Indium

Indium is a chemical element; it has symbol In

Indium, 49In
and atomic number 49. It is a silvery-white post-
transition metal and one of the softest elements.
Chemically, indium is similar to gallium and
thallium, and its properties are largely
intermediate between the two.[13] It was
discovered in 1863 by Ferdinand Reich and
Hieronymous Theodor Richter by spectroscopic
methods and named for the indigo blue line in its
spectrum.[14]
Indium
Indium is a technology-critical element used
Pronunciation /ˈɪndiəm/ ​(IN-dee-əm)
primarily in the production of flat-panel displays
Appearance silvery lustrous gray
as indium tin oxide (ITO), a transparent and
conductive coating applied to glass.[15][16][17] Standard atomic weight Ar°(In)
Indium is also used in the semiconductor 114.818 ± 0.001[1]
industry,[18] in low-melting-point metal alloys
114.82 ± 0.01 (abridged)[2]
such as solders and soft-metal high-vacuum seals.
It is produced exclusively as a by-product during Indium in the periodic table
the processing of the ores of other metals, chiefly Ga
from sphalerite and other zinc sulfide ores.[19] ↑
In
↓
Indium has no biological role and its compounds Tl
cadmium ← indium → tin
are toxic when inhaled or injected into the
bloodstream, although they are poorly absorbed Atomic number (Z) 49
following ingestion.[20][21] Group group 13 (boron group)
Period period 5

Etymology Block p-block

Electron [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p1
The name comes from the Latin word indicum configuration
meaning violet or indigo.[22] The word indicum Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 18, 3
means "Indian", as the naturally based dye indigo
Physical properties
was originally exported to Europe from India.
Phase at STP solid
Melting point 429.7485 K ​(156.5985 °C, ​
Properties 313.8773 °F)
Boiling point 2345 K ​(2072 °C, ​3762 °F)
Density (at 20° C) 7.290 g/cm3[3]
Physical when liquid (at m.p.) 7.02 g/cm3
 Indium is Triple point 429.7445 K, ​~1 kPa[4]
a shiny Heat of fusion 3.281 kJ/mol
silvery-
Heat of 231.8 kJ/mol
white,
vaporization
highly
Molar heat capacity 26.74 J/(mol·K)
ductile
post- Vapor pressure
transition P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
Indium wetting the glass surface of metal with
at T (K) 1196 1325 1485 1690 1962 2340
a test tube a bright
luster.[23] Atomic properties
It is so
Oxidation states common: +3
soft (Mohs hardness 1.2) that it can be cut with a
−5,[5] −2,[6] −1,[7] 0,[8] +1,[9]
knife and leaves a visible line like a pencil when
+2[9]
rubbed on paper.[24] It is a member of group 13
Electronegativity Pauling scale: 1.78
on the periodic table and its properties are mostly
intermediate between its vertical neighbors Ionization energies 1st: 558.3 kJ/mol
gallium and thallium. As with tin, a high-pitched 2nd: 1820.7 kJ/mol
cry is heard when indium is bent – a crackling 3rd: 2704 kJ/mol
sound due to crystal twinning.[23] Like gallium,
indium is able to wet glass. Like both, indium has Atomic radius empirical: 167 pm
a low melting point, 156.60 °C (313.88 °F); Covalent radius 142±5 pm
higher than its lighter homologue, gallium, but Van der Waals 193 pm
lower than its heavier homologue, thallium, and radius
lower than tin.[25] The boiling point is 2072 °C
(3762 °F), higher than that of thallium, but lower
than gallium, conversely to the general trend of Spectral lines of indium
melting points, but similarly to the trends down Other properties
the other post-transition metal groups because of Natural occurrence primordial
the weakness of the metallic bonding with few
Crystal structure ​body-centered tetragonal (tI2)
electrons delocalized.[26]
Lattice constants a = 325.16 pm
The density of indium, 7.31 g/cm3, is also greater c = 494.71 pm
than gallium, but lower than thallium. Below the (at 20 °C)[3]
critical temperature, 3.41 K, indium becomes a
superconductor. Indium crystallizes in the body- Thermal expansion 32.2 × 10−6/K (at 20 °C)[a]
centered tetragonal crystal system in the space Thermal 81.8 W/(m⋅K)
group I4/mmm (lattice parameters: a = 325 pm, conductivity
c = 495 pm):[25] this is a slightly distorted face- Electrical resistivity 83.7 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
centered cubic structure, where each indium atom Magnetic ordering diamagnetic[10]
has four neighbours at 324 pm distance and eight
Molar magnetic −64.0 × 10−6 cm3/mol
neighbours slightly further (336 pm).[27] Indium
susceptibility (298 K)[11]
has greater solubility in liquid mercury than any
other metal (more than 50 mass percent of Young's modulus 11 GPa
indium at 0 °C).[28] Indium displays a ductile Speed of sound 1215 m/s (at 20 °C)
viscoplastic response, found to be size- thin rod
independent in tension and compression.
However it does have a size effect in bending and Mohs hardness 1.2
indentation, associated to a length-scale of order Brinell hardness 8.8–10.0 MPa
50–100 μm,[29] significantly large when
CAS Number 7440-74-6
compared with other metals.
History
Discovery Ferdinand Reich and
Chemical Hieronymous Theodor Richter
Indium has 49 electrons, with an electronic (1863)
configuration of [Kr]4d105s25p1. In compounds, First isolation Hieronymous Theodor
indium most commonly donates the three Richter (1864)
outermost electrons to become indium(III), In3+. Isotopes of indium
In some cases, the pair of 5s-electrons are not
donated, resulting in indium(I), In+. The Main isotopes[12] Decay
stabilization of the monovalent state is attributed
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
to the inert pair effect, in which relativistic
111 111
effects stabilize the 5s-orbital, observed in In synth 2.8 d ε Cd
heavier elements. Thallium (indium's heavier 113
In 4.28% stable
homolog) shows an even stronger effect, causing
oxidation to thallium(I) to be more probable than
115
In 95.7% 4.41 × 1014 y β− 115
Sn
to thallium(III), [30] whereas gallium (indium's
lighter homolog) commonly shows only the +3
oxidation state. Thus, although thallium(III) is a moderately strong oxidizing agent, indium(III) is not,
and many indium(I) compounds are powerful reducing agents.[31] While the energy required to include
the s-electrons in chemical bonding is lowest for indium among the group 13 metals, bond energies
decrease down the group so that by indium, the energy released in forming two additional bonds and
attaining the +3 state is not always enough to outweigh the energy needed to involve the 5s-electrons.[32]
Indium(I) oxide and hydroxide are more basic and indium(III) oxide and hydroxide are more acidic.[32]

