Received: 18 April 2016 | Accepted: 14 March 2017

DOI: 10.1111/ina.12383

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Carbon dioxide generation rates for building occupants

A. Persily1 | L. de Jonge2

1
National Institute of Standards and
Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA Abstract
2
Department of Nutrition and Food Indoor carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations have been used for decades to character-
Studies, George Mason University, Fairfax,
ize building ventilation and indoor air quality. Many of these applications require rates
VA, USA
of CO2 generation from the building occupants, which are currently based on ap-
Correspondence
proaches and data that are several decades old. However, CO2 generation rates can be
Andrew Persily, National Institute of Standards
and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA. derived from well-­established concepts within the fields of human metabolism and
Email: andyp@nist.gov
exercise physiology, which relate these rates to body size and composition, diet, and
level of physical activity. This paper reviews how CO2 generation rates have been es-
timated in the past and discusses how they can be characterized more accurately.
Based on this information, a new approach to estimating CO2 generation rates is pre-
sented, which is based on the described concepts from the fields of human metabo-
lism and exercise physiology. Using this approach and more recent data on body mass
and physical activity, values of CO2 generation rates from building occupants are pre-
sented along with the variability that may occur based on body mass and activity data.

KEYWORDS
carbon dioxide, human metabolism, indoor air quality, standards, ventilation

1 | INTRODUCTION The fields of human metabolism and exercise physiology have

studied human activity for many decades, including rates of energy
Indoor CO2 concentrations have been prominent in discussions of expenditures, oxygen consumption, and CO2 generation, as well as
building ventilation and indoor air quality (IAQ) since the 18th cen- the individual factors that affect these rates. These factors include
tury when Lavoisier suggested that CO2 build-­up rather than oxygen sex, age, height, weight, and body composition, with fitness level and
1
depletion was responsible for “bad air” indoors. About one hundred diet composition also affecting energy expenditure and the ratio of O2
years later, von Pettenkofer suggested that bioeffluents from human consumed to CO2 produced.
occupants were causing indoor air problems, not CO2. Discussions of The objectives of this paper were first to explain the generation
CO2 in relation to IAQ and ventilation have continued to evolve, fo- of CO2 from building occupants using concepts from the fields of
cusing on the impacts of CO2 on building occupants, how CO2 con- human metabolism and exercise physiology, and second to describe
centrations relate to occupant perception of bioeffluents, the use of a new method for estimating these rates using basal metabolic rates
CO2 to control outdoor air ventilation rates, and its use for estimating and levels of physical activity for application to building ventilation
building ventilation rates.2 The rate at which building occupants gener- and IAQ. The paper begins with a summary of previous discussions
ate CO2 is a key factor in these discussions, but the generation rates of CO2 in the fields of ventilation and IAQ. That summary includes a
currently being used in the IAQ and ventilation fields are not based on description of the approach currently used to estimate CO2 gener-
recent references or a thorough consideration of individual occupant ation rates from building occupants. The next major section of the
characteristics. paper presents relevant work on human metabolism that serves as

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.

868 | © 2017 The Authors. Indoor Air wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ina Indoor Air. 2017;27:868–879.
published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
PERSILY and DE JONGE | 869

the basis for the new approach, which is presented in the section
that follows. The paper concludes with a short discussion of the vari- Practical Implications
ation in CO2 generation rates based on known variations in body • Indoor carbon dioxide concentrations have many applica-
mass, followed by a general discussion section that speaks to appli- tions in the fields of ventilation and indoor air quality,
cation of the new approach as well as issues that merit additional many of which require CO2 generation rates for the
study in the future. building occupants. However, the CO2 generation rates
employed currently are based on calculation methods
and data that are several decades old, and which do not
2 | PREVIOUS DISCUSSIONS OF CO 2 , account for individual occupant characteristics such as
VENTILATION, AND INDOOR AIR QUALITY age, sex, and body size. This paper provides updated
methods and data for estimating CO2 generation rates,
Indoor CO2 has had a prominent place in discussions of ventilation and which will improve the application of indoor CO2
IAQ for many years.2,3 The relevant issues include the impacts of CO2 concentrations.
on building occupants (including how CO2 concentrations relate to oc-
cupant perception of bioeffluents), the use of CO2 to control outdoor
air ventilation rates, CO2 monitoring as an indicator of IAQ conditions,
a uniform CO2 concentration, the ventilation rate and CO2 concen-
and the use of indoor CO2 to estimate building ventilation rates. This
tration are related under steady-­state conditions, assuming that the
section reviews these applications, as well as the approach currently
generation rate, ventilation rate, and outdoor CO2 concentration are
used in the ventilation and IAQ fields for estimating CO2 generation
all constant over the mass balance analysis period. This relationship
rates.
has been discussed in ASHRAE Standard 62 since 1981,18 in which the
steady-­state equation is presented as follows:
2.1 | Application of indoor CO2 to G
ventilation and IAQ Qo =
Cin,ss − Cout (1)

