,

excavation and transportation of the earth are done by hydraulic methods. Outer edges of
the embankments are kept slightly higher than the middle portion of each layer. During
construction, a mixture of excavated materials in slurry condition is pumped and
discharged at the edges. This slurry of excavated materials and water consists of coarse and
fine materials. When it is discharged near the outer edges, the coarser materials settle first
at the edges, while the finer materials move to the middle and settle there, while fine
particles move in the center to settle.

BASED ON CROSS SECTION

1) HOMOGENOUS EARTH DAMS: The name implies that the dam is constructed out
of uniform and homogenous materials. The below figure shows the typical cross section of a
homogenous dam

Fig.11.Homogenous Earth dam

2) ZONED EARTH DAM: They are also known as non- homogenous dam. The middle
or central portion of the dam is known as core, which is generally made if impervious
material. In some cases a central masonry, concrete or clay core wall is provided as show
below for making it water tight. Sufficient free board is provided above HFL.

Fig.12.Zoned Earth dam

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

3) DIAPHRAGM TYPE EARTH DAM: This type of dam is constructed with the
pervious material, with a thin impervious diaphragm wall (masonry or concrete) to reduce
the seepage as show below. The main difference between the zoned type and the diaphragm
type depends on the thickness of the impervious core of diaphragm.

Fig.13.Diaphragm type earth dam

1.63 FACTORS GOVERNING THE SELECTION OF EARTH DAMS:

1) TOPOGRAPHY: It is the most important factor which governs the dam selection. A wide
valley with deep overburden would suggest an earth dam.
2) GEOLOGY AND FOUNDATION CONDITIONS:

o Gravel foundations, if well compacted is suitable for earthen dams.

o Silt or fine sand foundations can be used for earth dams, the main problems include
settlement, prevention of piping, excessive percolation losses.
o Clay foundation may be used for each dams but require flat side slopes, due to low
shear strength of the foundation soil.

3) MATERIALS AVAILABLE: The most economical type of a dam will often be one for
which, materials like soil, stone, etc. can be found within the proximity.in other words if
suitable soils are found nearby burrow pits, an earth dam may prove to be more economical.
4) ENVIRONMENTAL: it is an important deciding factor in terms of its dimensions,
location of spillway and appurtenances facilities.
5) ECONOMY: It is the final factor that decides the type of dam, including cost of spillway,
power, and control structure and foundation treatment.
 EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

1.64 TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF EARTHEN DAM:

Fig.14.Typical C/S of earthen dam

1.65 EARTHWORK TO BE CARRIED OUT:

Table.2. Earthwork Calculations

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

1.70 CANAL:
An irrigation canal is a waterway, often man-made or enhanced, built for the purpose of carrying
water from a source such as a lake, river, or stream, to soil used for farming or landscaping. An
essential element of farming found in archaeological digs dating as far back as 4,000 bc, irrigation
canals have often meant the difference between sustenance and starvation. An irrigation canal, at
its most elemental, is a trench filled with water. It can be dug into the ground and then filled with
water, or an existing stream can be widened in a process called "canalization," and diverted as
appropriate to provide maximum efficiency. Another way to create a canal is to build up the walls
first, using the dry ground as the bed, and connect it to a water source only when completely built.

PURPOSE:

The intake structure is built at the entry to the irrigation system. Its purpose is to direct water from
the original source of supply (lake, river, reservoir etc.) Into the irrigation system.

Fig.15.Purpose of a channel

1.71 TYPES OF CANAL:

1) MAIN CANAL: Main canal takes off directly from the upstream side of weir head works
or dam. Usually no direct cultivation is proposed. Most of the main canals are aligned as
contour canals to derive benefit.

2) BRANCH CANAL: All offtakes from main canal with head discharge of 14-15 cumecs
and above are termed as branch canals.

3) MAJOR DISTRIBUTARY CANAL: All offtakes from main canal or branch canal
with head discharge from 0.028 to 15 cumecs are termed as major distributaries.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

4) MINOR DISTRIBUTARY CANAL: All offtakes taking off from a major distributary
serving more than 40.47 hectares are termed as minor distributaries. They are named after a
prominent place near about their tail ends.

5) FIELD CHANNEL: All pipe offtakes serving less than 40.47 hectares of land are called
field channels and are denoted by numbering as left or right side pipes.

1.72 METHODS OF DESIGN:

1) After long investigations, R.G Kennedy arrived at a theory

which states that, the silt carried by flowing water in a channel is kept in suspension by the
vertical component of eddy current which is formed over the entire bed width of the channel
and the suspended silt rises up gently towards the surface. The following assumptions are
made in support of his theory:
1) The eddy current is developed due to the roughness of the bed.
2) The quality of the suspended silt is proportional to bed width.
3) It is applicable to those channels which are flowing through the bed consisting of sandy
silt or same grade of silt.

o
scouring. From, long observations, he established a relation between the critical velocity and
full supply depth as follows,

Vo = C *D n
The values of C and n were found out as 0.546 and 0.64 respectively, thus

Vo= 0.546 D 0.64

Again, the realized that the critical velocity was affected by the grade of silt. So, he introduced
another factor (m) which is known as critical velocity ratio (C.V.R).

Vo = 0.546 m D 0.64
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

Method

2) THEORY:

will be satisfied if,

The channel flows uniformly in unlimited incoherent alluvium of the same character which is
transported by the channel.
The silt grade and silt charge remain constant.
The discharge remains constant.

In his theory, he states that the silt carried by the flowing water is kept in suspension by the vertical
component of eddies. The eddies are generated at all the points on the wetted perimeter of the
channel section. Again, he assumed the hydraulic mean radius R, as the variable factor and he
recognized the importance of silt grade for which in introduced a factor which is known as silt
factor deduced the velocity as;

V = (2/5f R) Where, V = mean velocity in m/sec, f = silt factor,

R = hydraulic mean radius in meter

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

Method

NTP (CANAL DESIGN)

GIVEN: -
1
n =0.022 i = Q = 58.11m3 s
1000
C=45.8
ACCORDING TO THE MOST ECONOMICAL TRAPEZOIDAL SECTION:-
b + 2nd 2
= +1
2
b+d
2 = 1.12d

b = 1.24 d . (1)
DISCHARGE (Q): -

Q=
d
w. k. t A = (b + nd) d & m= for most economical section.
2
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

FROM EQN. (1)

d d
58.11 = (1.24d + )d × 50 ×
2 3000

d = 3.75 m
SOLVING EQN. (1)

b = 3 m & Top width = 18 m

Fig.18.Most economical channel

1.80 SURPLUS WEIR:

Surplus weir is provided to discharge the excess water entering to the tank. The length of such weir
or escape must be such that the quantity of water estimated as the maximum flood discharge
likely to enter from the catchment into the tank, can be disposed off with a depth of water over
thewier equal to the difference between the Maximum Water Level (MWL) and Full Tank Level
(FTL). The effective storage capacity is limited by the FTL. But the area submerged by the tank
water spread, height of the tank bund etc., are all dependent on the MWL. Generally, it is better
to limit the difference between the MWL and FTL to a small height as possible. This difference
is called the the surplus which the flood water can be disposed off.

1.81 PURPOSE:

Weirs allow hydrologists and engineers a simple method of measuring the volumetric flow rate in
small to medium-sized streams or in industrial discharge locations. Since the geometry of the top
of the weir is known and all water flows over the weir, the depth of water behind the weir can be
converted to a rate of flow. The calculation relies on the fact that fluid will pass through the critical
depth of the flow regime in the vicinity of the crest of the weir. If water is not carried away from
the weir, it can make flow measurement complicated or even impossible.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

1.82 TYPES:

1) Labyrinth weir
2) Broad-crested weir
3) Sharp crested weir (fayoum weir)
4) Piano keys weir (PKW)
5) Compound weir
6) V-notch weir

Sharp crested weir background

Fully contracted, 90-degree, V notch weir equation
V notch weir equation for notch angles other than 90 degrees

7) Minimum Energy Loss weir

1.82 WASTE WEIR DESIGN:

GIVEN:
m3
A = 10 km2 Q = 58.11
s
TBL = 822m MWL = 820.5m FTL = 819.5m LBL = 813.017m

WASTE WEIR DETAILS:

Dead storage = 813.0 + 1.5 = 814.5m

Head over the weir = MWL FTL = 1 m

Height of the dam = FTL FL = 819.5 813.017

height of the dam = 6.483m

2 3
discharge Q = 3 × Cd × ×g × h2 ×L
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

2 3
58.1 = 3 × 0.6 × × 9.81 × 12 × L

L = 32.79 33
3
Q = 58.11 m
using L = 33 m
s

Consider the size of the dam stone to be 0.15 at spacing of 1 m with the top level at MWL.
33 1
33 1
No. of dam stones = =
spacing 1 = 32 nos

effective = 33 + (32 × 0.15) = 37.8 38 .

TOP WIDTH:

= 0.55 ×( + )= 0.55 × +
= 1 . 9 5 m a p p r o x - 2m

BOTTOM WIDTH:
1 2 1 ( + )3
× [{( + 1.5) × + 2.5 × } × + ×( ) × 2 ( )]×
12 2 6

. . = 2.25 , = 6.7, = 1.0, =2

i i =

ABUTMENT:
( )= = 812 = 10

i 3

i = 53.56

U/S WING WALL:

i = 0.5
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

( )=( +
0.3)

= (820.5 + 0.3)
813.017

DS Ground level = m
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

D/S WING WALL: DS Ground level = m

i f = = 964.425 955 = 9.43

bottom width = 0.4 x height of DS wall = 0.4 x 9.43 = 3.77 m

if = W = 963.43 954 = 9.43

10 .

f = . if × i . = 10
× 5 = 50 .
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

APRON:
= (0.75 + 8.63 + 0.3 + 0.3 + 0.75 + 1) = 38.27 39 .

= 10 m

= 3 .

3 3= 6 .

f 10.73
Uplift loss= = = 2.146 m
i 5

id i = . if if = 10 2.146 = 7.854 .
Residual 7.845
i f1 = =
uplift 1
1
= .28 .
5.854 1
i n2 = × {10 × [1 + 0.75 + 0.75 + 8.63 + 0.3 + 0.3 + 5]}
2.25 1 5
= 4.68 .
3.254 1
i n3 = × {10 × [1 + 0.75 + 0.75 + 8.63 + 0.3 + 0.3 + 5]}
2.25 1 5
3 = .6 i f = = 964.425 955 = 9.43
.
bottom width = 0.4 x height of DS wall = 0.4 x 9.43 = 3.77 m

if = W = 963.43 954 = 9.43 10 .

f = . if i . = 10 × 5 = 50 .
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

CAPACITY CONTOUR SURVEY:

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this is to draw the capacity contour map of the catchment and
to estimate the quantity of water that can be stored.
Following three aspects are to be considered wile fixing the capacity of the reservoir
1) The catchment at the site proposed receives sufficient rain to cater the demand and if the
proposed site can hold the required quantity of water then required height of bund can be
constructed.
2) The catchment at the site proposed receives sufficient rain to cater the demand and if
the proposed site cannot hold the required quantity of water then required height of bund shall
be restricted to site condition.
3) The catchment at the site proposed receives less rain which cannot cater the demand and
any height of the bund can be constructed, then the height of bund is fixed to store
maximumwater.

The catchment at the site proposed receives less rain which cannot cater the demand and the height
of the bund is also restricted because of site condition, then the height is fixed taking site condition.
In all the above cases it is necessary to compute the yield of the catchment.