A number of standard electrode potentials, depending on the reaction under study,[33] are reported for
indium, reflecting the decreased stability of the +3 oxidation state:[27]

In2+ + e− ⇌ In+ E0 = −0.40 V

In3+ + e− ⇌ In2+ E0 = −0.49 V
In3+ + 2 e− ⇌ In+ E0 = −0.443 V
In3+ + 3 e− ⇌ In E0 = −0.3382 V
In+ + e− ⇌ In E0 = −0.14 V

Indium metal does not react with water, but it is oxidized by stronger oxidizing agents such as halogens to
give indium(III) compounds. It does not form a boride, silicide, or carbide, and the hydride InH3 has at
best a transitory existence in ethereal solutions at low temperatures, being unstable enough to
spontaneously polymerize without coordination.[31] Indium is rather basic in aqueous solution, showing
only slight amphoteric characteristics, and unlike its lighter homologs aluminium and gallium, it is
insoluble in aqueous alkaline solutions.[34]

Isotopes
Indium has 39 known isotopes, ranging in mass number from 97 to 135. Only two isotopes occur
naturally as primordial nuclides: indium-113, the only stable isotope, and indium-115, which has a half-
life of 4.41 × 1014 years, four orders of magnitude greater than the age of the Universe and nearly 30,000
times greater than half life of thorium-232.[35] The half-life of 115In is very long because the beta decay
to 115Sn is spin-forbidden.[36] Indium-115 makes up 95.7% of all indium. Indium is one of three known
elements (the others being tellurium and rhenium) of which the stable isotope is less abundant in nature
than the long-lived primordial radioisotopes.[37]

The stablest artificial isotope is indium-111, with a half-life of approximately 2.8 days. All other isotopes
have half-lives shorter than 5 hours. Indium also has 47 meta states, among which indium-114m1 (half-
life about 49.51 days) is the most stable, more stable than the ground state of any indium isotope other
than the primordial. All decay by isomeric transition. The indium isotopes lighter than 113In
predominantly decay through electron capture or positron emission to form cadmium isotopes, while the
indium isotopes heavier than 113In predominantly decay through beta-minus decay to form tin
isotopes.[35]

