Tin

Tin is a chemical element; it

Tin, 50Sn
has symbol Sn (from Latin
stannum) and atomic
number 50. A silvery-colored
metal, tin is soft enough to
be cut with little force,[10]
and a bar of tin can be bent
by hand with little effort.
When bent, the so-called "tin
cry" can be heard as a result Tin
of twinning in tin crystals.[11] Allotropes silvery-white, β (beta); gray, α (alpha)

Tin is a post-transition metal Standard atomic weight Ar°(Sn)

in group 14 of the periodic 118.710 ± 0.007[1]
table of elements. It is 118.71 ± 0.01 (abridged)[2]
obtained chiefly from the
mineral cassiterite, which Tin in the periodic table
contains stannic oxide, SnO2 Hydrogen Ge
Helium
. Tin shows a chemical Lithium
Beryllium Boron
Carbon ↑
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
Sodium
Magnesium Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon
Potassium
Calcium Scandium
Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium Sn
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton
similarity to both of its Rubidium
Strontium Yttrium
Zirconium
Niobium
Molybdenum
Technetium
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Antimony
TinTellurium
Iodine
Xenon
↓
Caesium
Barium
Lanthanum
Cerium
Praseodymium
Neodymium
Promethium
Samarium
Europium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Holmium
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon
neighbors in group 14, Francium
Radium
Actinium
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Nihonium Pb
Flerovium
Moscovium
Livermorium
Tennessine
Oganesson
indium ← tin → antimony (element)
germanium and lead, and
has two main oxidation Atomic number (Z) 50
states, +2 and the slightly
Group group 14 (carbon group)
more stable +4. Tin is the
49th most abundant element Period period 5
on Earth, making up Block p-block
0.00022% of its crust, and
Electron [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p2
with 10 stable isotopes, it has
configuration
the largest number of stable
isotopes in the periodic table, Electrons per 2, 8, 18, 18, 4
due to its magic number of shell
protons. Physical properties

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 It has two main allotropes: at Phase at STP solid
room temperature, the stable Melting point 505.08 K (231.93 °C, 449.47 °F)
allotrope is β-tin, a silvery-
Boiling point 2875 K (2602 °C, 4716 °F)
white, malleable metal; at
low temperatures it is less Density (at 20° C) white (β): 7.289 g/cm3
dense grey α-tin, which has gray (α): 5.770 g/cm3[3]
the diamond cubic structure. when liquid 6.99 g/cm3
Metallic tin does not easily (at m.p.)
oxidize in air and water.
Heat of fusion white (β): 7.03 kJ/mol
The first tin alloy used on a Heat of white (β): 296.1 kJ/mol
large scale was bronze, made vaporization
of 1⁄8 tin and 7⁄8 copper Molar heat white (β): 27.112 J/(mol·K)
(12.5% and 87.5% capacity
respectively), from as early
Vapor pressure
as 3000 BC. After 600 BC,
pure metallic tin was P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
produced. Pewter, which is
at T (K) 1497 1657 1855 2107 2438 2893
an alloy of 85–90% tin with
the remainder commonly Atomic properties
consisting of copper, Oxidation states common: −4, +2, +4
antimony, bismuth, and −3,? −2,? −1,? 0,[4] +1,[5] +3[6]
sometimes lead and silver,
Electronegativity Pauling scale: 1.96
has been used for flatware
since the Bronze Age. In Ionization 1st: 708.6 kJ/mol
modern times, tin is used in energies 2nd: 1411.8 kJ/mol
many alloys, most notably 3rd: 2943.0 kJ/mol
tin-lead soft solders, which
are typically 60% or more Atomic radius empirical: 140 pm
tin, and in the manufacture Covalent radius 139±4 pm
of transparent, electrically Van der Waals 217 pm
conducting films of indium
radius
tin oxide in optoelectronic
applications. Another large
application is corrosion-
resistant tin plating of steel. Spectral lines of tin
Because of the low toxicity of Other properties
inorganic tin, tin-plated steel Natural primordial
is widely used for food occurrence
packaging as "tin cans".
Crystal structure white (β): body-centered tetragonal
Some organotin compounds
(tI4)
can be extremely toxic.