PROCEDURE FOR CAPACITY CONTOUR SURVEY:

INSTRUMENTS USED

Level with stand

1. Leveling staff
2. Plane table with accessories
3. Chain and Tape
4. Ranging rods
5. Arrows
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

PROCEDURE
1. Carry the fly levels from the nearest temporary bench mark until the height of instrument
obtained is greater than the required contour to be plotted.
For example, suppose the contour is 110.000 m is to be plotted say, the height of instrument
obtained should be more then 110.000, say 112.500 m the required staff reading is (H.I. - contour
level).
= 112.500 - 110.000 = 2.50 m

2. The Centre line of the bund (PQ) is located on the plane table by the method of intersection.
The plane table is to be shifted on to the Centre line of the bund at station say 'S' (contour R.L.
110.000 m whose position has been located by leveling. The level and the plane table are placed
as close as possible.
3. The required staff reading 2.500 m. is searched in the ground. The staff man moves in the
direction indicated by the person at the leveling instrument. Once the staff reading is bisected, a
ray is drawn on the plane table by bisecting the staff and the distance is plotted on the sheet by
drawing a arc from the previous station in the plane table with necessary distance to scale.
4. The distances obtained are plotted to a scale of 1 cm = 10 m. The contour points must be located
at closer intervals to get a clear perfect contour.
5. Details regarding type of land (cultivable barren, rocky) through which the contour passes the
road and other details of topography should also be marked /plotted on the drawing sheet during
the plotting work.
6. In order to get a good spread of the contour the plane table and instrument should be shifted a
number of times depending on the topography of the area and each time the required new staff
reading for the particular height of instruments & R.L. of the contour has to be calculated.

1.10 PLUG SLUICE: Type of sluice gate used to control the flow of water in the channel. It
is shaped like plug hence the name plug sluice.

1.101 DESIGN OF PLUG SLUICE:

is e Q field = 0.2 m3/s

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

Q = Qfield = 0.2
= 0.2 m3/s

= 822 , i =3 , W = 820.5 , = 819.5

ill = 814 , = 814.5

= 814 = 0.5
Q 0.2
a= = = 0.1064 m2
× 0.6 × 2 × 9.81 × 0.5
2
× 2

a= W.k.t a= 0.1064 m
4
= 0.368 36.8

i
+ 5 = 36.8 + 5 = 41.8 = 42
36.8
Bottom diameter = = = 12.2
3 3
= 2.5 × = 2.5 × 36.8 = 92

i f 0.6 i &1 is

PROTECTION WORKS: -

HEAD WALL
of = 0.5 = 820.5+.5=821 .

ight f = 963.93 953.44 = 8

i = 0.4 × 8 = 3.2 & i = 0.5

Gibbet walls=0.5 m throughout their height

UPSTREAM WING WALL
. i = f f found . =821 812 = 9

i = 0.5 & i = 4.65

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

Cistern:-Depends on the field condition, 6m perpendicular to flow and 2m long flow.

Fig.20.Plug sluice

CONCLUSION:

Length of bund : 200m

Top Width of the Bund : 3m
Maximum height of bund : 9m
Top level of bund (TBL) : 822m
Maximum water level : 820.5m
(MWL)

Full tank level (FTL) : 819.5m

Dead storage level (DSL) : 813m
Lowest bed level (LBL) : 813.017m
Upstream Slope : 2:1
Downstream Slope : 2:1

Table.3. Final Details of the proposed bund

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

REFERENCES:
http://umamaheshwar.weebly.com/uploads/4/3/2/5/43259621/extensive_survey_camp
.pdf
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/irrigation/major-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-
irrigation/60645/
http://mospi.nic.in/Mospi_New/upload/SYB2013/CH-12-IRRIGATION/Irrigation-
writeup2013.pdf
http://www.gktoday.in/major-medium-and-minor-irrigation-schemes/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoir
http://mrdwab.com/tda/18/structures.html
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Earthen+Dam
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-an-irrigation-canal.htm
https://irrigationengineering.wordpress.com/2009/06/06/types-of-canals/
http://www.uap-bd.edu/ce/Handouts/CE-461/PP/Chap07.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weir
SURVEY PROJECT OF CIVIL ENGG.
/BMSIT&M.
STRUCTURES & IRRIGATION DESIGN
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

RESTORATION TANK PROJECT

INTRODUCTION
Tanks are very small storage reservoir created on the upstream of a small earthen dam,
construction across a stream. The depth of water in a tank is usually less than 4m. However, in
exceptional cases; it may be more than but not greater than 12m. When the depth of water exceeds
12m, the tank is termed as reservoir.

An irrigation tank generally consists of following:

An earthen bund across the valley creating storage.

A surplus weir to dispose of hard storage.
Sluice to feed the channel to feed the command area.

The general problems of an irrigation tank are;

Reduction in the gross storage capacity of the tank due to silting.
Reduction in the safety of the bund due to working out of standard dimension of bund.
The above problem can be overcome by restoring the tank. Restoration of tank is done by raising
the height of existing bund, these by allowing to increasing the storage and improves the safety of
the bund.

The tank which was supposed to be restored is situated at Adde vishwanathapura. Due to silting the
quantity of water stored in the bund was less. Hence it is proposed to restore this old tank by
increasing the capacity of the tank.

1.1 AIM:
Restoration of old tank was necessary to improve the capacity of tank which was reduced
by silting and also to improve the conditions of the bund.

OBJECTIVE OF OLD TANK PROJECT

Restoration of old tanking is necessary to improve the capacity of tank which is reduced by silting and also to
improve the conditions of the existing bund. Increasing the height of the existing bund, altering the existing
dimensions of the bund like side slopes which in turn increases the storage capacity and improves the safety of the
bund. The objectives of the old tank project are enlisted below.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

Collection of details of existing bund such as top width, slope, alignment, height etc.
Estimation of existing capacity of reservoir
Collection of details of existing waste weir and sluice
Based on the details collected above increasing the height of the existing earthen bund
Redesigning /modifying the existing waste weir and sluice.
Estimation of increase storage capacity with increase in height of bund.

1.21NECESSITY FOR RESTORATION OF TANK:

Construction of tank bund across the stream at a river would facilitate in creating a reservoir on
the upstream of the bund. The water gets arrested within the barrier there by tapping the sediment
in the reservoir. Due to progressive silting in the reservoir, its storage capacity gets reduced. The
demand for irrigation water cannot be met due to reduced storage.

Further, in future there may be demand for water cultivation of large area. In view of these
two factors, it becomes necessary to restore the storage capacity of the reservoir to a value equal
toits original value.

The storage capacity is increased in two ways;

Raising F.T.L of the reservoir after making suitable modifications in the profile
of the existing bund.
De-silting the reservoir: This would require the employment of sophisticated
equipment such as hydraulic dredges. Before taking up the project, it is necessary to
study whether the proposal would yield minimum cost to restore the original capacity of
the reservoir.

SURPLUS WEIR:

Surplus weirs are used to dispose of the surplus water from the tank to downstream channels. It
disposes water from upstream catchment to downstream catchments. Surplus weir are used to
dispose of the surplus water from the tank to downstream channels. It disposes water from
upstream catchment to downstream catchments.

Fig.21. Combined map of tank irrigation system with surplus weir

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

Fig.22. Details of waste weir downstream view

The excess water is spilled from a tank into the downstream channel so as to avoid the rise of
water above the maximum water level. In fact, the water will generally spill over the crest of this
escape weir, as and when it rises above full tank level and the discharge capacity of this weir will
be designed such as to pass the full maximum flood discharge with a depth over the weir equal to
the difference between full tank level and maximum water level. Although the effective the storage
capacity of a tank is limited by full tank level, the area submerged by the tank bund and revetment
is dependent on maximum water level. And hence in order to restrict the dimensions of these, it is
desirable to keep the difference between full tank level and maximum water level to a smaller
value. Which is kept from 0.3m to 0.6m and it is rarely allowed to exceed 0.9m.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

TANK SLUICE
A tank sluice is an opening in the form of a culvert or a pipe running through or under the tank
bund and supplying water to the tank and to the distributor channel below, to meet the irrigation
and other water requirements as and when needed.

A sluice is another structure of tanks and is the outlet of the tank through which water goes to
supply channels and sub channels, before reaching the field. There is a plug and rod at the entrance
of the barrel to open or close the sluice. Bigger sluices have rods with plugs operated by standing
on the top of bund. Sluices help to prevent the collapse and erosion of bunds from the wave action
of stored water during monsoon seasons. If the sluices are damaged, the leakage of water will go
to the field continuously, crop failure is likely, and lean season farmers suffer without water.

Fig.23. Sluice Outlet

The size of the culvert will depend on the maximum quantity of water. It is required to convey,
but in no case should be less than 0.6m wide and 0.75m high, so as to allow man to enter it for
examination and repairs or removal of obstructions.

5.0 EARTHEN DAMS

Earth dams for the storage of water for irrigation have been built since the earliest times. These dams were
however, limited in height but not necessarily in extent. Earth dams are now being builtto unprecedented
heights. Sites which have hitherto been considered unfit for the construction of darns are now being
exploited. Development of soil mechanics, study of behavior of earth dams, and the development of better
construction techniques have all been helpful in creating confidence to build higher dams with improved
designs and more ingenious details.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

5.01 ADVANTAGES OF EARTHEN DAMS

In spite of the structural incompressibility of earth and water, many earth dams have been
constructed with various types of earth and rock with stable conditions. The main advantages of
earth dams are as follow:

1. Availability of Earth Materials-Earth is readily available in most parts of the world close to
possible dam sites

2. Easy Handling of Earth-Earth can be excavated by hand, transported in baskets and compacted
with cattle and vehicles walking over it. In suitable situation, earth can be handled and moved with
latest machinery.

3. Foundation Condition-Earth dams are suited to the sites where a masonry dam cannot be used
for structural reasons. These dams can be constructed even on compressible foundations. The
intensity of foundation stress due to earth is less than that due to solid masonry. The horizontal
water pressure on the dams is distributed over greater area because of greater base width and hence,
the danger of sliding on a weak foundation is minimized. The greater width of dam foundation
also minimizes the leakage through the foundation beneath the dam.

4. Cost of Construction-The most important advantage of an earth dam compared to masonry

dam, is its lesser cost. It has been observed that the total cost of an earth dam, is roughly one-half
of a concrete dam.

5. Comparatively small establishment and equipment are required

6. Earth fill dams resist settlement and movement better than more rigid structures and can be more
suitable for areas where earth movements are common

5.02 COMPOSITION OF DAM

The various components of an earthen dam are

Shell, Upstream Fill, Downstream Fill or Shoulder: These components of the earthen
dam are constructed with pervious or semi-pervious materials upstream or downstream of
the core. The upstream fill is called the upstream shell and the downstream portion is the
downstream shell
Upstream blanket: It is a layer of impervious material laid on the upstream side of an
earthen dam where the substratum is pervious, to reduce seepage and increase the path of
flow. The blanket decreases both the seepage flow and excess pressure on the downstream
side of the dam. A natural blanket is a cover of naturally occurring soil material of low
permeability.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

Drainage Filter: It is a blanket of pervious material constructed at the foundation to the

downstream side of an earthen dam, to permit the discharge of seepage and minimize the
possibility of piping failure

Cutoff Wall or Cutoff: It is a wall; collar or other structure intended to reduce percolation
of water through porous strata. it is provided in or on foundation.
Riprap: Broken stones or rock pieces are placed on the slopes of embankment particularly
the upstream side for protecting the slope against the action of water, mainly wave action
and erosion.
Core Wall, Membrane or Core: It is a centrally provided fairly impervious wall in the
dam. It checks the flow of water through the dam section. It may be of compacted puddled
clay, masonry, or concrete built inside the dam
Toe Drain: It is a drain constructed at the downstream slope of an earthen dam to collect
and drain away the seepage water collected by the drain filter

Transition Filter: It is a component of an earthen dam section which is provided with core
and consists of an intermediate grade of material placed between the core and the shells to
serve as a filter and prevent lateral movement of fine material from the core

Fig.24. Cross-section of an Earthen Dam with Various Components.

TYPES OF EARTHEN DAMS

BASED ON METHOD OF CONSTRUCTIONS

1 Rolled Fill Earthen Dams:-In this type of dams, successive layers of moistened or damp
soils are placed one above the other. Each layer not exceeding 20 cm in thickness is
properly consolidated at optimum moisture content maintained by sprinkling water. It is
compacted by a mechanical roller and only then the next layer is laid.