Compounds

Indium(III)
Indium(III) oxide, In2O3, forms when indium metal is burned in
air or when the hydroxide or nitrate is heated.[38] In2O3 adopts a
structure like alumina and is amphoteric, that is able to react with
both acids and bases. Indium reacts with water to reproduce
soluble indium(III) hydroxide, which is also amphoteric; with
alkalis to produce indates(III); and with acids to produce
indium(III) salts:

In(OH)3 + 3 HCl → InCl3 + 3 H2O

The analogous sesqui-chalcogenides with sulfur, selenium, and

tellurium are also known.[39] Indium forms the expected trihalides.
Chlorination, bromination, and iodination of In produce colorless InCl3 (structure pictured) is a
InCl3, InBr3, and yellow InI3. The compounds are Lewis acids, common compound of indium.
somewhat akin to the better known aluminium trihalides. Again
like the related aluminium compound, InF3 is polymeric.[40]

Direct reaction of indium with the pnictogens produces the gray or semimetallic III–V semiconductors.
Many of them slowly decompose in moist air, necessitating careful storage of semiconductor compounds
to prevent contact with the atmosphere. Indium nitride is readily attacked by acids and alkalis.[41]

Indium(I)
Indium(I) compounds are not common. The chloride, bromide, and iodide are deeply colored, unlike the
parent trihalides from which they are prepared. The fluoride is known only as an unstable gas.[42]
Indium(I) oxide black powder is produced when indium(III) oxide decomposes upon heating to
700 °C.[38]

Other oxidation states

Less frequently, indium forms compounds in oxidation state +2 and even fractional oxidation states.
Usually such materials feature In–In bonding, most notably in the halides In2X4 and [In2X6]2−,[43] and
various subchalcogenides such as In4Se3.[44] Several other compounds are known to combine indium(I)
and indium(III), such as InI6(InIIICl6)Cl3,[45] InI5(InIIIBr4)2(InIIIBr6),[46] and InIInIIIBr4.[43]

Organoindium compounds
Organoindium compounds feature In–C bonds. Most are In(III) derivatives, but
cyclopentadienylindium(I) is an exception. It was the first known organoindium(I) compound,[47] and is
polymeric, consisting of zigzag chains of alternating indium atoms and cyclopentadienyl complexes.[48]
Perhaps the best-known organoindium compound is trimethylindium, In(CH3)3, used to prepare certain
semiconducting materials.[49][50]

History
In 1863, German chemists Ferdinand Reich and Hieronymus Theodor Richter were testing ores from the
mines around Freiberg, Saxony. They dissolved the minerals pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena and sphalerite in
hydrochloric acid and distilled raw zinc chloride. Reich, who was color-blind, employed Richter as an
assistant for detecting the colored spectral lines. Knowing that ores from that region sometimes contain
thallium, they searched for the green thallium emission spectrum lines. Instead, they found a bright blue
line. Because that blue line did not match any known element, they hypothesized a new element was
present in the minerals. They named the element indium, from the indigo color seen in its spectrum, after
the Latin indicum, meaning 'of India'.[51][14][52][53]

Richter went on to isolate the metal in 1864.[54] An ingot of 0.5 kg (1.1 lb) was presented at the World
Fair 1867.[55] Reich and Richter later fell out when the latter claimed to be the sole discoverer.[53]

Occurrence
Indium is created by the long-lasting (up to
thousands of years) s-process (slow neutron capture)
in low-to-medium-mass stars (range in mass
between 0.6 and 10 solar masses). When a silver-
109 atom captures a neutron, it transmutes into
silver-110, which then undergoes beta decay to
become cadmium-110. Capturing further neutrons, it
becomes cadmium-115, which decays to indium-115 The s-process acting in the range from silver to
by another beta decay. This explains why the antimony
radioactive isotope is more abundant than the stable
one.[56] The stable indium isotope, indium-113, is
one of the p-nuclei, the origin of which is not fully understood; although indium-113 is known to be made
directly in the s- and r-processes (rapid neutron capture), and also as the daughter of very long-lived
cadmium-113, which has a half-life of about eight quadrillion years, this cannot account for all indium-
113.[57][58]