Several studies of bioeffluent odor perception in chambers show cor- where Qo is the outdoor air ventilation rate per person, G is the CO2
relations between dissatisfaction with these odors and both venti- generation rate per person, Cin,ss is the steady-­state indoor CO2 con-
4-6
lation rate per person and CO2 level. The results of these studies centration, and Cout is the outdoor CO2 concentration. This steady-­
have been used for decades in the development of outdoor air ven- state relationship, sometimes referred as the peak CO2 approach,
tilation requirements in standards.2 More recent studies have shown is essentially an application of the constant injection tracer gas
associations of elevated CO2 levels with symptoms, absenteeism, and method as described in ASTM E741.19 It must therefore abide by
7-9
other outcomes ; however, these associations are likely due to lower the following assumptions to yield a valid air change rate: The CO2
ventilation rates elevating the concentrations of other contaminants generation rate is known, constant, and uniform throughout the
with health and comfort impacts at the same time they are elevating building being tested; the CO2 concentration is uniform throughout
CO2. There have been some recent studies of individuals completing the building and has achieved steady state; the outdoor CO2 con-
computer-­based tests showing decreases in decision-­making perfor- centration is known and constant; and the outdoor air ventilation
mance at CO2 concentrations as low as 1800 mg/m3.10-12 However, rate is constant.
another recent study did not observe an impact of similar CO2 levels on Indoor CO2 concentrations have also been used to characterize IAQ
13
occupant performance. conditions in buildings and the adequacy of outdoor air ventilation, again
Another application of indoor CO2 concentrations is the control of without a full appreciation of the links between indoor CO2 and ven-
outdoor air intake rates in ventilation systems, referred to as demand tilation. As described in the most recent version of ASHRAE Standard
control ventilation (DCV). Ventilation and IAQ standards allow the use 62.1,14 for a ventilation rate of 7.5 L/s per person (a common value in
of DCV,14 and it is required under some circumstances in energy effi- many ventilation standards) and an assumed CO2 generation rate of
ciency standards. 15
The CO2 concentration used as a set point in ap- 0.005 L/s, the indoor CO2 concentration will be about 1200 mg/m3
plying DCV depends on the ventilation rate requirement of the space above outdoors. Using an approximate value for the outdoor CO2 con-
of interest, as well as the CO2 generation rate of the occupants. Indoor centration of 600 mg/m3, one arrives at an indoor CO2 concentration of
CO2 concentrations have also been proposed for monitoring IAQ con- 1800 mg/m3 (about 1000 ppm) which has become a de facto CO2 con-
ditions for verifying proper ventilation system operation and building centration guideline value over the years based on this relationship, but
usage. This application is described briefly in ASTM D6245,16 with a not based on any health effects associated with CO2. Note that outdoor
more detailed explanation by Lawrence.17 CO2 values are typically higher than 600 mg/m3, particularly in urban
It is also quite common to use indoor CO2 concentrations to es- areas. Note also that these discussions of ventilation rates and the re-
timate ventilation rates per person based on a single-­zone mass bal- sulting CO2 concentrations have not typically considered the properties
ance of CO2, although in many cases without acknowledgement of of air temperature or pressure and their effects on volumetric airflow
the assumptions on which it is based.3,16 In a ventilated space with rates.
870 | PERSILY and DE JONGE