2 Hydraulic Fill Earthen Dam: - In this type of dams, the construction, excavation and
transportation of the earth are done by hydraulic methods. Outer edges of the embankments
are kept slightly higher than the middle portion of each layer. During construction, a
mixture of excavated materials in slurry condition is pumped and discharged at the edges.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

This slurry of excavated materials and water consists of coarse and fine materials. When it
is discharged near the outer edges, the coarser materials settle first at the edges, while the
finer materials move to the middle and settle there, while fine particles move in the center
to settle.

BASED ON CROSS SECTION

4) HOMOGENOUS EARTH DAMS: The name implies that the dam is constructed
out of uniform and homogenous materials. The below figure shows the typical cross section
of a homogenous dam.

Fig.25.Homogenous Earth dam

5) ZONED EARTH DAM: They are also known as non- homogenous dam. The middle
or central portion of the dam is known as core, which is generally made if impervious
material. In some cases a central masonry, concrete or clay core wall is provided as show
below for making it water tight. Sufficient free board is provided above HFL.

Fig.26.Zoned Earth dam

6) DIAPHRAGM TYPE EARTH DAM: This type of dam is constructed with the
pervious material, with a thin impervious diaphragm wall (masonry or concrete) to reduce
the seepage as show below. The main difference between the zoned type and the diaphragm
type depends on the thickness of the impervious core of diaphragm.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

Fig.27.Diaphragm type earth dam

1. SURVEY WORK CARRIED OUT:

Longitudinal section and cross section along the existing bund.
Details of existing waste weir and sluice points including block leveling at waste weir.
Water spread contour to explore the quantity.

6.0 LONGITUDINAL AND PROFILE LEVELLING:

In this operation levels are taken along the center line of any alignment (road,
railway etc.) at regular intervals.
The back sight, intermediate sight and fore sight readings are taken at regular
intervals at every set up of the instruments. The chainages of the points are noted in the
level book.
This operation is undertaken to determine the undulation if the ground surface along
the profile line.

6.01 CROSS SECTIONAL LEVELLING:

Here the levels are taken along the transverse direction.
The cross sections are taken at regular intervals (3m, 6m, and 9metc) along the alignment.
This operation is done in order to know the nature of the ground across the center line of
any alignment.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

6.02 CAPACITY CONTOUR

SURVEY:OBJECTIVE:
To draw the capacity contour map of the catchment and estimate the quantity of water that
can be stored.

Following are the aspects to be considered while fixing the capacity of the reservoir

The catchment at the site proposed receives sufficient rain to cater the demand
and if the proposed site can hold the required quantity of water then required height of
the bund can be constructed.
The catchment at the site proposed receives sufficient rain to cater the demand
and if the proposed site cannot hold the required quantity of water then the required
height of the bund shall be restricted to the site conditions.
The catchment at the site proposed receives less rain which cannot cater the
demand and any height of the bund can be constructed, then the height of the bund is fixed
to store maximum water. The catchment at the site proposed receives less rain which
cannot cater the demand and any height of the bund can be restricted because of site
condition, then the height is fixed taking the site condition. In all the above cases, it is
necessary to compute the yield of catchment
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

1. VOLUME OF EARTH WORK

Table 4: Earthwork Calculations
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)
7. CONCLUSIONS
Rajankunte is a popular upcoming suburban locality .It has many residential projects in progress. So once these
projects are completed , the population of that locality will increase , so the water demand will also
increase. So, there is a need to increase the storage capacity of the existing reservoir. Desilting is not
economical feasible; it is proposed to increase the height of the existing reservoir.

Based on the survey work and calculations carried out broad conclusions can be drawn from it
The top width of the existing earthen bund and its existing height is proposed to be increased as per the
new economical design.
The capacity of the existing reservoir as per calculations is found to be less, with the increase in height of
the bund as per the calculations the capacity of the reservoir increases. Hence there is increase in the
capacity of reservoir.
With the increase in the capacity of reservoir it is found that the existing surplus weir will be able to cater
to the increase in the discharge.

8.01 EXISTING AND PROPOSED FEATURES OF OLD TANK PROJECT:

EXISTING FEATURES:

Length of bund =200m

Length of weir = 15m
Width of weir = 3 m
Top bund level= 819m
Maximum water level= 816 m
Full tank level = 815 m

PROPOSED FEATURES:
Proposed full tank level =819.5m
Proposed maximum water level =820.5 m
Proposed top bund level =822
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

WATER SUPPLY AND SANITARY SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION: Water supply and sanitation are two of the most important sectors in
development. Access to water supply and sanitation are basic human needs and rights.
Therefore, in order to ensure the availability of sufficient quantity of good quality water, it
becomes imperative in modern society to plan, to build suitable water supply schemes which may
provide water to the various sections of community in accordance with their demands and
requirements. A water resources system planner is faced with the challenge of conceptualizing a
project to meet the specific needs at a minimum cost. For a demand intensive project, the size of
the project is limited by the availability of water. The planner then has to choose amongst the
alternatives and determine the optimum scale of the project, an allocation of cost has to be made
to those who benefit from the project. An important aspect of planning is that it has to prepare for
a future date its effects in terms of physical quantities and costs over a period of time spanning
the useful life of project has to be expected over the project period has to be calculated

1.1 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF WATER SUPPLY:

The main objective is to prepare water supply scheme to supply portable water from a
suitable source to Adde Vishwanathapura town.
To prepare a sewage system and its disposal from the town.
Distribution of water to the town by suitable method of distribution system.
Town planning has to be carried out to get to know the existing details of the town

2.1 PURPOSE OF PROJECT

WATER SUPPLY

Human existence is governed by the availability of a water supply that is both adequate in terms
of quantity as well as quality. Water is the most abundant resource found in nature however only
0.62% of this is present in freshwater lakes, rivers and groundwater supplies can support human
activities. Water is a chemical compound and may occur in a liquid,, solid or gaseous form. No
life can exist without water and it becomes imperative in a modern society to build a suitable water
supply scheme which may provide portable water to the various sections of society in accordance
with their demand and requirements the various sections

SANITATION

The utilization of enormous quantity of water occurs in society and it returns as waste water from
every house or unit. To connect convey and treat this water, a well-defined sanitary system
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

is required. This waste water is treated and before being disposed in an appropriate way.

NECESSITY OF PLANNED WATER SUPPLY

Next to air, the other important requirement for human life to exist is water. Water is available
in various forms such as rivers, lakes, streams, etc. The earliest civilization organized on the banks
of major river system and required water for drinking, cooking, bathing, etc. But with the
advancement of civilization the utility of water enormously increased and now such a stage has
come without well-organized public water supply scheme, it is impossible to run the present civil
life and the develop the towns. The importance of water from only a quantity viewpoint was
recognized from the earliest days and the importance of quality come to be recognized gradually
in the recent years.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED

In planning the supply scheme, it is essential to first of all, search a source of water in the vicinity
of the town or the city for which the scheme is to be designed. Sometimes, the water may be
available nearby, and sometimes it may be far away. Further it may be an underground well, or it
may be a river, stream or a lake. It is therefore, necessary to seek out all possible sources and
evaluate each in terms of quality, quantity and cost and then to take a final decision regarding the
utilization of a particular source or sources depend upon the availability of water in those sources
and the water demand of the town or the city. Suitable system should then be designed for
collecting, transporting and treating this water. The treated water is the distributed to the
residents and industries depending upon their requirements.

The essential elements of a public water supply scheme may, therefore , consists of intakes
and water treatment plant having screening, sedimentation, filtration, disinfection units, etc.
elevated tanks and stand pipes which provide storage to meet peak demands during limited periods;
valves which control the flow of water in the pipe system; hydrants which provide a connection
with the water in the mains for fighting fires, flushing streets, etc. mains, sub mains and branch
lines which carry the water to the streets; services which carry the water to the individual homes,
etc.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

3.1 STEPS INVOLVED IN WATER SUPPLY

The primary objective of water treatment for public supply is to take water from the best available
source and to subject it to processing which will ensure water of good physical quality, free from
unpleasant taste or odor & containing nothing which might be detrimental to health. The treatment
of water to improve its quality involves additions to, subtraction from, or chemical changes in
rawwater. Municipal water systems consist of the following units.

Collection work
Transmission work
Purification work &
Distribution work

Fig.35.WATER SUPPLY NETWORK

COLLECTION WORK

Collection works are meant for the development of surface water or ground water resource. For
major cities or where water requirements are large, water is collected from a surface source mostly
a river or stream. If the river is perennial, a direct intake structure can be built on the riverbank. If,
however, river is not perennial, a dam is built across the river so the water is stored in the reservoir.
Water is then drawn from the reservoir as per needs. The collection works, therefore, consists of
storage or diversion work, & an intake structure.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

TRASMISSION WORK

In many cases, the collection works may be far away from the city where water is to be supplied.
In that case, water is conveyed to the cities through the transmission work. These form the
connecting link between the collection works & the purification works. Depending upon the
topography of the area between the two sites, the transmission works may be in the form of
conduits canals or aqueducts for simply gravity flow, canals are generally used.

PURIFICATION WORK

The water collected directly from the source may not be safe for drinking because of physical,
chemical & biological impurities. The municipal water works must deliver to the consumer the
water that is hygienically safe, aesthetically attractive & palatable, & economically satisfactory for
its intended use. Diseases like typhoid, cholera, dysentery etc., are water borne diseases. The
principle aim of the purification works is to supply clean & bacteria free water. The common
components of water purification works are:

Filtration plants to remove objectionable color, turbidity, bacteria & other harmful organisms.
Softening plants to remove excessive amounts of scale forming, soap consuming ingredients
like calcium & manganese ions.

DISTRIBUTION WORK

The treated and purified water is finally sent to the consumers through suitable distribution system.
In order that water may flow in the water supply pipes under pressure, the purified water is
normally stored in the elevated service reservoir. More than one reservoir may be needed in large
systems branching pattern with dead ends, and grid iron pattern. The plan, topography & location
of the area with respect to the service reservoir establish the type of distribution system & its
character of flow.

4.1 METHODS OF PURIFICATION:

Following are the steps involved in the purification of water,

SCREENS
These are generally provided in front of the pump or intake so as to remove large size floating
matter as they affect the treatment process and damage
The three types of screens are
1. Coarse screens
2. Medium screens
3. Fine screens
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

The coarse screen first removes the bigger floating matter and medium size particles and screen
remove finer particles.

PLAIN SEDIMENTATION (settling tank)

Most of the suspended particles present in water have specific gravity more than 1. In water this
impurity tries to settle down under gravity. But in normal water supply they try to remain in
suspension because of continuous motion. As soon as velocity of water reduces the suspended
particle will try to settle in the bottom of the tank. The basin is in which flow of water is reduced
and particles are made to settle is called settling tank or sedimentation tank.

SEDIMENTATION AIDED BY THE COAGULATIONS

Very fine suspended matter and colloidal particles will have specific gravity nearer to 1 or less
than 1. Hence these colloidal particles will not settle at the tank, when coagulants are added to
the waste and stirred. These will attract the colloidal particles and size of the colloidal particle will
increase and will settle in the bottom of the sedimentation tank. This process is called coagulation.

RAPID SAND GRAVITY FILTERS

In the effluent-controlled type of filters, the filter effluent lines are connected to common header.
A fixed orifice is built into the effluent piping for each filter so that no filter after washing will
take an undue share of the flow. The filtered water header pressure may be regulated by a throttle
valve which discharges to filtered water reservoir. Costly rate controllers are replaced with fixed
orifices and therefore, would make the units economical particularly in large water works
involving batteries of filters. For equal duration of filter runs the total output per day from a
declining rate filter is higher than that in the conventional filters. In group of filters operating at
an average rate of 10 m3/m2/hr. while the filter next in line for cleaning will have slowed down
to about 5 m3/m2/hr. usually the depths of filter boxes for decaling rate filters are more than
those for the conventional ones. These would permit longer filter runs and consequent reduced
wash water requirements. The filter beds are operated by scheduled cleaning in such a way that
each of beds will be in different stage of filter cycle producing the required average flow. When
the rate of flow is reduced the minimum design rate, the filter is removed from service and
backwashed. In an inlet-controlled filter, the rate of flow is controlled proportional to the rate of
filtration with float control arrangement to the inlet valve. Inlet control reduces the amount of
work which has to be done on the filter to clean it.