Indium is the 68th most abundant element in Earth's crust at approximately 50 ppb. This is similar to the
crustal abundance of silver, bismuth and mercury. It very rarely forms its own minerals, or occurs in
elemental form. Fewer than 10 indium minerals such as roquesite (CuInS2) are known, and none occur at
sufficient concentrations for economic extraction.[59] Instead, indium is usually a trace constituent of
more common ore minerals, such as sphalerite and chalcopyrite.[60][61] From these, it can be extracted as
a by-product during smelting.[19] While the enrichment of indium in these deposits is high relative to its
crustal abundance, it is insufficient, at current prices, to support extraction of indium as the main
product.[59]

Different estimates exist of the amounts of indium contained within the ores of other metals.[62][63]
However, these amounts are not extractable without mining of the host materials (see Production and
availability). Thus, the availability of indium is fundamentally determined by the rate at which these ores
are extracted, and not their absolute amount. This is an aspect that is often forgotten in the current debate,
e.g. by the Graedel group at Yale in their criticality assessments,[64] explaining the paradoxically low
depletion times some studies cite.[65][19]

Production and availability

Indium is produced exclusively as a by-product during the
processing of the ores of other metals. Its main source material are
sulfidic zinc ores, where it is mostly hosted by sphalerite.[19]
Minor amounts are also extracted from sulfidic copper ores.
During the roast-leach-electrowinning process of zinc smelting,
indium accumulates in the iron-rich residues. From these, it can be
extracted in different ways. It may also be recovered directly from
the process solutions. Further purification is done by
electrolysis.[67] The exact process varies with the mode of
World production trend[66]
operation of the smelter.[23][19]

Its by-product status means that indium production is constrained

by the amount of sulfidic zinc (and copper) ores extracted each year. Therefore, its availability needs to
be discussed in terms of supply potential. The supply potential of a by-product is defined as that amount
which is economically extractable from its host materials per year under current market conditions (i.e.
technology and price).[68] Reserves and resources are not relevant for by-products, since they cannot be
extracted independently from the main-products.[19] Recent estimates put the supply potential of indium
at a minimum of 1,300 t/yr from sulfidic zinc ores and 20 t/yr from sulfidic copper ores.[19] These figures
are significantly greater than current production (655 t in 2016).[69] Thus, major future increases in the
by-product production of indium will be possible without significant increases in production costs or
price. The average indium price in 2016 was US$240/kg, down from US$705/kg in 2014.[70]
China is a leading producer of indium (290 tonnes in 2016), followed by South Korea (195 t), Japan (70
t) and Canada (65 t).[69] The Teck Resources refinery in Trail, British Columbia, is a large single-source
indium producer, with an output of 32.5 tonnes in 2005, 41.8 tonnes in 2004 and 36.1 tonnes in 2003.

The primary consumption of indium worldwide is LCD production. Demand rose rapidly from the late
1990s to 2010 with the popularity of LCD computer monitors and television sets, which now account for
50% of indium consumption.[17] Increased manufacturing efficiency and recycling (especially in Japan)
maintain a balance between demand and supply. According to the UNEP, indium's end-of-life recycling
rate is less than 1%.[71]

Applications

Industrial uses
In 1924, indium was found to have a valued property of stabilizing
non-ferrous metals, and that became the first significant use for
the element.[72] The first large-scale application for indium was
coating bearings in high-performance aircraft engines during
World War II, to protect against damage and corrosion; this is no
longer a major use of the element.[67] New uses were found in
fusible alloys, solders, and electronics. In the 1950s, tiny beads of
indium were used for the emitters and collectors of PNP alloy-
junction transistors. In the middle and late 1980s, the development
of indium phosphide semiconductors and indium tin oxide thin
films for liquid-crystal displays (LCD) aroused much interest. By
1992, the thin-film application had become the largest end
use.[73][74]

Indium(III) oxide and indium tin oxide (ITO) are used as a

transparent conductive coating on glass substrates in
electroluminescent panels.[75] Indium tin oxide is used as a light A magnified image of an LCD
filter in low-pressure sodium-vapor lamps. The infrared radiation screen showing RGB pixels.
is reflected back into the lamp, which increases the temperature Individual transistors are seen as
within the tube and improves the performance of the lamp.[74] white dots in the bottom part.