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 Lattice constants white (β):
Characteristics a = 583.13 pm
c = 318.11 pm
(at 20 °C)[3]

Physical
Crystal structure gray (α): face-centered diamond-
Tin is a soft, malleable,
cubic (cF8)
ductile and highly crystalline
silvery-white metal. When a Lattice constant gray (α):
bar of tin is bent a crackling a = 648.96 pm (at 20 °C)[3]
sound known as the "tin cry"
can be heard from the Thermal white (β): 21.76 × 10−6/K (at 20 °C)[a]
twinning of the crystals.[11] expansion gray (α): 5.20 × 10−6/K (at 20 °C)[3]
This trait is shared by Thermal 66.8 W/(m⋅K)
indium, cadmium, zinc, and conductivity
mercury in its solid state. Tin
Electrical 115 nΩ⋅m (at 0 °C)
melts at about 232 °C
resistivity
(450 °F), the lowest in
group 14, and boils at Magnetic ordering white (β): paramagnetic
2,602 °C (4,716 °F), the gray (α): diamagnetic[7]
second lowest (ahead of Molar magnetic white (β): +3.1 × 10−6 cm3/mol
lead) in its group. The susceptibility (298 K)[8]
melting point is further Young's modulus 50 GPa
lowered to 177.3 °C (351.1 °F)
Shear modulus 18 GPa
for 11 nm particles.[12][13]
Bulk modulus 58 GPa
β-tin, also called white tin, is Speed of sound 2730 m/s (at r.t.) (rolled)
the allotrope (structural thin rod
form) of elemental tin that is
Poisson ratio 0.36
stable at and above room
temperature. It is metallic Mohs hardness 1.5
and malleable, and has body- Brinell hardness 50–440 MPa
centered tetragonal crystal
CAS Number 7440-31-5
structure. α-tin, or gray tin,
is the nonmetallic form. It is History
stable below 13.2 °C Discovery protohistoric, around 35th century BC
(55.8 °F) and is brittle. α-tin Symbol "Sn": from Latin stannum
has a diamond cubic crystal
Isotopes of tin
structure, as do diamond and
silicon. α-tin does not have
metallic properties because
its atoms form a covalent

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 structure in which electrons Main isotopes[9] Decay
cannot move freely. α-tin is a
abundance half-life (t1/2) mode product
dull-gray powdery material
with no common uses other 112
Sn 0.970% stable
than specialized 114
Sn 0.66% stable
semiconductor applications.
[11] γ-tin and σ-tin exist at 115
Sn 0.34% stable
temperatures above 161 °C
116
(322 °F) and pressures Sn 14.5% stable

above several GPa.[14] 117

Sn 7.68% stable

In cold conditions β-tin 118

Sn 24.2% stable
tends to transform 119
Sn 8.59% stable
spontaneously into α-tin, a
phenomenon known as "tin 120
Sn 32.6% stable
pest" or "tin disease".[15]
122
Some unverifiable sources Sn 4.63% stable
also say that, during 124
Sn 5.79% stable
Napoleon's Russian
126
campaign of 1812, the Sn trace 2.3 × 105 y β− 126
Sb
temperatures became so cold
that the tin buttons on the

soldiers' uniforms disintegrated over time,

contributing to the defeat of the Grande Armée,[16] a
persistent legend.[17][18][19]

The α-β transformation temperature is 13.2 °C

(55.8 °F), but impurities (e.g. Al, Zn, etc.) lower it
well below 0 °C (32 °F). With the addition of
antimony or bismuth the transformation might not
occur at all, increasing durability.[20]

Commercial grades of tin (99.8% tin content) resist

transformation because of the inhibiting effect of
Droplet of solidified molten tin
small amounts of bismuth, antimony, lead, and
silver present as impurities. Alloying elements such
External videos as copper, antimony, bismuth, cadmium, and silver
β–α transition of tin (https:// increase the hardness of tin.[21] Tin easily forms hard,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=s brittle intermetallic phases that are typically
XB83Heh3_c) at −40 °C (time undesirable. It does not mix into a solution with most
lapse; one second of the video metals and elements so tin does not have much solid

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 is one hour in real time) solubility. Tin mixes well with bismuth, gallium, lead,
thallium and zinc, forming simple eutectic systems.
[20]

Tin becomes a superconductor below 3.72 K[22] and was one of the first
superconductors to be studied.[23] The Meissner effect, one of the characteristic features
of superconductors, was first discovered in superconducting tin crystals.[23]

Chemical
Tin resists corrosion from water, but can be corroded by acids and alkalis. Tin can be
highly polished and is used as a protective coat for other metals.[11] When heated in air
it oxidizes slowly to form a thin passivation layer of stannic oxide (SnO2) that inhibits
further oxidation.[24][25]

Isotopes
Tin has ten stable isotopes, the greatest number of any element. Their mass numbers are
112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, and 124. Tin-120 makes up almost a third of all
tin. Tin-118 and tin-116 are also common. Tin-115 is the least common stable isotope.
The isotopes with even mass numbers have no nuclear spin, while those with odd mass
numbers have a nuclear spin of 1/2. It is thought that tin has such a great multitude of
stable isotopes because of tin's atomic number being 50, which is a "magic number" in
nuclear physics.