same metabolic rate values are contained in the ASHRAE thermal

2.2 | Current approach to estimating CO2
comfort standard,28 with very similar data contained in ISO standard
generation rates
8996.24 As noted later in this paper, there are much more recent and
This section describes the approach that is currently used in the ven- comprehensive sources of metabolic rate data.
tilation and IAQ fields to estimate CO2 generation rates from build- The above equations and data have been used to estimate
20
ing occupants. The ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook and ASTM CO2 generation rates. For example, ASTM D6245 notes that for an
D6245 16 describe the estimation of CO2 generation rates as follows. average-­sized adult (AD=1.8 m3) engaged in office work at 1.2 met,
The rate of oxygen consumption VO2 in L/s per person is given by the corresponding CO2 generation rate is 0.0052 L/s.16 For a child
Equation 2, (AD=1 m2) at the same level of physical activity, the corresponding CO2
0.00276AD M generation rate is 0.0029 L/s. Note that discussions of the application
VO2 = (2)
(0.23 RQ + 0.77) of Equation 4 to ventilation and IAQ do not generally consider effects
of air density of CO2 generation rates, simply presenting these rates in
where: volumetric units without specifying the air temperature or pressure.
2
AD=DuBois surface area (m ), Equation 4 was recently shown to overestimate CO2 generation
M=metabolic rate (met), and rates in a group of 44 Chinese subjects (ages 19 to 30 years) by just
RQ=respiratory quotient (dimensionless). under 25% in females and 16% in males.29 That paper suggests that
AD is calculated from height H in m and the body mass W in kg as the equation should include a correction factor for estimating CO2
follows: generation rates for Chinese people under low-­activity conditions.
As discussed later in this paper, the updated approaches to estimat-
AD = 0.202H0.725 W 0.425 (3)
ing CO2 generation rates described below provide values that better
match the measurements in the study group without the use of a cor-
M is level of physical activity, sometimes referred to as the metabolic rection factor.
rate, in units of met, and is discussed in more detail later in this paper.
That later discussion addresses the common conversion of 1 met
to 58.2 W/m2, which is not accurate as it depends on the individual 3 | RELEVANT WORK ON HUMAN
being considered. The respiratory quotient, RQ, is the ratio of the METABOLISM
volumetric rate at which CO2 is produced to the rate at which oxygen
is consumed, and its value depends primarily on diet.21 Based on data This section of the paper is intended to provide relevant background
on human nutrition in the USA, specifically the ratios of fat, protein, from the fields of human metabolism and exercise physiology to sup-
and carbohydrate intake,22 RQ equals about 0.85. The value of RQ port the approach described later for estimating CO2 generation rates
tends to increase for values of M corresponding to strenuous activity from building occupants. In order to function, our bodies use the en-
(greater than about 2 met), but the dependence is not straightforward ergy derived from the breakdown of macronutrients. These processes
or well described in the literature and will be a function of the fitness lead to the generation of mechanical power and work, as well as the
level of the individual among other factors. Therefore, the calculations production of heat. The science that quantifies this production of heat
in this paper employ a single value of RQ (0.85). The variation in the from metabolism is called calorimetry, which can be divided into two
level of physical activity has a much larger effect on CO2 generation main methods: direct calorimetry and indirect calorimetry. With direct
rates than does the variation in RQ. calorimetry, the production of heat by the body is directly measured.
The rate of CO2 generation VCO2 in L/s per person is given by Indirect calorimetry involves calculation of heat production through
Equation 4, other measurements such as oxygen consumption and is more com-

0.00276AD M RQ monly used than direct calorimetry. The analysis of expired air dates
VCO2 = VO2 RQ = ( ) (4) back to the work of Bischoff and Voit in 1860,30 and Rubner, Atwater,
0.23 RQ + 0.77
and Benedict around 1900.31,32 Bischoff and Voit reported calcula-
Equation 2 first appeared in the Thermal Comfort chapter of the tions describing the caloric and respiratory gas exchange involved
ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook in 1989. That discussion, as well in the combustion of certain foods as well as individual nutrients.30
23
as the current discussion in the handbook, references Nishi, which A chemical reaction equation exists for the combustion of each in-
presents that equation as a means of measuring the metabolic rate dividual nutrient, and the combination of these equations forms the
of an individual. Nishi does not discuss the basis of this equation nor basis for indirect calorimetry. The equations that represent the com-
provide references. ISO Standard 8996 also includes this approach in bustion of a representative carbohydrate (glucose) and fat (palmitic
describing methods for measuring metabolic rates.24 acid), along with the value of RQ for each process, are shown below:
The ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook also contains a table of Oxidation of a mole of carbohydrate (glucose):
metabolic rates for various activities, which has remained unchanged
6O2 + C6 H12 O6 → 6CO2 + 6H2 O + 2760 kJ
since the 1977 edition.20 These values are based on references pre-
RQ = VCO2 ∕VO2 → 6CO2 ∕6O2 = 1.0 (5)
dominantly from the 1960s,25–27 although some are even older. The
PERSILY and DE JONGE | 871