4.2 DISINFECTION: The process of disinfection is done by using bleaching powder it

contains 30% of chloride in it. Following is some of the method of disinfection
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

Plain Chlorination: Plain chlorination is the application of chlorine to plain or raw water
supplies as it enters the distribution system. The chlorine is added to raw water to remove
bacteria and to control the growth of algae. Plain chlorination is done if the water is
sufficiently clean. The quantity of chlorine added to raw water is 0.5ppm.
Pre-Chlorination: It is the application of chorine to water before its treatment- especially
before filtration. The quantity of water to be added in the water is about 0.5 ppm.
Post Chlorination: If chlorine is added to water before the treatment of purification is
completed it is known as post chlorination. Chlorine is added to water after it leaves the
rapid sand filters and before it enters distribution system.
Double Chlorination: When chlorine is added to water at more than one point is called
double chlorination.
Dichlorination: The removal of excess chlorine from water is known as DE chlorination.
It is done by using chemical compound such as sodium- bi-sulphate and potassium
permanganate. At the end of DE chlorination some residual chlorine should remain in
water. This residual chorine will disinfect water when it is flowing through the distribution
system.
Breakpoint Chlorination: For water containing organic matter chlorine is added to
remove bacteria from water and to oxidize organic matter present in water. The chlorine
added starts to accumulate up to a certain height
Super chlorination: The addition of chlorine after the stage of breakpoint is called super
chlorination. It is usually adopted where there is epidemic in the locality and water is likely
to contain high organic impurities.
Color, Odor and Taste removal
Some of the treatment methods such as coagulation, pre-chlorination and super
chlorination are used to remove color, taste and odor. It can also be removed by aeration,
treatment either activated carbon or by copper sulphate.
Aeration
It is the process of binging water in contact with air. Due to agitation of water during
aeration bacteria will be killed. It also results in less corrosion due to reduction in
oxygen and carbon dioxide content.
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4.3 FACTORS AFFECTING DISINFECTION

The layout of distribution system should be such that there is free circulation of water and number
of dead ends should be reduced.

1. Construction and Design: The construction and design should be such that desired quantity
of water is available at all types. The minimum pressure at each inlet should be such that the inlet
of a building should be 7m, 12m and 17m for single-, double- and three-story building.

2. Prevention of Contamination by Sewage: The water pipe line should be laid above the sewers
at a vertical distance of 2m and the horizontal distance between water pipe should be above 3m.

3. Economy: Layout and design of distribution system should be economical. The cost of
distribution system should be 90% of the total cost of water supply project hence water distribution
system should be carefully designed by taking various factors such as pumping, types of pipes
and its diameter and storage requirement.

4. Gradients: The gradients of main pipes should be laid such that at every point should be positive
pressure greater than atmospheric pressure.

5. Leakage: The distribution system should be water tight and the loss of water due to leakage
should be brought down to minimum possible extent.

6. Safety Of Pollution: The layout of distribution system should be such that it does not
contributeto the pollution of water flowing in it.

7. Sanitations: The sanitation of the area through which the distribution system passing should be
good so that there is no chance of water to be polluted during repairs or replacement.

5.1 METHODS OF DISTRIBUTION

Water distribution systems are designed to adequately satisfy the water requirements for a
combination of domestic, commercial, industrial and firefighting purpose. The performance of a
distribution system can be judged on the basis of the pressure available in the system for a
specific rate of flow. The distribution system can be judged on the basis of the pressure available
in the system for a specific rate of flow. It also includes the design and operation of storage,
service or balancing reservoirs. The method of distribution depends upon the topography of the
area. The following are the methods or systems may be adopted for distribution:

1. Gravity system

2. Combined gravity and pumping system

3. Pumping system.
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Gravity System

In the gravity system, the source of water supply is so located with respect to the area of
distribution that water is available with sufficient pressure at various points of the area. No
pumping is normally required. The purified water entirely flows under gravity. This is the most
reliable and economical distribution system.

Combined Gravity and Pumping System

This is the most common system adopted in most of the cases. Generally, the water purification
works are located almost at the same level as the area of distribution Especially when source of
raw water supply is a river or a reservoir formed behind the dam. In order to obtain sufficient
distribution pressure, filtered water is pumped into clear water reservoir (C.W.R) located either
on a higher ground or elevated on a tower. The water from the elevated reservoir flows under
gravity.

Pumping System

In this system, water is pumped directly into the distribution system to achieve the required
pressure. Such a system is not desirable. Generally double pumping is required, first to pump raw
water from the source to the treatment works and then to pump purified water direct into the
distribution mains. The pumps have to be run at varying speeds according to the variations in the
consumption. In case of the power failure, the entire water distribution system of the locality is
distributed. The system also requires constant attention.

5.2 LAYOUT OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM: There are four principal methods of

laying out distribution system: Dead end system

Grid-iron system
Circular system
Radial system

DEAD END OR TREE SYSTEM: This system is suitable for irregular developed towns
or cities. In this system water flows in one direction only into sub mains and branches. The
diameter of pipe decreases at every tree branch.

Fig.36.Dead end or tree system.

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GRID IRON SYSTEM: If the dead ends of the previous system are interconnected, water
can be made to circulate continuously through the whole of the distribution system. This system
ideal for cities laid out on a rectangular plan resembling grid-iron.

Fig.37.Grid iron system.

CIRCULAR OR RING SYSTEM: In this system, the supply main form a ring of the
distribution district. The branches are connected cross-wise to the mains and also to each other.
The system is most suitable for the town or area having well planned streets and roads.

Fig.38.Circular or ring system.

RADIAL SYSTEM: In this system, the whole area is divided into a number of distribution
districts. Each district has a centrally located distribution reservoir from where distribution pipes
run radially towards the periphery of the distribution district. This system gives quick service,
without much loss of head.

Fig.39.Radial system.
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6.1 SURVEYING METHODOLOGY ADOPTED

In preparing schemes water supply it is necessary to collect all the information that may be prove
to be useful for preparing plan and estimates of the project.

The following surveys are to be carried out in order to arrive at the best suitable method that can
be adopted to improve water supply and sanitation.

1. TOWN SURVEY: distribution lines and the sanitary lines are to be aligned in each
street on opposite sides of the street to supply water and for sanitary purpose of the users.
Therefore, it is necessary to draw the town plan to ascertain the topographical feature of
each street and to design the distribution and sanitary system
A reconnaissance survey is conducted and the rough town plan is drawn to plan the
survey work.
Keeping the compass at each corner of the street the bearings of each street is recorded.
Using a dumpy level, the town map is drawn where road width from which the exact layout
of the town is obtained.
The longitudinal section and cross-section of each street is taken at suitable intervals by fly
level.

2. WATER SUPPLY PROJECT: water supply schemes comprise of the following

survey works
A. Block leveling:

At pump house site near the water source(intake)

At treatment plan with pump house site.
At OHT site and surface reservoir site.

B. Longitudinal section and cross section survey

Between reservoir and intake pump house

Intake pump house to treatment plant
Treatment plant at OHT site
For every street on the margins of the street.

3. SANITATION PROJECT: sanitation scheme comprises of the following survey

works
A. Block leveling:
At treatment plant
B. Longitudinal section and cross-section survey
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For every street on the margins of the street on the opposite end of water supply
lines.

7.0 DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY PROJECT

COMPONENTS IDENTIFICATION OF SOURCE:
The sources of water are classified as follows

1. SURFACE WATER SOURCES

Streams: These are formed by surface run off. The discharge of water in the stream is more
during rainy season. The quality of water in the streams is normally good but sometimes water
flowing over the ground is mixed with sand, impurities etc. All the suspended impurities can be
removed by settling process but dissolved impurities require special treatment.

Lakes: In mountain and at some places natural beds are formed with impervious bed. Water
from springs and streams generally flows through basins and lakes are formed. The quantity of
water in lakes depends upon the basin capacity. Lakes which are situated at higher altitudes contain
almost pure water which can be used without treatment.

Ponds: These are depression in planes like land in which water is collected during rainy season,
generally quantity of water in ponds is very less and contain lots of impurities. This water has to
be purified before supplying to the cities.

Rivers: Rivers contribute chief source of water supply to many cities. River is also subject to
self-purification action. In summer quality of water is better than that in monsoon. In rainy
season the runoff carries clay, sand etc. River water should be used only after treatment. Some
river is snow fed and perennial and therefore they have throughout the year. But Non-perennial
River is mostly dry during summer and have heavy flood during monsoon.
Impounded Reservoirs: Impounded reservoirs are those structures which are constructed
across the river water which is impounded if the reservoir can be used for irrigation, water supply
for domestic and industrial use. Reservoirs also store flood water and that can be used for
hydroelectric power generation.

2. UNDERGROUND SOURCES

Springs: Springs are natural outflow of subsurface water to the surface. The quantity of water
obtained from spring is very small therefore they are not suitable for major water supply
schemes.
Quality of water depends upon outcrop distance from the springs. The quality of water
in deep spring is good and can be use directly without any treatment. Springs can be classified as
follows:
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Artesian Springs
Gravity Springs
Surface Springs

3. WELLS: Wells are the vertical opening drilled to the ground to get sub surface water.
Classification of Wells:

o Shallow Wells
o Deep Wells
o Tube Wells
o Artesian Wells
o Infiltration Wells

8.1DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY SCHEME

The quantity of water required to serve various demands of the consumers can be estimated using
the following methods. Estimation of future population is made taking into account the rate of
increase in population in the previous decades. Assuming suitable per capita demand the quantity
of water required is calculated, the various methods which are generally adopted for estimating
future populations are described below. Some of these methods are used when the design period
is small, and some are used when the design period is large. The particular method to be adopted
for a particular case or for a particular city depends upon the set of factors and the selection is
left to the discretion and intelligence of the designer.

Arithmetic increase method

Geometric increase method
Method of varying increment or incremental increase method
Decreasing rate of growth method
Simple graphical method
Comparative graphical method
Master plan method or zoning method
The ratio method or apportionment method
The logistic curve method
Since the population obtained from geometric incremental method is more and accurate compared
to other methods, we can adopt this method for population forecasting for the given design period.

9.0 POPULATION FORECASTING BY GEOMETRIC INCREMENT METHOD:

In this method, per decade percentage or percentage growth rate(r) is assumed to be to be
constant and the increase is compounded over existing population every decade.
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This method is also known as uniform increase method. Hence the assumed constant
value ofpercentage growth rate per decade is analogous to the rate of interest per annum.

DATA available: -

increase in population in % Inc. in

year population
each decade population

2011 1762
388 22.020%
2021 2150

Current population in 2021 =2150

Expected population = Pn=Po(1+I/100)^n
Where Po=population in 2011=1762
n=number of decades=30
I=percentage geometric increment=22.020%
Population in 2051=3906

9.1 WATER DEMAND: the various types of water demand are as follows
Domestic water demand
Industrial water demand
Institution and commercial water demand
Demand for public uses
Fire demand
Water required compensating losses in wastes and thefts.
9.2 DOMESTIC DEMAND: It is the quantity of water required for carrying out various
domestic activities like cooking, flushing, bathing etc. in India under normal conditions domestic
water demand is 135 LPD where as in other developed countries like USA it is about 350 LPD
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

9.3 DOMESTIC DEMAND PER PERSON FOR RURAL AREA

Use Consumption in liters per head per day

(LPCS)
Drinking 5
Cooking 5
Bathing 55
Washing of clothes 20
Washing of utensils 10
Washing and cleaning of houses 10
and residences
Flushing of water closets, etc. 30

TOTAL 135

Table.18. Domestic demand per person for rural area

COMMERCIAL DEMAND: Commercial demand is 30 LPCD. This includes water

required for office buildings. Shopping complex, schools, hospitals, railways, bus station etc.

INDUSTRIAL DEMAND: water demand in industry like paper, textiles, sugar,

pharmaceuticals, milk processing industries etc. Industrial demand is about 20% of the demand.