Tin is one of the easiest elements to detect and analyze by NMR spectroscopy, which
relies on molecular weight and its chemical shifts are referenced against tetramethyltin
(SnMe4).[b][26]

Of the stable isotopes, tin-115 has a high neutron capture cross section for fast neutrons,
at 30 barns. Tin-117 has a cross section of 2.3 barns, one order of magnitude smaller,
while tin-119 has a slightly smaller cross section of 2.2 barns.[27] Before these cross
sections were well known, it was proposed to use tin-lead solder as a coolant for fast
reactors because of its low melting point. Current studies are for lead or lead-bismuth
reactor coolants because both heavy metals are nearly transparent to fast neutrons, with
very low capture cross sections.[28] In order to use a tin or tin-lead coolant, the tin
would first have to go through isotopic separation to remove the isotopes with odd mass
number. Combined, these three isotopes make up about 17% of natural tin but represent
nearly all of the capture cross section. Of the remaining seven isotopes tin-112 has a
capture cross section of 1 barn. The other six isotopes forming 82.7% of natural tin have
capture cross sections of 0.3 barns or less, making them effectively transparent to
neutrons.[27]

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 Tin has 31 unstable isotopes, ranging in mass number from 99 to 139. The unstable tin
isotopes have half-lives of less than a year except for tin-126, which has a half-life of
about 230,000 years. Tin-100 and tin-132 are two of the very few nuclides with a
"doubly magic" nucleus which despite being unstable, as they have very uneven
neutron–proton ratios, are the endpoints beyond which tin isotopes lighter than tin-100
and heavier than tin-132 are much less stable.[29] Another 30 metastable isomers have
been identified for tin isotopes between 111 and 131, the most stable being tin-121m, with
a half-life of 43.9 years.[30]

The relative differences in the abundances of tin's stable isotopes can be explained by
how they are formed during stellar nucleosynthesis. Tin-116 through tin-120, along with
tin-122, are formed in the s-process (slow neutron capture) in most stars which leads to
them being the most common tin isotopes, while tin-124 is only formed in the r-process
(rapid neutron capture) in supernovae and neutron star mergers. Tin isotopes 115, 117
through 120, and 122 are produced via both the s-process and the r-process,[31] The two
lightest stable isotopes, tin-112 and tin-114, cannot be made in significant amounts in
the s- or r-processes and are among the p-nuclei whose origins are not well understood.
Some theories about their formation include proton capture and photodisintegration.
Tin-115 might be partially produced in the s-process, both directly and as the daughter
of long-lived indium-115, and also from the decay of indium-115 produced via the r-
process.[31][32]

Etymology
The word tin is shared among Germanic languages and can be traced back to
reconstructed Proto-Germanic *tin-om; cognates include German Zinn, Swedish tenn
and Dutch tin. It is not found in other branches of Indo-European, except by borrowing
from Germanic (e.g., Irish tinne from English).[33][34]

The Latin name for tin, stannum, originally meant an alloy of silver and lead, and came
to mean 'tin' in the fourth century[35]—the earlier Latin word for it was plumbum
candidum, or "white lead". Stannum apparently came from an earlier stāgnum
(meaning the same substance),[33] the origin of the Romance and Celtic terms for tin,
such as French étain, Spanish estaño, Italian stagno, and Irish stán.[33][36] The origin
of stannum/stāgnum is unknown; it may be pre-Indo-European.[37]

The Meyers Konversations-Lexikon suggests instead that stannum came from Cornish
stean, and is evidence that Cornwall in the first centuries AD was the main source of tin.

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 History
Tin extraction and use can be dated to the
beginnings of the Bronze Age around 3000 BC,
when it was observed that copper objects formed of
polymetallic ores with different metal contents had
different physical properties.[38] The earliest bronze
objects had a tin or arsenic content of less than 2%
and are believed to be the result of unintentional
alloying due to trace metal content in the copper ore.
[39] The addition of a second metal to copper
increases its hardness, lowers the melting
temperature, and improves the casting process by
producing a more fluid melt that cools to a denser, Ceremonial giant bronze dirk of
less spongy metal. [39] This was an important the Plougrescant-Ommerschans
type, Plougrescant, France, 1500–
innovation that allowed for the much more complex
1300 BC
shapes cast in closed molds of the Bronze Age.
Arsenical bronze objects appear first in the Near
East where arsenic is commonly found with copper ore, but the health risks were quickly
realized and the quest for sources of the much less hazardous tin ores began early in the
Bronze Age.[40] This created the demand for rare tin metal and formed a trade network
that linked the distant sources of tin to the markets of Bronze Age cultures.[41]

Cassiterite (SnO2), the oxide form of tin, was most likely the original source of tin. Other
tin ores are less common sulfides such as stannite that require a more involved smelting
process. Cassiterite often accumulates in alluvial channels as placer deposits because it
is harder, heavier, and more chemically resistant than the accompanying granite.[39]
Cassiterite is usually black or dark in color, and these deposits can be easily seen in river
banks. Alluvial (placer) deposits may incidentally have been collected and separated by
methods similar to gold panning.[42]

Compounds and chemistry

In the great majority of its compounds, tin has the oxidation state II or IV. Compounds
containing bivalent tin are called stannous while those containing tetravalent tin are
termed stannic.