Oxidation of a mole of fat (palmitic acid): requirements for different activities is a report prepared by the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World
23O2 + C16 H32 O2 → 16CO2 + 16H2 O + 11090 kJ Health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations University
(6)
RQ = VCO2 ∕VO2 → 16CO2 ∕23O2 = 0.7 (UNU).39 This report discusses energy requirements as a function of
age (from infancy to >90 years) and other individual characteristics,
While the study of human energy and metabolism is not new, in-
including sex, pregnancy, and lactation. It defines energy requirement
terest has increased significantly in recent decades as a result of the in-
as “the amount of food energy needed to balance energy expendi-
creasing prevalence of obesity worldwide. While the original research
ture in order to maintain body size, body composition and a level of
mainly focused on the determinants of energy expenditure at rest and
necessary and desirable physical activity consistent with long-­term
the development of equations to predict resting energy expenditure
good health,” and notes that variability will exist in the energy require-
based on easy-­to-­perform measurements such as height, weight, and
ments for a group of otherwise identical individuals of the same sex,
age,33-35 the focus has shifted to a more individualized approach.36
size, body composition, and physical activity. A key component of the
The decrease in cost and the easier access to equipment have stim-
energy requirements is the energy essential for life, for example, cell
ulated an interest in the accuracy and applicability of the established
function and replacement, maintenance of body temperature, brain
equations for individual use. This research has shown that although
function, and cardiac and respiratory function, and is referred to as
these equations performed reasonably well for population studies,
basal metabolism with an energy requirement called the basal meta-
they were not useful for establishing an individual’s metabolic rate.
bolic rate (BMR). BMR is typically measured under conditions of being
In addition, metabolism research has moved away from being cen-
awake in a supine position after 10 to 12 hours of fasting and 8 hours
tered on overall energy balance toward individual macronutrient bal-
of ­physical rest in an environment that does not lead to the generation
ances, especially carbohydrates and fats.37 Aided by the improvement
or dissipation of body heat. BMR typically constitutes 45% to 70% of
of instrumentation used for indirect calorimetry, an increasing amount
daily energy expenditure and is primarily a function of age, sex, body
of research has investigated the factors that can affect the balance
size, and body composition. After basal metabolism, the second largest
between fat and carbohydrate oxidation, expressed by RQ, with an
component of daily energy expenditure, and the most variable, is as-
RQ closer to 1.0 representing a larger fraction of energy expenditure
sociated with physical activity. The energy use associated with growth
due to carbohydrate oxidation with an RQ closer to 0.7 representing
is important during the first three months of life, constituting roughly
a higher percentage of fat oxidation. In light of this research, focusing
35 % of the total, but falls rapidly after that. After the second year of
on the most effective ways of weight loss as well as the prevention of
life, energy for growth is only 1% or 2% of the total until the middle of
weight gain, scientists have been searching for ways to increase fat
adolescence and is negligible starting in the late teens.39
oxidation over carbohydrate oxidation through changes in diet as well
Equations for estimating BMR values as a function of sex, age, and
as in activity level.
body mass are presented in Schofield,40 as well as in the FAO report,
The primary determinant of RQ is the dietary composition of an
and are shown in Table 1. For example, the BMR for an 85-­kg male
individual, which has been shown to be the same as the RQ of the diet
between 30 and 60 year old is 7.73 MJ/day (89.5 W) and 6.09 MJ/day
(ie, the food quotient [FQ]) for individuals who are well nourished and
(70.5 W) for a 75-­kg female in this same age range.
in weight equilibrium.21 This was an important finding as the calculation
In addition to the BMR value, the level of physical activity must be
of FQ is much less labor-­intensive and requires no sophisticated equip-
considered in establishing human energy requirements. There are two
ment as compared to the actual measurement of RQ. When diet com-
primary references for obtaining information on energy requirements
position is known, FQ can be calculated using the following equation38:
for different physical activities. The first is the FAO report mentioned
FQ = 1.0 × CA + 0.7 × F + 0.79 × P + 0.66 × A (7) earlier.39 The second is a web-­based compendium of physical activi-
ties.41,42 The rate of energy use of an individual, or group of individu-
where CA is the percent of energy in the diet consisting of carbohy-
als, engaged in a specific activity is estimated by multiplying the BMR
drates, F is the percent that is fat, P is the percent protein, and A is the
value for that individual or group by a factor that characterizes the
percent alcohol. Data on human macronutrient intake for the USA, based
on the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES), TABLE 1 Schofield BMR values.39,40 (m is body mass in units of kg)
are available in Wright and Wang.22 Using these data, that is, 47.9% car-
BMR: MJ/day
bohydrates, 33.6% fat, and 15.9% protein for men and 50.5% carbohy-
drates, 33.5% fat, and 15.9% protein for women, Equation 7 corresponds Age (y) Males Females
to RQ values of 0.84 and 0.86, respectively, for men and women. There <3 0.249 m–0.127 0.244 m–0.130
are other factors that have been shown to influence RQ, but these tend
3 to 10 0.095 m+2.110 0.085 m+2.033
to be second-­ and third-­order effects relative to macronutrient intake.
10 to 18 0.074 m+2.754 0.056 m+2.898
They are summarized in a table in the Supporting Information.
18 to 30 0.063 m+2.896 0.062 m+2.036
Another key concept in the field of human metabolism concerns
30 to 60 0.048 m+3.653 0.034 m+3.538
the energy required for different physical activities, reflected by the
>=60 0.049 m+2.459 0.038 m+2.755
variable M in Equation 4. A key reference for characterizing energy
872 | PERSILY and DE JONGE