FIRE DEMAND: it is the demand when there is occurrence of fire which causes damages to
properties. It might be due to faulty wires and short circuiting, improper material, explosions etc.
This demand is around 150lpcd. It can also be determined using various formulas.

DEMAND OF PUBLIC USE: this includes cleaning of sewers, watering in public parts,
maintaining fountain, cleaning streets etc. This demand is around 5%of total demand.

COMPENSATE WATER LOSS DEMAND: Generally, 15% allowance of total

quantity of water is made to compensate for the losses and wastage of water. Some portion of water
in the distribution pipes are wastage due to defective pipe joints and also faulty fitting. Some people
keep the tap open and allow continuous wastage of water. Water is also lost due to unauthorized
connections.
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9.4 PER CAPITA DEMAND: It is the annual average amount of daily water requirement
by one person and it includes the domestic use, industrial and commercial use, public use, wastes,
thefts etc. it may, therefore be expressed as

Where Q= total quantity of water required for a city in one year, P= population of the city.

PER CAPITA DEMAND ASSUMED FOR VISHWANATHAPURA TOWN

SL PURPOSE LPCD
NO
1. Domestic 135
demand
2. fire demand 1
3. Public demand 10%of max daily
demand
Table.19. Per capita demand assumed for Adde Vishwanathapura town

Quantity of water:
Assume domestic water consumption for rural town area = 135 LPCD Quantity of water consumption=
3906 × 135 = 527310 litres/day

Maximum daily demand

Q= 1.8 x 527310 = 949158 litres/day

Additional 1 LCPD for fire demand and wastage & 10% for public use

=949158*10/100=94915.8 litres /day

Total amount
of water requires=949158+94915.8=1044073.8 litres/day

Discharge Q=0.0120
m^3/sec (Assuming the pump works 6 hrs per day)
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9.4 DESIGN OF PUMPS FROM THE TREATMENT PLANT TO THE OHT

Assuming pumps work for 6 hours/ day.

RL at source = 91.39 m RL at OHT = 95.96 + 6= 101.96 m

Length of pipe = 5 + 6 = 11 m

Hs + Hd = RL at source - RL at OHT = 10.57 m

Assume V = 1.5

Area = Q/V=0.0120/1.5=0.0008m^2
Diameter of pipe D=0.1m=10cm

Take 4f for the cast iron pipe= 0.15

Hf=(4flv^2)/ 2gd=(0.15 x 11 x 1.5^2)/(2 x 9.81 x 0.1)=1.892m

Total head=1.892+10.57=12.462m

Water loss power = w x Q x H)/0.735=(9.81 x 0.0120 x 12.462)/0.735=1.995 HP

Assume efficiency of pump=75%

Break horse power=1.995/0.75=2.66 HP

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

9.6 DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY LINE:

Main line: Q=AV
Assume V=1.5m/s
Q=0.0120m^3/s
A=Q/V=0.0008m^2
Diameter of pipe D=0.1m=10cm

Branch Line:
Assuming half the discharge of main line=0.006m^3/s
Assuming V=2m/s
A=Q/V=0.003m^2

Diameter of pipe D=0.0618m=6.18cm

Sewer line:

Assuming half the discharge of branch line=0.003m^3/s

Assuming V=2.5m/s

A=Q/V=0.0012m^2

D=Diameter of pipe D=0.039m=3.9cm

9.6 DESIGN OF WATER TREATMENT PLANT:

Screeners: The design particulars of the screen are as follows

Length of screen =1.5m
Height of screen=H=0.3m
A coarse type screen is fitted in front of the pump
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

9.7 DESIGN OF SEDIMENTATION TANK WITH COAGULATION:

Coagulation:
Discharge Q=1044073.8 litres/day

Assuming a detention period of 3 hours

Assuming a velocity through tank as V=0.055m/min

Quantity of water to be treated during detention period=1044073.8 *3/24=130509 litres=130.509m^3

Capacity of tank required =130.509m^3

Length of tank required =V*t=0.055*3*60=9.9m=10m approximately

Cross section of tank required=130.509/10=13.05m^2= 13.5^2 approximately
Assuming a depth of 4m in the tank

Width of tank =area/depth=13.5/4=6.75m=7m approximately

Taking a freeboard of 0.5m
Overall depth=0.5+4=4.5m
The overall dimension of the rectangular sedimentation tank are 10m*13.5m*4.5m

9.8 DESIGN OF FLOCULATION CHAMBER:

In addition to the 24m length of the settling tank the flocculation chamber has to be provided

Assume the effective depth in the flocculation chamber as half of the depth in the tank near the flocculation
chamber.=4.5/2=2.25m

Assume the period of floc or detention period as 20 minutes

Now the capacity of the chamber for flow of 20 minutes =1.1*1000*20/24*60=15.33m^3

Using the same width as 2 m, we get the length of flocculation chamber=15.33/2.25=6.81m

For coagulation we use Alum as a coagulant of dosage 10 mg/L

Amount of Alum required daily=1044073.8*10/1000000=10.44 kg

Hence 10.44 kgs of Alum is required per day
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10.0 DISINFECTION:

Average Daily water demand=Population x Per Capita Demand

=3906 × 135 = 527310 litres/day

MAX. DAILY DEMAND

Maximum daily demand

Q= 1.8 x 527310 = 949158 litres/day

Additional 1 LCPD for fire demand and wastage & 10% for public use
=949158*10/100=94915.8 litres /day
total amount of water requires=949158+94915.8=1044073.8 litres/day

Amount of chlorine required daily(based on annual consumption)

0.5mg/l x 1044073.8 =0.522 kg of chlorine

Since the chlorine content in bleaching powder is 30%, 30Kgs of chlorine is contained in 100Kgs of bleaching powder.
Amount of Bleaching powder required daily ( based on annual consumption)=0.522/30*100=1.74 kg
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

11.1 SANITARY PROJECT

INTRODUCTION: India is a country of villages. About 70% of its population lives in villages.
Because of illiteracy, the importance for sanitation is not given. The sullage water from homes is
not disposed properly & scattered in the streets which will use sufficient space for mosquito to
breeding which leads to epidemics like malaria. The other diseases may also spread easily. Excretal
disposal is also not proper which creates very encyclical condition & pollutes the surrounding. So,
all these aspects create harmful condition for villagers & are the main causes of health hazards.
The up keeping of sanitary conditions in villages is called rural sanitation or eco- sanitation.

11.2 PRINCIPLES OF SANITATION

Provision of safe and potable water satisfying various water demands.

Collection and disposal of dry refuse
Collection and disposal of sullage.
Collection and disposal of sewage.
Establishing hygienic environment.
Reduction of environmental pollution mainly due to surface flow of sullage and sewage.
Prevention of water borne diseases due to poor sanitation.

11.3 CLASSIFICATION OF WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM

The water carriage system can be classified into the following types:

Separate system
Combined system
Partially separate system

SEPARATE SYTEM: the separate system provides two separate systems of sewers- the
one intended for the conveyance of foul sewage, such as Fecal matter, domestic
wastewaters, the washings, and draining of places such as slaughter houses, laundries,
stables, and the waste water derived from the manufacturing processes; and the other for
the rain water including the surface washing from certain streets, overflow and public bath
and foundations etc. the sewage from the first system sewers can be led to the treatment
works, while the flow from the second system of sewers can be discharged directly to
natural streams without any treatment.
COMBINED SYSTEM: The combined system provides only one sewer to carry both
the foul sewage as well as the rain water. The sewage and rain water carried to the
sewage treatment plant before its final disposal.
PARTIALLY COMBINED SYSTEM: In this system, only one set of underground
sewers is laid. These sewers admit the foul sewage as well as the early washings by rains.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

As soon as the quantity of storm water exceeds a certain limit, the storm overflows, and is thus
collected and conveyed in open drains to the natural streams.

12.1 WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT

The three constituents of waste water management are:

1. COLLECTION of domestic waste and industrial waste water is best achieved by a fully
developed sewerage or water carriage system. The planning and design of waste water
collection facilities involves the determination of waste water flows rates, the hydraulic
design of sewers, large conduits and junction and diversion structures, the selection of
sewer appetences and pumping stations. Sewers are commonly laid in straight lines, man
holes being provided at all changes of direction and gradient.
2. TREATMENT of wastewater is essential in order to reduce the spread of communicable
diseases caused by the pathogenic organisms in the sewage and to prevent the pollution
of surface and ground water. The treatment of waste water is carried out by a combination
of physical unit operations, chemical and biological processes, before the end
productscan be safely disposed off.
3. DISPOSAL after the process of treatment, safe disposal is to be practiced, currently used
effluent disposal methods are;
Dilution in streams and rivers
Land application
Re-use in aquaculture and crop irrigation

13.1 SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT UNITS

Sewage can be treated in different ways. Treatment processes are often classified as:

PRELIMINARY TREATMENT: this consists of separating the floating materials and

also the heavy settle able inorganic solids in addition to oils & greases etc. the processes
are screening, grit chambers and skimming tanks.
PRIMARY TREATMENT: this consists in removing large suspended organic solids
usually accompanied by sedimentation in settling basins. Sometimes preliminary as well
as primary treatments are classified together under primary treatment. This is done by
sedimentation tanks.
SECONDARY TREATMENT: this involves further treatment of the effluent coming
from the primary sedimentation tank. This consists of filters, aeration tanks, oxidation
ponds, aerated lagoons, sludge digestion tank.
FINAL/ADVANCED TREATMENT: Also called as tertiary treatment, it consists in
removing organic load left after the secondary treatment particularly to kill the pathogenic
bacteria. It usually involves chlorination.
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14.1 DESIGN OF SANITARY SYSTEM:

Design of sewer pipe:
Assuming the pipe is circular and the designed as a combined sewer. Let the pipe be laid at gradient of 1 in 250
and of N= 0.012 A self-cleaning velocity of 0.75 m/s is to be developed.

Quantity of DWF:
Dry weather flow = 80% of water supply = 80/100 x 0.0120=0.0096m^3/s
Max Q=3 x DWF=3 x 0.0096=0.0288M^3/s
Q=1/N x A x (R)^2/3 x (S)^1/2

0.0288=1/0.012 x (3.14159xD^2/4) x (D/4)^2/3 x (1/250)^1/2

D=0.2195m=21.9 cm =22cm approximately

Area=3.14159 x 0.22 x 0.22/4 = 0.0380m^2

V=Q/A=0.0288/0.0380=0.75m/s

Hence safe

15.1 OXIDATION POND

Since Adde Vishwanathapura is a small-town oxidation pond is provided as a single treatment
for sewage because it is economical. An oxidation pond is an open, flow-through earthen basin
of controlled shape, specifically designed and constructed to treat sewage and bio-degradable
industrial wastes. It is relatively low-cost treatment which has been widely used, particularly in
rural areas. These ponds may be considered to be completely mixed biological reactors without
solid return. The mixing may be usually provided by natural processes but may be augmented by
mechanical or diffused aeration. These are also referred to as Stabilization ponds.

Design of oxidation pond:

Design criteria

Organic loading=170-310 kg/hr./day Length of the tank=2×width, Depth of tank=1.5 m, Detention

period=10 days
Assuming 80% of water supply will appear as sewage

Sewage flow=80% x 1044073.8 =835259.04 Litres/day=835.259 m^3/day

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

Assuming 5-day BOD @200 C is 320 mg

BOD of sewage is =Q*320=835259.04 x 320=267.28 kg per day

Assuming organic loading rate of 280 kg/hr./day. Since village is located in an area of temperate
zone

Pond area required=BOD of sewage/Organic loading rate=267.28/280=9545.8176 m^2

Assume an operation liquid depth= 1.2 m & provide a free board of 0.3 m
Capacity of pond=Area x Depth =9545.8176 x 1.2=11454.98 m^3

Check for detention time:

Detention period provided = capacity /sewage flow=11454.98/835.259=13.714 days= 14 days approximately

For 90% removal of BOD detention time required t=1/k where k is the de oxygenation constant. Assuming k=0.1/d @ 200
C
T=1/k=1/0.1= 10 days

Check for safety:

Assume length of tank=2 x Width of tank=2B
Area = L x B
9545.8176=2 x B^2
On solving Breadth=69.086m ,Length = 138.172m,Area=9545.8176m^2

16.1 DESIGN OF INLET PIPE OF OXIDATION POND:

Assuming an avg. velocity of sewage as 0.9 m/s & daily flow of 8 hours only.
Discharge=835.259/8*60*60=0.29m^3/s

Ar
Area of inlet pipe=Q/V=0.029/0.9=0.0322m^2
Diameter of inlet pipe=0.202m
Diameter of outlet pipe=1.5 x Diameter of inlet pipe=1.5 x 0.202=0.303m
Since Adde Vishwanathapura is a small town and lies is the area of temperate zone and oxidation
ponds being relatively low in cost, only treatment given to the sewage is by oxidation ponds. It can
be aerobic/anaerobic/facultative (aerobic-anaerobic) type
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

CONCLUSION:
The report contains all the necessary information regarding the existing and future population. The
survey was conducted effectively to obtain the best possible data with minimum errors. Adde
Vishwanathapura being a small town with less population the above water supply and sanitary
design schemes can be implemented effectively in order to meet the requirements of the water
demand and waste treatment in Adde Vishwanathapura.