Inorganic compounds

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 Halide compounds are known for both oxidation states. For Sn(IV), all four halides are
well known: SnF4, SnCl4, SnBr4, and SnI4. The three heavier members are volatile
molecular compounds, whereas the tetrafluoride is polymeric. All four halides are
known for Sn(II) also: SnF2, SnCl2, SnBr2, and SnI2. All are polymeric solids. Of these
eight compounds, only the iodides are colored.[43]

Tin(II) chloride (also known as stannous chloride) is the most important commercial tin
halide. Illustrating the routes to such compounds, chlorine reacts with tin metal to give
SnCl4 whereas the reaction of hydrochloric acid and tin produces SnCl2 and hydrogen
gas. Alternatively SnCl4 and Sn combine to stannous chloride by a process called
comproportionation:[44]

SnCl4 + Sn → 2 SnCl2

Tin can form many oxides, sulfides, and other chalcogenide derivatives. The dioxide
SnO2 (cassiterite) forms when tin is heated in the presence of air.[43] SnO2 is
amphoteric, which means that it dissolves in both acidic and basic solutions.[45]
Stannates with the structure [Sn(OH)6]2−, like K2[Sn(OH)6], are also known, though
the free stannic acid H2[Sn(OH)6] is unknown.

Sulfides of tin exist in both the +2 and +4 oxidation states: tin(II) sulfide and tin(IV)
sulfide (mosaic gold).

Hydrides
Stannane (SnH4), with tin in the +4 oxidation state,
is unstable. Organotin hydrides are however well
known, e.g. tributyltin hydride (Sn(C4H9)3H).[11]
These compounds release transient tributyl tin
Ball-and-stick models of the
radicals, which are rare examples of compounds of
structure of solid stannous
tin(III).[47] chloride (SnCl2)[46]

Organotin compounds
Organotin compounds, sometimes called stannanes, are chemical compounds with tin–
carbon bonds.[48] Of the tin compounds, the organic derivatives are commercially the
most useful.[49] Some organotin compounds are highly toxic and have been used as
biocides. The first organotin compound to be reported was diethyltin diiodide
((C2H5)2SnI2), reported by Edward Frankland in 1849.[50]

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 Most organotin compounds are colorless liquids or solids that are stable to air and
water. They adopt tetrahedral geometry. Tetraalkyl- and tetraaryltin compounds can be
prepared using Grignard reagents:[49]

SnCl4 + 4 RMgBr → R4Sn + 4 MgBrCl

The mixed halide-alkyls, which are more common and more important commercially
than the tetraorgano derivatives, are prepared by redistribution reactions:

SnCl4 + R4Sn → 2 SnCl2R2

Divalent organotin compounds are uncommon, although more common than related
divalent organogermanium and organosilicon compounds. The greater stabilization
enjoyed by Sn(II) is attributed to the "inert pair effect". Organotin(II) compounds
include both stannylenes (formula: R2Sn, as seen for singlet carbenes) and
distannylenes (R4Sn2), which are roughly equivalent to alkenes. Both classes exhibit
unusual reactions.[51]

Occurrence
Tin is generated via the long s-process in low-to-
medium mass stars (with masses of 0.6 to 10 times
that of the Sun), and finally by beta decay of the
heavy isotopes of indium.[52]

Tin is the 49th most abundant element in Earth's

crust, representing 2 ppm compared with 75 ppm for
zinc, 50 ppm for copper, and 14 ppm for lead.[53] Sample of cassiterite, the main ore
of tin
Tin does not occur as the native element but must be
extracted from various ores. Cassiterite (SnO2) is the
only commercially important source of tin, although small quantities of tin are
recovered from complex sulfides such as stannite, cylindrite, franckeite, canfieldite, and
teallite. Minerals with tin are almost always associated with granite rock, usually at a
level of 1% tin oxide content.[54]

Because of the higher specific gravity of tin dioxide, about 80% of mined tin is from
secondary deposits found downstream from the primary lodes. Tin is often recovered
from granules washed downstream in the past and deposited in valleys or the sea. The

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 most economical ways of mining tin are by dredging, hydraulicking, or open pits. Most
of the world's tin is produced from placer deposits, which can contain as little as 0.015%
tin.[55]

World tin mine reserves

(tonnes, 2011)[56]

Country Reserves

China 1,500,000 Economically

recoverable tin
Malaysia 250,000 reserves[54]