specific activity. The FAO report refers to this factor as the physical comprehensive and up-­to-­date data on human energy requirements
activity ratio (PAR), while the web-­based compendium refers it as the associated with a wide range of physical activities. This advance is par-
metabolic equivalent using the term MET. In this paper, the variable ticularly notable given that data from the 1960s and older are currently
M (in dimensionless units of met) is used to describe the ratio of the being used in the fields of ventilation and IAQ.20 The WHO report was
human energy use associated with a particular physical activity to the developed to provide information on human food and nutrient require-
BMR of that individual, referring to it as the metabolic rate as in the ments in response to a key mandate of the FAO to assess “the calo-
discussion of Equation 2. rie and nutrient requirements of human beings” in order to determine
Table 2 contains selected PAR values for various activities from “whether food supplies are adequate to meet a population’s nutritional
Annex 5 of the FAO report. The average PAR values in the table are needs”.39 In the case of the compendium, it was developed “for use in
averages across multiple studies, when such data exist. Ranges are epidemiologic studies to standardize the assignment of MET intensi-
provided when there are multiple studies available for an activity. ties in physical activity questionnaires,” because different studies were
Table 3 contains selected physical activity values from the web-­based using different metrics, leading to inconsistencies and confusion.41 The
compendium of physical activities. Unlike the FAO report, the com- FAO database is based on a series of workshops involving experts in
pendium values are not presented separately for males and females. the field of human energy requirements, while the developers of the
Both the FAO report and the web-­based compendium contain many compendium considered several hundred studies of physical activity in
additional activities, primarily of a much more vigorous nature such developing this database. As noted on the compendium website, the
as those associated with manual labor, agriculture, and manufactur- values “… do not estimate the energy cost of physical activity in indi-
ing. Henceforth, this paper refers to these values using the variable M viduals in ways that account for differences in body mass, adiposity,
(units of met) and does not use the PAR or MET terminology. age, sex …” The FAO contains a similar caveat about using its energy
These two data sources, the WHO report and the web-­based requirement values for single individuals. However, using these values
compendium, constitute an important resource by providing more in combination with BMR values based on body mass, age, and sex, as

T A B L E 2 PAR values for various

Males Females
activities from FAO report 39
Activity Average PAR PAR Range Average PAR PAR Range

Aerobic dancing—low 3.51 4.24

intensity
Aerobic dancing—high 7.93 8.31
intensity
Calisthenics 5.44
Child care (unspecified) 2.5
Climbing stairs 5.0
Dancing 5.0 5.09
Eating and drinking 1.4 1.6
Housework (unspecified) 2.8 2.5 to 3.0
Office worker—Filing 1.3 1.5
Office worker—Reading 1.3 1.5
Office worker—Sitting at 1.3
desk
Office worker—Standing/ 1.6
moving around
Office worker—Typing 1.8 1.8
Office worker—Writing 1.4 1.4
Reading 1.22 1.25
Sleeping 1.0 1.0
Sitting quietly 1.2 1.2
Sitting on a bus/train 1.2
Standing 1.4 1.5
Walking around/strolling 2.1 2.0 to 2.2 2.5 2.1 to 2.9
Walking quickly 3.8
Walking slowly 2.8 2.8 to 3.0 3.0
PERSILY and DE JONGE | 873