Quantity of water supplied can effectively satisfied the existing water demand.
Various stages of treatment are done effectively by which safe and potable water is
supplied.
The distribution system has been effectively planned to supply water throughout the town.
A well-designed network of sewage system can carry all waste from the town in a
hygienic manner.
Single step treatment in an oxidation pond is enough to treat the waste generated in the
town.
Town planning was effectively carried out using plane table by which we found out that
There was no existence of banks and ATM.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

HIGHWAY PROJECT

1.0 INTRODUCTION: -A facility consisting of the means and equipment necessary for the
movementoff passengers or goods. At its most basic, the term transportation system is used to refer to the
equipment and logistics of transportation passengers and goods. A highway is a public road, especially a
major road connecting two or more destinations. Any interconnected set of highways can be variously
referred to as ahighway system. Each country has its own national highway system.

1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS

Fig.28.Classificstion of roads

Different types of roads are mainly classified into two categories namely,
1. All-weather roads
These roads are negotiable during all weather, except at major river crossings where
interruption of traffic is permissible, the road pavement should be negotiable during all
weathers.
2. Fair weather roads
On these roads the traffic may be interrupted during monsoon season at causeways where
stream may overflow across the roads.

1.2 METHODS OF CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS: -

Fig.29.Methods of classification of roads

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

Roads are classified based on various aspects namely:

1. Based on the carriage way
Paved roads-These roads are provided with a hard pavement course which should
be at least a water bound macadam layer
Unpaved roads- these roads are not provided with a hard pavement course of at
least a WBM layer. Thus earth roads and gravel roads may be called an unpaved
road.
2. Based on surface pavement provided
Surface roads- these roads are provided with a bituminous or cement concrete
surfacing.
Un-surfaced roads- these roads are not provided with bituminous or cement
concrete surfacing
3. Based on traffic volume
Heavy
Medium
Low
4. Based on load transported or tonnage
Class-I or class-A
Class-II or class-B
5.Based on location and function
National highway(NH)-Connects the capital cities of the state and the
capital cities to the port, these also connect the neighboring countries
State highways (SH) - SH are the main roads within the state and connect
important towns and cities of the state.
Major District Roads(MDR)- these roads connect the areas of production and 7yh
markets with either a SH or railway
Other district roads(ODR)- These roads connect the village to other village or the
nearest district road
Village roads (VR)- These roads like other district roads connect the village or
village or nearby district road.
6. Based on third road development plan
Expressways and NH
SH and MDR
ODR and VR
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

1.3 INSTRUMENTS USED

Plane table and accessories
Leveling instrument and accessories
Ceylon gnat tracer
Chain, tape, arrow, ranging roads, pegs etc.

1.4 TOPOGRAPHY SHEET

Fig.30. Topography of Adde vishwanathapura

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

1.5 HIGHWAY PLANNING SURVEYS: The studies for collecting the factual data for
highway planning are known as planning surveys. Planning based on the factual data and analysis
may be considered scientific and sound. The planning survey consists of the following studies:
1. Economic studies
2. Financial studies
3. Traffic and road use studies
4. Engineering studies
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

1.51 ECONOMIC STUDIES:

The details collected during economic studies are useful in estimating the requirements, cost
involved for the proposed highway improvement programmed and the economic justification.
Thedetails to be collected include the following-

a) Total population and classified distribution of the different population groups based on
occupation, income, etc. in each village, town or other locality and the area of settlement
of each classification in group.
b) Trend of population growth of various population groups.
c) Agricultural and industrial products and their listing in classified routes.
d) Industrial and agricultural development, diversifications if any and future trends.
e) Existing facilities with regard to communication, education, banks, hospitals, post office,
recreation facilities etc.
f) Per capita income.

1.52 FINANCIAL STUDIES:

The financial studies are essential to study the various financial aspects such as sources of income,
various types of revenues from duties and taxes on products, road transport, vehicle registration,
court fees etc. and future trends. The details to be collected during financial studies are:
a) Sources of income and estimated revenue from different types of taxation including
revenue from road transport sector.
b) Standard of living of different population groups and trends in changes.
c) Resources at local level, toll taxes, vehicle registration and fines.
d) Anticipated developments in the areas and generated income.
e) Future trends in financial aspects.

1.53 TRAFFIC OR ROAD USE STUDIES:

All the details of the existing traffic, such as classified traffic volume, growth rate of different
vehicle classes, pattern of flow, particulars of passenger trips and goods movement, existing
facilities for mass transportation etc. Traffic surveys should be carried out to collect the following
particulars:

1. Classified traffic volume in vehicles per day, annual average daily traffic, peak and design
hourly traffic volumes.
2. Origin and destination studies based on detailed home interview method.
3. Traffic flow patterns
4. Mass transport facilities
5. Accidents, their causes and cost analysis
6. Future trends and growth in traffic volume and goods traffic
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

1.54 ENGINEERING STUDIES

All details of topography, soil and drainage characteristics, alignment of the existing roads,
deficiencies in drainage characteristics, deficiencies in alignment and geometrics of existing roads,
identification of maintenance problems etc. should be investigated before the scientific plan is
suggested. The required engineering studies include:

1. Topographic surveys
2. Soil surveys
3. Location and classification of existing roads
4. Assessment of various other developments in the area that are likely due to the
proposed highway development
5. Road life studies

1.6 HIGHWAY ALINGMENTS AND SURVEYS

The position or the layout of the center line of the highway on the ground is called as the
alignment. The horizontal alignment includes the straight path, the horizontal deviations and
curves. The changes in the gradient and vertical curves are covered under the vertical alignment
of the roads

New road alignment would result in following disadvantages

Increases the cost of construction

Increase the cost of maintenance
Increases the vehicle operations
Increases the rate of accidents

1.7 IDEAL HIGHWAY ALINGMENT

The requirements of ideal highway alignment are as follows

The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as possible be
straight, but due to some practical deviations may be needed
The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain, should be easy for vehicle
operation. Gradients and curves are to be avoided
It should be safe from construction and operating point of view especially at slopes,
embankments.
The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so only when the initial cost,
maintenance cost, and operating cost is minimum.
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1.8 FACTORS AFFECTING THE ALINGMENT

Various factors controlling the alignment are as follows

Obligatory points these are the control points governing the highway alignment. These
points are classified into two categories. Points through which it should pass and points
through which it should not pass.
Traffic-The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Based on the origin destination
data of the area, the desired lines are to be drawn.
Geometric design- The factors such as gradient, radius of curves, sight distance govern the
alignment. Radius to be kept minimum
Economy- Alignment should be economical. The construction, maintenance and operation
cost must ne minimum.
Drainage considerations, aesthetics, political factors also govern the alignment of roads

1.9 ENGINEERING SURVEYS

Before a highway alignment is finalised in the highway track engineering surveys are carried out.
The surveys are in four stages namely

Map study
Reconnaissance study
Preliminary survey
Final location and detailed survey

Fig.32. Typical section of a highway

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

2.0 NEW HIGHWAY PROJECT

The new highway project work may be divided into the following stages:
1. Selection of route, finalization of the highway alignment and geometric design details.
2. Collection of the materials and testing of the sub grade soil and other construction materials,
mix design of the pavement materials and design details of the pavement layers.
3. Construction stages including the quality control.
4. Route selection: The selection of the route is made keeping in view the requirements of the
alignment and the geological, topographical and other features of the locality. However
special care should be taken as regards the geometric design standards of the road for
possible upgrading of speed standards in future, without being necessary to re-align the
road, after the alignment if finalized, the plans and working drawings are prepared.
5. .Materials and design: The soil samples collected from the selected route during the soil
surveys are tested in the laboratory in order to design the pavement thickness required and
the design of the embankments and the cut slopes. The basic construction materials such as
selected soil, aggregates, etc. are collected from the nearest borrow pits and quarries and
stacked along the alignment after subjecting these materials to the specified
laboratory tests. In order to design the mixes for the pavement component layers and to
specify quality control test values during the road construction, mix design tests are carried
out in the laboratory.
6. Construction: The construction of the road may be divided into two stages, they are: earth
work and pavement construction. The earth work consists of the excavations and
construction of the embankments. During the excavations for the highway cuts, the earth
slopes, their protection and construction of the drainage network are taken care of. Highway
embankments may be best constructed by rolled fill method by compacting the soil in layers
under controlled moisture and density using the suitable rollers. In the case of highway
embankments, the stability of the embankment foundation and slopes and the possible
settlement of the embankment with the time have to be investigated.

2.01 STEPS IN NEW PROJECT

The various steps in a highway project may be summarized as given below:
1. Map study: With the help of available topographic maps of the area.
2. Reconnaissance survey: A general idea of the topography and other features, field
identification of the soils and survey of the construction materials by an on-the-spot
inspection of the site.
3. Preliminary survey: Topographic details and soil survey along the alternate alignments,
considerations of the geometric design and other requirements of the alignment, preparation
of the plans and comparison of the alternate routes, economic analysis and selection of the
final alignment. Typical plan, longitudinal section and cross section drawing for the new
alignment.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

4. Location of the final alignment: Transfer of the alignment from the drawings to the ground
by driving pegs along the center line of finally chosen alignment, setting out the geometric
design elements by location of the tangent points, apex points, circular and transition
curves, elevation of the center line and super elevation details.
5. Detailed survey: Survey of the highway construction work for the preparation of the
longitudinal and cross section, computations of the earthwork quantities and other
construction materials and checking details of the geometric design elements.
6. Material survey: Survey of the construction materials, their collection and testing.
7. Design: Design details of the embankment and cut slopes, foundation of the embankments
and bridges and pavement layers.
8. Earthwork: Excavations for the highway cutting and drawings system, construction of the
embankments.
9. Pavement construction: Preparation of the subgrade, construction of the sub base and
surface courses.
10. Construction controls: Quality control tests during the different stages of the construction
and check for the finished road surface.

2.02 NECESSITY OF NEW ALINGMENT

The re-alignment of the existing roads may be necessary in the following cases:

1. Improvement of the horizontal alignment design elements such as radius, super elevation,
transition curve, clearance on inner side of the curve or shifting the curve to provide adequate
sight distance, elimination of the reverse curves and undesirable zigzags, etc.
2. Improvement of the vertical alignment design elements like steep gradients, changes in summit
curves to increase the sight distance, correction of the undesirable undulations like humps and
dips, etc.
3. Raising the level of a portion of a road which is subjected to flooding, submergence or water
logging during the monsoon.
4. Re-construction of the weak and narrow bridges and culverts and changes in the water way at
locations slightly away from the existing site.
5. Construction of the over bridges or under bridges at suitable locations across a railway line in
place of the level crossing or across another road to provide grade separated intersection.
6. Re-alignment required due to a portion of the road being submerged under water at the reservoir
area on account of the construction of a new dam.
7. Construction of the bypass to avoid the road running through a town or city.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

2.03 STEPS IN NEW ALINGMENT

The following are the steps followed in the re-alignment of the highway project:
1. Reconnaissance of the stretch of the road to be re-aligned, study of the deficiencies and the
possible changes in the alignment.