Peru 310,000 Year Million tonnes

Indonesia 800,000 1965 4,265

Brazil 590,000 1970 3,930

Bolivia 400,000 1975 9,060

Russia 350,000 1980 9,100

Australia 180,000 1985 3,060

Thailand 170,000 1990 7,100

Other 180,000 2000 7,100[56]

Total 4,800,000 2010 5,200[56]

About 253,000 tonnes of tin were mined in 2011, mostly in China (110,000 t), Indonesia
(51,000 t), Peru (34,600 t), Bolivia (20,700 t) and Brazil (12,000 t).[56] Estimates of tin
production have historically varied with the market and mining technology. It is
estimated that, at current consumption rates and technologies, the Earth will run out of
mine-able tin in 40 years.[57] In 2006 Lester Brown suggested tin could run out within
20 years based on conservative estimates of 2% annual growth.[58]

Scrap tin is an important source of the metal. Recovery of tin through recycling is
increasing rapidly as of 2019.[59] Whereas the United States has neither mined (since
1993) nor smelted (since 1989) tin, it was the largest secondary producer, recycling
nearly 14,000 tonnes in 2006.[56]

New deposits are reported in Mongolia,[60] and in 2009, new deposits of tin were
discovered in Colombia.[61]

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 Production
Tin is produced by carbothermic reduction of the oxide ore with carbon or coke. Both
reverberatory furnace and electric furnace can be used:[62][63][64]

Arc furnace
SnO2 + C → Sn + CO2↑

Mining and smelting

Industry
The ten largest tin-producing companies produced most of the world's tin in 2007.

Most of the world's tin is traded on LME, from 8 countries, under 17 brands.[65]

Largest tin producing companies (tonnes)[66]

2006–2017
Company Polity 2006 2007 2017[67]
% change

Yunnan Tin China 52,339 61,129 74,500 42.3

PT Timah Indonesia 44,689 58,325 30,200 −32.4

Malaysia Smelting Corp Malaysia 22,850 25,471 27,200 19.0

Yunnan Chengfeng China 21,765 18,000 26,800 23.1

Minsur Peru 40,977 35,940 18,000 −56.1

EM Vinto Bolivia 11,804 9,448 12,600 6.7

Guangxi China Tin China / / 11,500 /

Thaisarco Thailand 27,828 19,826 10,600 −61.9

Metallo-Chimique Belgium 8,049 8,372 9,700 20.5

Gejiu Zi Li China / / 8,700 /

The International Tin Council was established in 1947 to control the price of tin. It
collapsed in 1985. In 1984, the Association of Tin Producing Countries was created, with
Australia, Bolivia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria, Thailand, and Zaire as members.[68]

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 Price and exchanges
Tin is unique among mineral commodities because
of the complex agreements between producer
countries and consumer countries dating back to
1921. Earlier agreements tended to be somewhat
informal and led to the "First International Tin
Agreement" in 1956, the first of a series that
effectively collapsed in 1985. Through these
agreements, the International Tin Council (ITC) had
a considerable effect on tin prices. ITC supported the World production and price (US
exchange) of tin
price of tin during periods of low prices by buying tin
for its buffer stockpile and was able to restrain the
price during periods of high prices by selling from the stockpile. This was an anti-free-
market approach, designed to assure a sufficient flow of tin to consumer countries and a
profit for producer countries. However, the buffer stockpile was not sufficiently large,
and during most of those 29 years tin prices rose, sometimes sharply, especially from
1973 through 1980 when rampant inflation plagued many world economies.[69]

During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the U.S. reduced its strategic tin stockpile, partly
to take advantage of historically high tin prices. The 1981–82 recession damaged the tin
industry. Tin consumption declined dramatically. ITC was able to avoid truly steep
declines through accelerated buying for its buffer stockpile; this activity required
extensive borrowing. ITC continued to borrow until late 1985 when it reached its credit
limit. Immediately, a major "tin crisis" ensued—tin was delisted from trading on the
London Metal Exchange for about three years. ITC dissolved soon afterward, and the
price of tin, now in a free-market environment, fell to $4 per pound and remained
around that level through the 1990s.[69] The price increased again by 2010 with a
rebound in consumption following the 2007–2008 economic crisis, accompanying
restocking and continued growth in consumption.[56]

London Metal Exchange (LME) is tin's

principal trading site.[56] Other tin
contract markets are Kuala Lumpur Tin
Market (KLTM) and Indonesia Tin
Exchange (INATIN).[70] Tin Prices 2008–2022

Due to factors involved in the 2021 global

supply chain crisis, tin prices almost doubled during 2020–21 and have had their largest
annual rise in over 30 years. Global refined tin consumption dropped 1.6 percent in
2020 as the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted global manufacturing industries.[71]