TABLE 3 Values of physical activity levels (M) from compendium 41 surface area in m2 yields W/m2. For the case of a 75-­kg male between
30 and 60 year of age (BMR=7.73 MJ/day) with a DuBois surface area
Activity M (met) Range
of 1.8 m2, 1 met corresponds to 49.8 W/m2, which is 16% less than
Calisthenics—light effort 2.8
the conversion value noted in the above references. However, for a
Calisthenics—moderate effort 3.8 32-­kg male child (between 3 and 10 years old) and a surface area of
Calisthenics—vigorous effort 8.0 1 m2, 1 met corresponds to 59.7 W/m2, closer but still not equal to the
Child care 2.0 to 3.0 58.2 W/m2 conversion commonly employed.
Cleaning, sweeping—moderate 3.8
effort
Custodial work—light 2.3 4 | ESTIMATION OF CO 2 GENERATION
Dancing—aerobic, general 7.3 RATES
Dancing—general 7.8
Health club exercise 5.0 This section describes a new approach to estimating CO2 generation
classes—general rates from building occupants based on the previously described in-
Kitchen activity—moderate effort 3.3 formation from the fields of human metabolism and exercise physiol-
Lying or sitting quietly 1.0 to 1.3 ogy. This approach uses the basal metabolic rate of the individual(s)
Sitting reading, writing, typing 1.3 of interest combined with their level of physical activity, in contrast

Sitting at sporting event as 1.5 to Equation 4, which only considers body surface area and level of
spectator physical activity.
Sitting tasks, light effort (e.g, 1.5 The first step in estimating the CO2 generation rate is to determine
office work) the BMR of the individuals of interest as described in the previous sec-
Sitting quietly in religious service 1.3 tion, with Table 1 providing equations to calculate BMR based on sex,
Sleeping 0.95 age, and body mass (m). The next step is to estimate their level of phys-
Standing quietly 1.3 ical activity, also described in the previous section, in terms of the value

Standing tasks, light effort (e.g, 3.0 of M that corresponds to the activities in which they are involved. If
store clerk, filing) these activities are varying with time and location in the building, the es-
Walking, less than 2 mph, level 2.0 timation should consider those variations, but this description is based
surface, very slow on the occupants being characterized by only a single physical activity.
Walking, 2.8 mph to 3.2 mph, 3.5 Once the BMR value and the value of M for the relevant activity
level surface, moderate pace have been determined, their product in units of MJ/day is converted to
L of oxygen consumed per unit time. This conversion is based on the
described in this paper, allows one to more accurately quantify energy conversion of 1 kcal (0.0042 MJ) of energy use to 0.206 L of oxygen
use and CO2 generation of a group of individuals. consumption.44 The exact conversion depends on the relative oxida-
It should be noted that a new compendium is under development tion of carbohydrates and fat, but given the variation in the factors used
to provide detailed energy requirement for youth. A number of stud- in calculating CO2 generation rates, a value of 0.206 L is a reasonable
ies have recently been published that will provide data for this youth approximation. This conversion results in 1 MJ/day of energy use cor-
compendium,43 which will be available online at http://www.nccor. responding to 0.00057 L/s of oxygen consumption, which based on a re-
org/nccor-tools/youth-energy-expenditure-compendium/. spiratory quotient of 0.85 (discussed above) corresponds to 0.00048 L/s
Based on the above discussion, the fields of human metabolism and of CO2 production. A BMR value of 7.73 MJ/day, mentioned above for
exercise physiology provide concepts and data needed to characterize an 85-­kg male between 30 and 60 year of age, therefore corresponds to
human energy requirements and the resulting levels of CO2 produc- 0.0037 L/s of CO2 production. Using the physical activity level of 1.5 met
tion. It is worth noting that these fields are focused primarily on energy for “sitting tasks, light effort (eg, office work)” in Table 3 results in a CO2
requirements as they relate to the adequacy of nutrition and their link generation rate of 0.0056 L/s, which is close to the value of 0.0052 L/s
to obesity. They use O2 consumption based on it being directly linked cited in ASHRAE Standard 62.1 and ASTM D6245 for an adult.
to energy use, but do not typically focus on CO2 generation. Historically, CO2 generation rates have been presented in vol-
As noted earlier, the met unit for quantifying the level of physi- umetric units, for example, L/s or cfm, often without discussing the
cal activity is often presented as being equivalent to 58.2 W/m2;16,20 effects of air pressure and temperature. These two variables need to
however, the conversion actually depends on the body size of the in- be provided to fully characterize the generation rate, or the rates can
dividual being considered. As described earlier in this paper, 1 met is be presented in units of mass or moles per unit time to avoid the need
a level of physical activity corresponding to the BMR of the individual to consider air density. The volumetric CO2 generation rates presented
being considered. Table 1 provides a set of equations for estimating in this paper are based on an air pressure of 101 kPa and an air tem-
BMR in units of MJ/day based on sex, age, and body mass,40 which perature of 273 K. Under these conditions, a CO2 generation rate of
can be converted to W by multiplying by 11.6. Dividing by the body 1 L/s equals 0.0446 moles/s or 1.965 g/s. If the volumetric generation
874 | PERSILY and DE JONGE