2. Survey of the existing road recording the topographic features and all other existing features
including the drainage conditions along a strip of the land on either side of the road. The
width of the land to be surveyed depends on the amount of the shifting anticipated when
the road is re-aligned. The field work may be carried out using plane table and level by
tachometry.
3. Observations of the spot levels along the centerline of the road and cross section levels at
suitable intervals to note the gradient cross slopes, super elevation, etc. The cross section
levels should be taken at closer intervals at horizontal and vertical curves and at cross
drainage works.
4. Soil survey along the stretches of the land through which the re-aligned road may possibly
pass preparation of the typical soil profiles after testing the soil samples in the laboratory.
5. Comparison of the economics and considerations of the feasibility of the alternate proposals
of the re-alignment and special study of the stretches which are difficult for the re-
alignment.
6. Finalization of the design features of the re-aligned road stretches.
7. Preparation of the drawings (typical drawings showing the plan, longitudinal section and
cross section for a re-alignment project)
8. Marking out the centerline of the re-aligned road while trying to utilize the existing road to
the maximum extent possible
9. Earthwork and preparation of the subgrade of the re-alignment road stretches setting out
and construction of the new bridges and culverts.
10. Checking the geometric design elements of the newly aligned stretches of the road.
11. Design and construction of the new highway pavements

2.1 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Basic Principles of Geometric Design

A uniform application of design standards is most desirable from the viewpoint of road safety and
smooth flow of traffic. The use of optimum design standards will reduce the possibility of use of
high economy and time.
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

Table.5: width of carriage, shoulder width, road width (IRC SP 20-2002)

Classification Carriage Width(m) Shoulder width Road width(m)

NH,SH single 3.75 2*1.25 6.25
and double 7 2*0.9 8.88
lane
MDR 3.75 2*05 4.75
VR 3 2*0.5 4

Highway Cross-Section Elements:

The different elements under this are:
Pavement surface characteristics.
Cross slope or camber.
Width of pavement or carriageway.
Kerb
Road margins.
Right of way.
Width of roadway.

Width of road land, Roadway, Carriageway and Shoulders;

Desirable width of road land (also termed as right-of-way) for various categories of roads are given
in the Table.
Table.6: Desirable width of road land (IRC SP 20-2002)

Sl .no Classification Open areas Built up areas

Normal Exceptional Normal Exceptional
1 NH&SH 24 18 20 18
2 MDR 18 15 15 12
3 ODR 15 12 12 9
4 VR 9 9 9 9

Note:
In order to ensure proper sigh distance, it may be necessary to acquire additional right-of-
way over that indicated in the table. The right-of-way should be enough to ensure a
minimum setback of 5mm for building line from the centre line of the road.
Additional land with reference to the requirements may be acquired at locations involving
deep cuts. Fills and unstable or landslide areas
If a road is expected, to be a higher classification in the foreseeable future, the land width
should correspond to the higher class of roads
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

2.11 WIDTH OF CARRIAGEWAY:

Shoulder and roadway for various categories of roads should be as given in table.
Table.7: width of carriageway (IRC SP 20-2002)

Classification Carriage Width(m) Shoulder width Road width(m)

NH,SH single 3.75 2*1.25 6.25
anddouble 7 2*0.9 8.8
lane
MDR 3.75 2*05 4.75
VR 3 2*0.5 4
Note:
The roadway width given in the Table are exclusive of parapets (usual width 0.6m)
The roadway widths for village roads are on the basis of a single lane carriageway of 3m. Widths
greater that 3m may however be adopted judiciously depending on the type and intensity of
traffic, cost and related factors. In that case the roadway width should be increased
correspondingly.
In hard rock stretches or unstable locations where, excess cutting might lead to slope failure,
0.8m on two-lane roads and 0.4 m in other cases may reduce the width of roadway. However,
where such stretches occur in continuous long length, reduction in roadway width should not be
affected unless requisite passing places are provided
On horizontal curves, the roadway width should be increased corresponding to the extra
widening of carriageway for curvature.
On roads subject to heavy snowfall, where regular snow clearance is done over long periods to
keep the road open to traffic, roadway width may be increased by 1.5m for and

2.12 CAMBER/CROSSFALL

The pavement on straight reaches should be provided with a crown in the middle and surface on
either side sloping towards the edge. The camber or cross fall on straight sections of roads should
be as given below. For a given surface type, the steeper values of camber should be adopted in
areas having high intensity of rainfall and lower values where the intensity of rainfall is low.
The cross falls for earth shoulders should be at least 0.5% more than the pavement camber subject
to a minimum of 3%. On super elevated sections, the shoulders should normally have the same
cross fall as the pavement.

2.13 Design Speed:

The designs speeds for various categories of hill roads should be as given in the Table.
Table.8 Design Speeds (km/h) (IRC SP 20-2002)
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

Road Plain Rolling Mountainous steep

classification
Ruling min ruling min ruling Min Ruling min
NH&SH 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
MDR 80 65 65 50 0 30 30 20
ODR 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
VR 50 40 40 35 25 2 25 20

2.14 Sight Distance:

Stopping sight distance is the clear distance ahead needed by a driver by bring his vehicle
to a stop before meeting a stationary object in his path. And is calculated as the sum of braking
distance required at the particular speed plus the distance travelled by vehicle during perception
and brake reaction time, intermediate sight distance is defined as twice the stopping sight distance.
Design values for both these sight distances and the criteria for their measurement are given in the
table. The stopping sight distance on a level road is given by,

Where
, V = 65kmph
t = 2.5s
f = 0.36
The stopping sight distance calculated is 92m.
Therefore, an SSD of 92m is provide

Design Values of Stopping and Intermediate Sight Distances For Various

Speeds:
Table9: Design values in meters (m) (IRC SP 20-2002)

Speed (kmph) stopping sight distance Intermediate sight distance

20 20 40
25 25 50
30 30 60
35 40 80
40 45 90
50 60 120

CRITERIA FOR MEASURING SIGHT DISTANCE

Table10: measuring sight distance

Sl.No Sight distance Driver eye height Height of object

1. Safe stopping distance 1.2 0.15
2. Intermediate sight distance 1.2 1.2
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

2.15 OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE

The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake
slow vehicle ahead with safety against traffic of opposite direction is known as the minimum
overtaking sight distance or the safe passing sight distance available.

The overtaking sight distance depends on the following factors:

Speed of overtaking, overtaken and oncoming vehicles.
Spacing between the vehicles.
Skill and reaction time of driver.

2.2 IMPORTANCE
The geometric design deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of the highway such
as alignment, sight distance and intersections.

The geometrics of the highway of the highway should be designed to provide the optimum
efficiency in traffic operations with the maximum safety at the reasonable cost. The designer may
be exposed to either planning of new highway network or improvement of the existing highways
to meet the requirements of the existing and anticipated traffic

It is possible to design and construct the pavement of a road in stages, but it is very expensive
and rather difficult to improve the geometric elements of the road in the geometric features of the
road during the initial alignment itself taking into considerations the future growth of the traffic

FACTORS CONTROLLING THE DESIGN OF THE GEOMETRIC DESIGN

The geometric design of the highways depends upon the several design factors. The
important of these factors which control the geometric elements are:

Design speed
Topography
Traffic factors
Designs hourly volume and capacity
Environmental and other factors

2.3 HIGHWAY CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS

Pavement surface characteristics:
The pavement surface depends on the pavement type which is decided based on
the availability of the materials and funds, volume and composition of traffic, sub grade and
 EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

climatic condition. Construction facilities and cost considerations, the important surface
characteristics and drainage of surface water

Friction:
It is a force developing in between the tries and the pavement surface during the movement of the
vehicles. Friction is important factor in determining the operating speed, distance, requirements in
sopping and accelerating the vehicles. There are two types of frictions:

a) Longitudinal friction
b) Lateral friction
Longitudinal friction occurs along the longitudinal direction (length) of the road. Indian road
congress had recommended the coefficient of friction as 0.4, considering the worst pavement
condition (wet condition).

Lateral friction occurs when vehicles move along a horizontal curve and Indian road congress
has suggested a coefficient of friction as 0.15, considering the pavement as mud surface

2.4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE FRICTION OR SKID RESISTANCE

The following are the factors affecting the friction:

1. Type of the pavement surface namely cement concrete, bituminous, water bound macadam
road, earth surface, etc.
2. Macro texture of the pavements surface or its relative roughness.
3. Condition of the pavement namely wet or dry, smoothened or rough, oil spilled, mud or
dry sand on pavement
4. Type and condition of tire i.e., new with good trends or smoothened and worn out tire.
5. Speed and the vehicle
6. Extent of brake application or brake efficiency
7. Load and tire pressure
8. Temperature of tire and pavement

Table11: IRC: SP: 20-2002 recommendation for speed

Speed, 20-30 40 50 60 65 80 100
kmph
Longitudina 0.4 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.36 0.35 0.35
ll
coefficient
of
friction(f)
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

2.41 HORIZONTAL ALINGMENT DESIGN

In general, horizontal curves should consist of a circular portion flanked by spiral

transitions, at both ends. Design speed, super elevation and coefficient of side friction affect the
design of circular curves.
Minimum radius curves should be adopted only when absolutely necessary at reverse
curves, sufficient gap should be ensured between the two curves for introduction of the requisite
transition curves. Compound curve may be used only when it is impossible to fit in a single circular
curve.

Super Elevation: Super elevation to be provided on curves is calculated from the

following formula.
E=
Where: e= super elevation
v= design speed in km/h

R= radius of the curve in meters

The change over from normal section to super elevation should be achieved gradually
over the full length of the transition curve so that the design super elevation is available at the
starting point of the circular curve.

Minimum Curve Radii: On a horizontal curve, the combined effect of super elevation
and side friction balance the centrifugal force. The basic equation for this condition of
equilibrium is:

Where

V = vehicle speed in m/s v = vehicle speed in km/h

G = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
e = ratio of super elevation
f = co-efficient of side friction between vehicle tyres and pavement. (Taken as 0.15)
Radii for horizontal curves corresponding to ruling minimum and absolute minimum design
speeds are shown in the Table
Horizontal curve Design
Speed = 65 kmph
Radius = 90m
However, provide e = 0.07,
f= 0.15
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

Delta = 10
Tangent length = 115.19 m
Length of curve = 163.28 m
Chainage of PI = 205m

Table12: minimum radius of horizontal curves for various classes of hill roads (IRC SP 20-
2002)

Sl no Road Mountainous terrain Steep terrain

classificatio
nn
Ruling min ruling Min
1 NH&SH 50 40 40 30
2 MDR 40 30 30 20
3 ODR 30 25 25 20

2.42 TRANSITION CURVES

Spiral curve should be used for transitions. These are necessary for smooth entry of
vehicles from a straight section into a circular curve. The transition curves also improve aesthetic
appearance of the road, besides permitting gradual application of the super elevation and extra
widening at curves. Minimum length of transition curves for various radii is given in the table.

Fig.33. Transition curve

From IRC 38,

Length of transition curve is 75m
LT = 0.6720×75 = 50.4 m
ST = 0.339×75 = 25.4 m
K = 0.4970×75 = 37.28 m
Shift = 2.6
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2.5 MINIMUM TRANSITION LENGTH FOR DIFFERENT SPEEDS

ANDCURVE RADIUS:
In such cases, the super-elevation is provided as follows.
First, calculate the length of transition curve though it is not provided.
Let L= length of transition curve
Also, calculate the amount of super-elevation E, to be provided.
Now, 2/3E is provided at the straight portion in a length equal to 2/3L, also a remaining
1/3E is provided in the curved portion in a length equal to 1/3E
In a similar way the calculated extra widening We is also provided, i.e., 2/3We in the
straight portion and 1/3We in the curved portion.
Also, the extra widening is introduced on the inner side of the curve for curves without
transition curves also in hilly roads

2.6 WIDENING OF PAVEMENT AT CURVES

Table13: widening of pavement (IRC SP 20-2002)

Radius Up to 20 21 to 40 41 to 60 61 to 100 101 to 300 300 above

o fcurve(m)

Extra
width(m
)
Two lane 1.5 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.6 nil
Single lane 0.9 0.6 0.6 Nil Nil Nil

2.61 SET-BACK DISTANCE AT HORIZONTAL CURVES

Requisite sight distance should be available across the inside of horizontal curves. Lack of
visibility in the lateral direction may arise due to obstructions like walls, cut slopes, wooded areas,
high crops etc. Set-back distance from the centre line of the carriageway within which the
offending obstructions should be cleared to ensure the needed visibility can be determined.