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 Applications
In 2018, just under half of all tin produced was used
in solder. The rest was divided between tin plating,
tin chemicals, brass and bronze alloys, and niche
uses.[72]

Pigments
Pigment Yellow 38, tin(IV) sulfide, is known as
mosaic gold.[73]

Purple of Cassius, Pigment Red 109, a hydrous World consumption of refined tin
double stannate of gold, was mainly, in terms of by end-use, 2006
painting, restricted to miniatures due to its high
cost. It was widely used to make cranberry glass. It has also been used in the arts to stain
porcelain.[74]

Lead-tin yellow (which occurs in two yellow forms — a stannate and a silicate) was a
pigment that was historically highly important for oil painting and which had some use
in fresco in its silicate form.[75] Lead stannate is also known in orange form but has not
seen wide use in the fine arts. It is available for purchase in pigment form from specialist
artists' suppliers. There is another minor form, in terms of artistic usage and
availability, of lead-tin yellow known as Lead-tin Antimony Yellow.

Cerulean blue, a somewhat dull cyan chemically known as cobalt stannate, continues to
be an important artists' pigment. Its hue is similar to that of Manganese blue, Pigment
Blue 33, although it lacks that pigment's colorfulness and is more opaque.[76] Artists
typically must choose between cobalt stannate and manganese blue imitations made
with phthalocyanine blue green shade (Pigment Blue 15:3), as industrial production of
manganese blue pigment ceased in the 1970s.[77] Cerulean blue made with cobalt
stannate, however, was popular with artists prior to the production of Manganese blue.

Pigment Red 233, commonly known as Pinkcolor or Potter's Pink and more precisely
known as Chrome Tin Pink Sphene, is a historically important pigment in watercolor.
[78] However, it has enjoyed a large resurgence in popularity due to Internet-based
word-of-mouth. It is fully lightfast and chemically stable in both oil paints and
watercolors. Other inorganic mixed metal complex pigments, produced via calcination,
often feature tin as a constituent. These pigments are known for their lightfastness,
weatherfastness, chemical stability, lack of toxicity, and opacity. Many are rather dull in
terms of colorfulness. However, some possess enough colorfulness to be competitive for

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 use cases that require more than a moderate amount of it. Some are prized for other
qualities. For instance, Pinkcolor is chosen by many watercolorists for its strong
granulation, even though its chroma is low. Recently, NTP Yellow (a pyrochlore) has
been brought to market as a non-toxic replacement for lead(II) chromate with greater
opacity, lightfastness, and weathering resistance than proposed organic lead chromate
replacement pigments possess.[79] NTP Yellow possesses the highest level of color
saturation of these contemporary inorganic mixed metal complex pigments. More
examples of this group include Pigment Yellow 158 (Tin Vanadium Yellow Cassiterite),
[80] Pigment Yellow 216 (Solaplex Yellow),[81] Pigment Yellow 219 (Titanium Zinc

Antimony Stannate),[82] Pigment Orange 82 (Tin Titanium Zinc oxide, also known as
Sicopal Orange),[83] Pigment Red 121 (also known as Tin Violet and Chromium
stannate),[84] Pigment Red 230 (Chrome Alumina Pink Corundum),[85] Pigment Red
236 (Chrome Tin Orchid Cassiterite),[86] and Pigment Black 23 (Tin Antimony Grey
Cassiterite).[87] Another blue pigment with tin and cobalt is Pigment Blue 81, Cobalt Tin
Alumina Blue Spinel.

Pigment White 15, tin(IV) oxide, is used for its iridescence, most commonly as a ceramic
glaze.[88] There are no green pigments that have been used by artists that have tin as a
constituent and purplish pigments with tin are classified as red, according to the Colour
Index International.

Solder
Tin has long been used in alloys with lead as solder, in
amounts of 5 to 70% w/w. Tin with lead forms a
eutectic mixture at the weight proportion of 61.9% tin
and 38.1% lead (the atomic proportion: 73.9% tin and
26.1% lead), with melting temperature of 183 °C
(361.4 °F). Such solders are primarily used for joining
pipes or electric circuits. Since the European Union
A coil of lead-free solder wire Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive
(WEEE Directive) and Restriction of Hazardous
Substances Directive came into effect on 1 July 2006,
the lead content in such alloys has decreased. While lead exposure is associated with
serious health problems, lead-free solder is not without its challenges, including a
higher melting point, and the formation of tin whiskers that cause electrical problems.
Tin pest can occur in lead-free solders, leading to loss of the soldered joint. Replacement
alloys are being found, but the problems of joint integrity remain.[89] A common lead-
free alloy is 99% tin, 0.7% copper, and 0.3% silver, with melting temperature of 217 °C
(422.6 °F).[90]