rates in this paper are to be used under another set of conditions, the VCO2 = RQ BMR M (T∕P) 0.000211 (10)
rate must be adjusted for air density using the ideal gas law. These ad-
justments, as well as the conversion of volumetric concentration units Assuming RQ equals 0.85, Equation 10 can be expressed as:
3
(eg, ppm or mole fraction) to mass units (eg, mg/m ) as a function of air
(11)
( )
VCO2 = BMR M T∕P 0.000179
density, are discussed in the Supporting Information.
The CO2 generation rate is expressed in L/s as follows, at an air where T is the air temperature in K and P is the pressure in kPa. The
pressure of 101 kPa and a temperature of 273 K, with BMR in units of derivation of equations 8 through 11 is described in the Supporting
MJ/day and M in met: Information.
In order to facilitate use of these calculations, Table 4 contains CO2
VCO2 = RQ BMR M 0.000569 (8)
generation rates for a number of M values over a range of ages for
both males and females. The mean body mass values are based on data
Assuming RQ equals 0.85, Equation 8 can be expressed as: in the EPA Exposure Factors Handbook, specifically the values in ta-
bles 8-­4 for males and 8-­5 for females.45 As noted earlier, these values
VCO2 = BMR M 0.000484 (9) are most accurate, but still inherently approximate, when applied to
These equations can be applied to calculate the CO2 generation rate a group of individuals and will not generally be accurate for a single
at other air pressures and temperatures using the following equations: individual.

TABLE 4 CO2 generation rates at 273 K and 101 kPa for ranges of ages and level of physical activity (based on mean body mass in each age group)

CO2 generation rate (L/s)

Level of physical activity (met)

Mean body mass
Age (y) (kg) BMR (MJ/day) 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 2.0 3.0 4.0

Males
<1 8.0 1.86 0.0009 0.0011 0.0013 0.0014 0.0018 0.0027 0.0036
1 to <3 12.8 3.05 0.0015 0.0018 0.0021 0.0024 0.0030 0.0044 0.0059
3 to <6 18.8 3.90 0.0019 0.0023 0.0026 0.0030 0.0038 0.0057 0.0075
6 to < 11 31.9 5.14 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035 0.0040 0.0050 0.0075 0.0100
11 to <16 57.6 7.02 0.0034 0.0041 0.0048 0.0054 0.0068 0.0102 0.0136
16 to <21 77.3 7.77 0.0037 0.0045 0.0053 0.0060 0.0075 0.0113 0.0150
21 to < 30 84.9 8.24 0.0039 0.0048 0.0056 0.0064 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160
30 to <40 87.0 7.83 0.0037 0.0046 0.0053 0.0061 0.0076 0.0114 0.0152
40 to <50 90.5 8.00 0.0038 0.0046 0.0054 0.0062 0.0077 0.0116 0.0155
50 to <60 89.5 7.95 0.0038 0.0046 0.0054 0.0062 0.0077 0.0116 0.0154
60 to <70 89.5 6.84 0.0033 0.0040 0.0046 0.0053 0.0066 0.0099 0.0133
70 to <80 83.9 6.57 0.0031 0.0038 0.0045 0.0051 0.0064 0.0095 0.0127
≥80 76.1 6.19 0.0030 0.0036 0.0042 0.0048 0.0060 0.0090 0.0120
Females
<1 7.7 1.75 0.0008 0.0010 0.0012 0.0014 0.0017 0.0025 0.0034
1 to <3 12.3 2.88 0.0014 0.0017 0.0020 0.0022 0.0028 0.0042 0.0056
3 to <6 18.3 3.59 0.0017 0.0021 0.0024 0.0028 0.0035 0.0052 0.0070
6 to < 11 31.7 4.73 0.0023 0.0027 0.0032 0.0037 0.0046 0.0069 0.0092
11 to < 16 55.9 6.03 0.0029 0.0035 0.0041 0.0047 0.0058 0.0088 0.0117
16 to <21 65.9 6.12 0.0029 0.0036 0.0042 0.0047 0.0059 0.0089 0.0119
21 to < 30 71.9 6.49 0.0031 0.0038 0.0044 0.0050 0.0063 0.0094 0.0126
30 to < 40 74.8 6.08 0.0029 0.0035 0.0041 0.0047 0.0059 0.0088 0.0118
40 to <50 77.1 6.16 0.0029 0.0036 0.0042 0.0048 0.0060 0.0090 0.0119
50 to <60 77.5 6.17 0.0030 0.0036 0.0042 0.0048 0.0060 0.0090 0.0120
60 to <70 76.8 5.67 0.0027 0.0033 0.0038 0.0044 0.0055 0.0082 0.0110
70 to <80 70.8 5.45 0.0026 0.0032 0.0037 0.0042 0.0053 0.0079 0.0106
≥80 64.1 5.19 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035 0.0040 0.0050 0.0075 0.0101
PERSILY and DE JONGE | 875