Indium has many semiconductor-related applications. Some

indium compounds, such as indium antimonide and indium phosphide,[76] are semiconductors with useful
properties: one precursor is usually trimethylindium (TMI), which is also used as the semiconductor
dopant in II–VI compound semiconductors.[50] InAs and InSb are used for low-temperature transistors
and InP for high-temperature transistors.[67] The compound semiconductors InGaN and InGaP are used in
light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes.[77] Indium is used in photovoltaics as the semiconductor
copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), also called CIGS solar cells, a type of second-generation thin-
film solar cell.[78] Indium is used in PNP bipolar junction transistors with germanium: when soldered at
low temperature, indium does not stress the germanium.[67]
 Indium wire is used as a vacuum seal and a thermal conductor in
cryogenics and ultra-high-vacuum applications, in such
manufacturing applications as gaskets that deform to fill gaps.[79]
Owing to its great plasticity and adhesion to metals, Indium sheets
are sometimes used for cold-soldering in microwave circuits and
waveguide joints, where direct soldering is complicated. Indium is
an ingredient in the gallium–indium–tin alloy galinstan, which is
liquid at room temperature and replaces mercury in some
Ductile indium wire
thermometers.[80] Other alloys of indium with bismuth, cadmium,
lead, and tin, which have higher but still low melting points
(between 50 and 100 °C), are used in fire sprinkler systems and
heat regulators.[67]

Indium is one of many substitutes for mercury in alkaline batteries

to prevent the zinc from corroding and releasing hydrogen gas.[81]
Indium is added to some dental amalgam alloys to decrease the
surface tension of the mercury and allow for less mercury and
A video on indium lung, an illness easier amalgamation.[82]
caused by indium exposure
Indium's high neutron-capture cross-section for thermal neutrons
makes it suitable for use in control rods for nuclear reactors,
typically in an alloy of 80% silver, 15% indium, and 5% cadmium.[83] In nuclear engineering, the (n,n')
reactions of 113In and 115In are used to determine magnitudes of neutron fluxes.[84]

In 2009, Professor Mas Subramanian and former graduate student Andrew Smith at Oregon State
University discovered that indium can be combined with yttrium and manganese to form an intensely
blue, non-toxic, inert, fade-resistant pigment, YInMn blue, the first new inorganic blue pigment
discovered in 200 years.[85]

Medical applications
Radioactive indium-111 (in very small amounts) is used in nuclear medicine tests, as a radiotracer to
follow the movement of labeled proteins and white blood cells to diagnose different types of
infection.[86][87] Indium compounds are mostly not absorbed upon ingestion and are only moderately
absorbed on inhalation; they tend to be stored temporarily in the muscles, skin, and bones before being
excreted, and the biological half-life of indium is about two weeks in humans.[88] It is also tagged to
growth hormone analogues like octreotide to find growth hormone receptors in neuroendocrine
tumors.[89]

Biological role and precautions

Indium has no metabolic role in any organism. In a
Indium
similar way to aluminium salts, indium(III) ions can be
toxic to the kidney when given by injection.[21] Indium Hazards
tin oxide and indium phosphide harm the pulmonary GHS labelling:
and immune systems, predominantly through ionic Pictograms
indium,[91] though hydrated indium oxide is more than
forty times as toxic when injected, measured by the
Signal word Warning
quantity of indium introduced.[21]
Hazard H302, H312, H315, H319,
statements H332, H335
People can be exposed to indium in the workplace by
inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, and eye contact. Precautionary P261, P280,
Indium lung is a lung disease characterized by statements P305+P351+P338[90]
pulmonary alveolar proteinosis and pulmonary NFPA 704
fibrosis, first described by Japanese researchers in (fire diamond) 0
2003. As of 2010, 10 cases had been described, though 2 0
more than 100 indium workers had documented
respiratory abnormalities.[20] The National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.1 mg/m3 over an
eight-hour workday.[92]

Notes
a. The thermal expansion is anisotropic: the parameters (at 20 °C) for each crystal axis are
αa = 53.2 × 10−6/K, αc = −9.75 × 10−6/K, and αaverage = αV/3 = 32.2 × 10−6/K.[3]

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External links
Indium (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/049.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20230313152040/http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/049.htm) 2023-03-13 at the
Wayback Machine at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
Reducing Agents > Indium low valent (https://www.organic-chemistry.org/chemicals/reductio
ns/indiumlowvalent.shtm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230709174439/https://w
ww.organic-chemistry.org/chemicals/reductions/indiumlowvalent.shtm) 2023-07-09 at the
Wayback Machine
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards (https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0341.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20151208163910/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd
0341.html) 2015-12-08 at the Wayback Machine (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention)

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