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 Tin plating
Tin bonds readily to iron and is used for coating
lead, zinc, and steel to prevent corrosion. Tin-plated
(or tinned) steel containers are widely used for food
preservation, and this forms a large part of the
market for metallic tin. A tinplate canister for
preserving food was first manufactured in London in
1812.[91] Speakers of British English call such
containers "tins", while speakers of U.S. English call
them "cans" or "tin cans". One derivation of such use Tin plated metal from a can
is the slang term "tinnie" or "tinny", meaning "can of
beer" in Australia. The tin whistle is so called
because it was mass-produced first in tin-plated steel.[92][93]

Copper cooking vessels such as saucepans and frying pans are frequently lined with a
thin plating of tin, by electroplating or by traditional chemical methods, since use of
copper cookware with acidic foods can be toxic.

Specialized alloys

Artisans working with tin sheets

Pewter plate

Tin in combination with other elements forms a

wide variety of useful alloys. Tin is most commonly alloyed with copper. Pewter is 85–
99% tin,[94] and bearing metal has a high percentage of tin as well.[95][96] Bronze is
mostly copper with 12% tin, while the addition of phosphorus yields phosphor bronze.
Bell metal is also a copper–tin alloy, containing 22% tin. Tin has sometimes been used
in coinage; it once formed a single-digit percentage (usually five percent or less) of
American pennies.[97] and Canadian[98]

The niobium–tin compound Nb3Sn is commercially used in coils of superconducting

magnets for its high critical temperature (18 K) and critical magnetic field (25 T). A
superconducting magnet weighing as little as two kilograms is capable of producing the

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 magnetic field of a conventional electromagnet weighing tons.[99]

A small percentage of tin is added to zirconium alloys for the cladding of nuclear fuel.
[100]

Most metal pipes in a pipe organ are of a tin/lead alloy, with 50/50 as the most common
composition. The proportion of tin in the pipe defines the pipe's tone, since tin has a
desirable tonal resonance. When a tin/lead alloy cools, the lead phase solidifies first,
then when the eutectic temperature is reached, the remaining liquid forms the layered
tin/lead eutectic structure, which is shiny; contrast with the lead phase produces a
mottled or spotted effect. This metal alloy is referred to as spotted metal. Major
advantages of using tin for pipes include its appearance, workability, and resistance to
corrosion.[101][102]

Manufacturing of chemicals
Tin compounds are used in the production of various chemicals, including stabilizers for
PVC and catalysts for industrial processes. Tin in form of ingots provide the raw
material necessary for these chemical reactions, ensuring consistent quality and
performance.

Optoelectronics
The oxides of indium and tin are electrically conductive and transparent, and are used to
make transparent electrically conducting films with applications in optoelectronics
devices such as liquid crystal displays.[103]

Other applications
Punched tin-plated steel, also called pierced tin, is an artisan technique originating in
central Europe for creating functional and decorative housewares. Decorative piercing
designs exist in a wide variety, based on local tradition and the artisan. Punched tin
lanterns are the most common application of this artisan technique. The light of a
candle shining through the pierced design creates a decorative light pattern in the room
where it sits. Lanterns and other punched tin articles were created in the New World
from the earliest European settlement. A well-known example is the Revere lantern,
named after Paul Revere.[104]

In America, pie safes and food safes were in use in the days before refrigeration. These
were wooden cupboards of various styles and sizes – either floor standing or hanging
cupboards meant to discourage vermin and insects and to keep dust from perishable
foodstuffs. These cabinets had tinplate inserts in the doors and sometimes in the sides,

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 punched out by the homeowner, cabinetmaker, or a
tinsmith in varying designs to allow for air circulation while
excluding flies. Modern reproductions of these articles
remain popular in North America.[105]

Window glass is most often made by floating molten glass

on molten tin (float glass), resulting in a flat and flawless
surface. This is also called the "Pilkington process".[106]

Tin is used as a negative electrode in advanced Li-ion

batteries. Its application is somewhat limited by the fact
that some tin surfaces catalyze decomposition of carbonate-
based electrolytes used in Li-ion batteries.[107] A 21st-century
reproduction barn lantern
Tin(II) fluoride is added to some dental care products[108] made of punched tin
as stannous fluoride (SnF2). Tin(II) fluoride can be mixed
with calcium abrasives while the more common sodium
fluoride gradually becomes biologically inactive in the presence of calcium compounds.
[109] It has also been shown to be more effective than sodium fluoride in controlling

gingivitis.[110]

Tin is used as a target to create laser-induced plasmas that act as the light source for
extreme ultraviolet lithography.[111]

Organotin compounds
Organotin compounds are organometallic compounds containing tin–carbon bonds.
Worldwide industrial production of organotin compounds likely exceeds 50,000 tonnes.
[112]