The set-back distance is calculated from the following equation:

M=R-(R-
Where,
=S / 2*(R-n)
m= the minimum set-back distance from the centre line of the road to sight obstruction in
meters at the middle of the road
R= centre line of the road in metres
N= distance between the centre line of the road and the inside lane in metres
S= sight distance in meters
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

For applying the above relationship, sight distance is measured along the middle of inner
lane. However, on single-lane roads, sight distance is measured along centre line of the
carriageway and is taken as zero.

General:
The vertical alignment should provide for a smooth longitudinal profile consistent with
category of a road and the terrain. Grade changes should not be too frequent as to cause kinks and
visual discontinuities in the profile

Gradients:
Recommended gradients for different terrain conditions except at hair-pin bends are given
in the table

3.0 RECOMMENDED GRADIENTS FOR DIFFERENT TERRAIN

CONDITIONS
Table.14-Grade Compensation at Curves (IRC SP 20-2002)

Classifications of gradients Mountainous & steep terrain steep terrain up to 3000m

more than 3000m above MSL aboveMSL
Ruling gradient 5% 6%
Limiting gradient 6% 7%
Exceptional gradient 7% 8%

At horizontal curves the gradients should be eased by an amount known as the

be calculated from the following formula;

Grade compensation (%) = (30 + EJ) /R
Subject to a minimum of 75/R
Where R is radius of the curve in meters

4.0 VERTICAL CURVES

Vertical curves are introduced for smooth transition at grade changes. Both summit curves
and valley curves should be designed as square parabolas. The two types of vertical curves are:
Summit curves
Valley curves
The design procedure of calculation of length of vertical curves is as follows:
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (18CVL68)

SUMMIT CURVES

The length of summit curves is governed by the choice of sight, distance, whether stopping
sight distance of the intermediate sight distance.
The required length may be calculated from the following formula:

a) For Safe Stopping Sight Distance

Case (1); when the length of the curve exceeds the required sight distance, i.e. L is greater than S.
L= NS²
4.4
Where
N = deviation angle, i.e. the algebraic difference between the two grades
L = length of the parabolic vertical curve in meters
S = sight distance in meters
Case (ii) when the length of the curve is less than the required sight distance i.e. is less than S
L= 2S- 4.4
N
b) For Intermediate Sight Distance

Case (i) When the length of the curve exceeds the required sight distance, i.e. is greater then
L= NS² /9.6

Case (ii) when the length of the curve is less than the required sight distance, i.e. is less than S
L = 2S- 9.6/N

VALLEY CURVE
The length of the valley curves should be such that for night travel the headlight beam
distance is equal to the stopping sight distance. Based on this criterion, the length of curve may be
calculated as under;
Case (i): when the length of the curve exceeds the required sight distance. I.e. is greater than S.
L= NS²
1.5+ 0.035S
Case (ii): when the length of the curve is less than the required sight distance, i.e. is less than S
L= 2S- 1.5+0.035S/N
In both cases:
N= deviation angle, i.e. the algebraic difference between the two grades
L = length of the parabolic vertical curve in meters
S = sight distance in meters
Note: The above formula have been derived with the following Assumptions:
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Headlight height = 0.75 m

Upward divergence of the light beam from the longitudinal axis of the vehicle = 10

5.0 DESIGN OF PAVEMENTS:

The surface of the roadways should be stable and non-yielding, to allow the heavy wheel
loads of road traffic to move with least possible rolling resistance. The road surface should also be
even along the longitudinal profile to enable the fast vehicles to move safely and comfortably at
the design speed. Based on the vertical alignment and the environmental conditions of the site, the
pavement may be constructed over the embankment, out of almost at the ground level. It is always
desirable to construct the pavement well above the maximum level of the ground water to keep the
sub-grade dry, even during monsoons.

5.1 TYPES OF PAVEMENTS: Based on the structural behavior, pavements are generally
classified into two categories:
1. Flexible pavements.

2. Rigid pavements.

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS:
Flexible pavements are those, which on the whole have low or negligible flexural strength
and are rather flexural in their structural under loads. The flexible pavement layers reflect the
deformation of the lower layer to the surface of the layer. Thus, if the lower layer of the pavement
or soil sub-grade is undulated, the flexible pavement surface also gets undulated. A flexible
pavement consists of four components:

1. Soil sub-grade,
2. Sub-base course
3. Base course
4. Surface course

RIGID PAVEMENTS: Rigid pavements are those, which possess noteworthy flexural
strength or flexural rigidity. The stresses are not transferred from grain to grain to the lower layers
as in the case of flexible pavements layers. The pavements are made of Portland cement concrete
plain, reinforced or Pre-stressed concrete. The rigid pavements are usually designed and the
stresses are analyzed using elastic theory, assuming the pavement as an elastic plate resting over
elastic or a viscous foundation. It consists of three components:

a) Cement concrete slab

b) Base-course
c) Soil sub-grade.
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FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN:

Traffic is estimated based on 7 day, 24-hr classified counts. In exceptional cases, 3
day count is used. The rate of growth is estimated based on past trends. If not, 7.5% is taken for
rural roads. Design life is usually 10 to 15 years. The design traffic is considered in terms of
cumulative number of standard axles (C.S.A). It is done using the following equation:

Ns = cumulative number of standard axles.

A = number of commercial vehicles per day when construction is completed, considering the
number of lanes.

R =annual rate of growth

F = vehicle damage factor

Table .15 Distribution factor (D.F) is taken as follows:

Type of road Distribution factor (D.F)

Single lane (3.75 m) 2.0

Intermediate road (5.5m) 1.5

Two-lane 0.75

Four-lane 0.40

Dual carriageway: 75% of the number of vehicles in each direction.

6.0 VEHICLE DAMAGE FACTOR: Is a multiplier for converting the

number of commercial vehicles of different axle loads to the number of
standard axle load vehicles.
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Table.16-vehicle damage factors (IRC SP 20-2002)

Traffic Terrain Vehicle damage factor

Un-surfaced Thin surfaced Thick surfaced
Hilly 0.5 0.75
<150 Rolling 1.5 1.75
Plain 2 2.25
Hilly 1.0 1.25
150-1500 Rolling 2.0 2.25
Plain 2.5 2.75
Hilly 1.25 1.5
>1500 Rolling 2.25 2.5
Plain 2.75 3

1. Highway construction
2. Design data and specifications for the alignment (IRC: sp: 20-2002)

7.0 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT: - Design procedure based on the

performance of existing designs and using analytical approach, simple design charts and a
catalogue of pavement designs are added in the code. The pavement designs are given for
sub grade CBR values ranging from 2% to 10% and design traffic ranging from 1 msa to
150 msa foran average annual pavement temperature of 35 C. The later thicknesses obtained
from the analysishave been slightly modified to adapt the designs to stage construction.
Using the following simpleinput parameters, appropriate designs could be chosen for the
given traffic and soil strength:
Design traffic in terms of cumulative number of standard axles; and
CBR value of sub grade.

8.0 DESIGN TRAFFIC

The method considers traffic in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles (8160 kg) to be
carried by the pavement during the design life. This requires the following information:

1. Initial traffic in terms of CVPD

2. Traffic growth rate during the design life
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3. Design life in number of years

4. Vehicle damage factor (VDF)
5. Distribution of commercial traffic over the carriage way.

8.1 INITIAL TRAFFIC: Initial traffic is determined in terms of commercial vehicles per day
(CVPD). For the structural design of the pavement only commercial vehicles are considered
assuming laden weight of three tonnes or more and their axle loading will be considered. Estimate
of the initial daily average traffic flow for any road should normally be based on 7-day 24-hour
classified traffic counts (ADT). In case of new roads, traffic estimates can be made on the basis of
potential land use and traffic on existing routes in the area.

TRAFFIC GROWTH RATE: Traffic growth rates can be estimated

(i) by studying the past trends of traffic growth, and
(ii) By establishing econometric models. If adequate data is not available, it is
recommended that an average annual growth rate of 7.5 percent may be adopted.

DESIGN LIFE FOR THE PURPOSE OF THE PAVEMENT DESIGN: The

design life is defined in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles that can be carried before
strengthening of the pavement is necessary. It is recommended that pavements for arterial roads
like NH, SH should be designed for a life of 15 years, EH and urban roads for 20 years and other
categories of roads for 10 to 15 years.

VEHICLE DAMAGE FACTOR: The vehicle damage factor (VDF) is a multiplier for
converting the number of commercial vehicles of different axle loads and axle configurations to
the number of standard axle-load repetitions. It is defined as equivalent number of standard axles
per commercial vehicle. The VDF varies with the axle configuration, axle loading, terrain, type of
road, and from region to region. The axle load equivalency factors are used to convert different
axle load repetitions into equivalent standard axle load repetitions. For these equivalency factors
refer IRC: 37 2002. The exact VDF values are arrived after extensive field surveys.

VEHICLE DISTRIBUTION: A realistic assessment of distribution of commercial traffic

by direction and by lane is necessary as it directly affects the total equivalent standard axle load
application used in the design. Until reliable data is available, the following distribution may be
assumed.

Single lane roads: Traffic tends to be more channelized on single roads than two lane roads
and to allow for this concentration of wheel load repetitions, the design should be based on total
number of commercial vehicles in both directions.
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Two-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 75 % of the commercial
vehicles in both directions.
Four-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 40 % of the total number of
commercial vehicles in both directions.
Dual carriageway roads: For the design of dual two-lane carriageway roads should be based on
75 % of the number of commercial vehicles in each direction. For dual three-lane carriageway and
dual four-lane carriageway the distribution factor will be 60 % and 45 % respectively.

9.0 PAVEMENT THICKNESS: design charts For the design of pavements to carry traffic
in the range of 1 to 10 msa, use chart 1 and for traffic in the range 10 to 150 msa, use chart 2 of
IRC:37 2002. The design curves relate pavement thickness to the cumulative number of standard
axles to be carried over the design life for different sub-grade CBR values ranging from 2 % to 10
%. The design charts will give the total thickness of the pavement for the above inputs. The total
thickness consists of granular sub-base, granular base and bituminous surfacing. The individual
layers are designed based on the recommendations given below and the subsequent tables.
Pavement composition

SUB-BASE: Sub-base materials comprise natural sand, gravel, lateritic, brick metal, crushed
stone or combinations thereof meeting the prescribed grading and physical requirements. The sub-
base material should have a minimum CBR of 20 % and 30 % for traffic up to 2 msa and traffic
exceeding 2 msa respectively. Sub-base usually consists of granular or WBM and the thickness
should not be less than 150 mm for design traffic less than 10 msa and 200 mm for design traffic
of 1:0 msa and above.

BASE: The recommended designs are for unbounded granular bases which comprise
conventional water bound macadam the materials should be of good quality with minimum
thickness of 225 mm for traffic up to 2 msa and 150 mm for traffic exceeding 2 msa.

BITUMINOUS SURFACING: The surfacing consists of a wearing course or a binder

course plus wearing course. The most commonly used wearing courses are surface dressing, open
graded premix carpet, mix seal surfacing, semi-dense bituminous concrete and bituminous
concrete. For binder course, MOST specifies, it is desirable to use bituminous macadam (BM) for
traffic up to o 5 msa and dense bituminous macadam (DBM) for tar
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9. EARTHWORK CALCULATIONS:

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(Table.17-Calculation of earth work)

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10. CONCLUSION

The primary and detailed investigation to align the new road between two obligatory points was

completed effectively by conducting necessary surveys. The transportation is increasing by day

by day and for a good transportation it is required to be economical and safe.

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