PVC stabilizers
The major commercial application of organotin compounds is in the stabilization of PVC
plastics. In the absence of such stabilizers, PVC would rapidly degrade under heat, light,
and atmospheric oxygen, resulting in discolored, brittle products. Tin scavenges labile
chloride ions (Cl−), which would otherwise strip HCl from the plastic material.[113]
Typical tin compounds are carboxylic acid derivatives of dibutyltin dichloride, such as
dibutyltin dilaurate.[114]

Biocides

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 Some organotin compounds are relatively toxic, with both advantages and problems.
They are used for biocidal properties as fungicides, pesticides, algaecides, wood
preservatives, and antifouling agents.[113] Tributyltin oxide is used as a wood
preservative.[115] Tributyltin is used for various industrial purposes such as slime
control in paper mills and disinfection of circulating industrial cooling waters.[116]
Tributyltin was used as additive for ship paint to prevent growth of fouling organisms on
ships, with use declining after organotin compounds were recognized as persistent
organic pollutants with high toxicity for some marine organisms (the dog whelk, for
example).[117] The EU banned the use of organotin compounds in 2003,[118] while
concerns over the toxicity of these compounds to marine life and damage to the
reproduction and growth of some marine species[113] (some reports describe biological
effects to marine life at a concentration of 1 nanogram per liter) have led to a worldwide
ban by the International Maritime Organization.[119] Many nations now restrict the use
of organotin compounds to vessels greater than 25 m (82 ft) long.[113] The persistence of
tributyltin in the aquatic environment is dependent upon the nature of the ecosystem.
[120] Because of this persistence and its use as an additive in ship paint, high
concentrations of tributyltin have been found in marine sediments located near naval
docks.[121] Tributyltin has been used as a biomarker for imposex in neogastropods, with
at least 82 known species.[122] With the high levels of TBT in the local inshore areas,
due to shipping activities, the shellfish had an adverse effect.[120] Imposex is the
imposition of male sexual characteristics on female specimens where they grow a penis
and a pallial vas deferens.[122][123] A high level of TBT can damage mammalian
endocrine glands, reproductive and central nervous systems, bone structure and
gastrointestinal tract.[123] Tributyltin also affect mammals, Including sea otters, whales,
dolphins, and humans.[123]

Organic chemistry
Some tin reagents are useful in organic chemistry. In the largest application, stannous
chloride is a common reducing agent for the conversion of nitro and oxime groups to
amines. The Stille reaction couples organotin compounds with organic halides or
pseudohalides.[124]

Li-ion batteries
Tin forms several inter-metallic phases with lithium metal, making it a potentially
attractive material for battery applications. Large volumetric expansion of tin upon
alloying with lithium and instability of the tin-organic electrolyte interface at low
electrochemical potentials are the greatest challenges to employment in commercial
cells.[125] Tin inter-metallic compound with cobalt and carbon was implemented by
Sony in its Nexelion cells released in the late 2000s. The composition of the active

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 material is approximately Sn0.3Co0.4C0.3. Research showed that only some crystalline
facets of tetragonal (beta) Sn are responsible for undesirable electrochemical activity.
[126]

Precautions
Cases of poisoning from tin metal, its oxides, and its salts are almost unknown. On the
other hand, certain organotin compounds are almost as toxic as cyanide.[49]

Exposure to tin in the workplace can occur by inhalation, skin contact, and eye contact.
The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) set the permissible
exposure limit for tin exposure in the workplace as 2 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) determined a
recommended exposure limit (REL) of 2 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. At levels of
100 mg/m3, tin is immediately dangerous to life and health.[127]

See also
Cassiterides (the mythical Tin Islands)
Chemistry portal
Stannary
Terne
Tin pest
Tin mining in Britain
Tinning
Whisker (metallurgy) (tin whiskers)

Notes
a. The thermal expansion of β-Sn is anisotropic: the parameters (at 20 °C) for each
crystal axis are αa = 16.19 × 10−6/K, αc = 32.89 × 10−6/K, and αaverage = αV/3
= 21.76 × 10−6/K.[3]
b. Only hydrogen, fluorine, phosphorus, thallium and xenon are easier to use NMR
analysis with for samples containing isotopes at their natural abundance.

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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain:
Carlin, James F., Jr. (1998). "Significant events affecting tin prices since 1958" (http
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External links
Tin (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/050.htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos
(University of Nottingham)
Theodore Gray's Wooden Periodic Table Table (https://theodoregray.com/PeriodicTa
ble/Elements/050/index.s7.html): Tin samples and castings
Base Metals: Tin (http://www.basemetals.com/html/sninfo.htm)
CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards (https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/n
pgd0613.html)

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 Tin (USD cents per kg) (https://web.archive.org/web/20140222181950/http://helgilibr
ary.com/indicators/index/tin-usd-cents-per-kg)

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