5 | VARIATION IN CO 2 GENERATION CO2 generation rate increases with age (for the same met value) up to
RATES about 30 year of age, at which point it decreases gradually with age.
This trend reflects the dependence of BMR on age. For values of M
While Table 4 is useful in providing CO2 generation rates for different less than 2 met, the impact of the variation in the body mass is less
ages and levels of physical activity M, it uses the mean body mass for than the impact at higher values of M.
each age group and does not reflect the variation in body mass. The It is also useful to consider CO2 generation rates for different space
body mass data in the EPA Exposure Factors Handbook cited above types of interest. Table 5 presents summary data for several space types,
provide values in the form of percentiles in each age group for both using the default occupancy levels and outdoor air ventilation rates
males and females. Figures 1 and 2 present CO2 generation rates for from ASHRAE Standard 62.1,14 as well as assumed air change rates for
males and females, respectively, in a form that reflects the variation a dwelling, and met values from Tables 2 and 3. For the spaces covered
in body mass. For each age group along the horizontal axes, a box-­ by Standard 62.1 and the assumed occupancies, the average CO2 gen-
whisker plot is provided for six different values of M (1, 1.2, 1.4, 2, eration rates per person range from about 0.003 to 0.006 L/s, primar-
3, and 4 met) which shows the 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, and 90th per- ily based on the assumed occupant ages and activity levels. The CO2
centile values of the CO2 generation rate. These plots show that the generation rates in this table are based on the mean body mass for the

0.025
Range of body mass values
90th percentile
75th percentile
Median
0.020
25th percentile

10th percentiile
Carbon dioxide generation (L/s)

0.015

4 met

0.010
3 met

2 met
0.005
1.4 met
1.2 met
1.0 met

F I G U R E 1 Variation in CO2 generation

rate at 273 K and 101 kPa associated with 0.000
<1 y 1 to 3 to 6 to 11 to 16 to 21 to 30 to 40 to 50 to 60 to 70 to ≥80 y
variation in age, body mass, and level of <3 y <6 y <11 y <16 y <21 y <30 y <40 y <50 y <60 y <70 y <80 y

physical activity for males Age

0.025

Range of body mass values

90th percentile
75th percentile
Median
0.020
25th percentile

10th percentiile
Carbon dioxide generation (L/s)

0.015

0.010 4 met

3 met

0.005 2 met

1.4 met
1.2 met
1.0 met

F I G U R E 2 Variation in CO2 generation

rate at 273 K and 101 kPa associated with 0.000
<1 y 1 to 3 to 6 to 11 to 16 to 21 to 30 to 40 to 50 to 60 to 70 to ≥80 y
variation in age, body mass, and level of <3 y <6 y <11 y <16 y <21 y <30 y <40 y <50 y <60 y <70 y <80 y

physical activity for females Age

876 | PERSILY and DE JONGE

T A B L E 5 CO2 generation rates and steady-­state concentrations at 273 K and 101 kPa for selected spaces of interest (calculations based on
the mean body mass in each noted age range)

Average CO2 generation Outdoor air ventilation rate based on Steady-­state CO2 concentration
Space type rate (L/s•person) Standard 62.1 default occupancy (L/s•person) above outdoors (ppm(v))

Officea 0.0048 7.5 568

a
Conference room 0.0048 3.1 1557
Educational (5 to 8 y)b 0.0030 7.4 408
c
Lecture classroom 0.0042 4.3 970
Lecture hall, fixed seatsd 0.0041 4.0 1036
Lobbye 0.0055 2.7 2042
Auditorium seating areaf 0.0048 2.7 1787
−1
Outdoor air ventilation rate (h ) and
(L/s•person)
Residenceg 0.0040 0.2 (6.1) 660
0.0040 0.35 (10.7) 377
0.0040 0.5 (15.3) 264
h
Adult bedroom 0.0036 0.2 (1.8) 1988
0.0036 0.35 (3.2) 1136
0.0036 0.5 (4.5) 795
Child’s bedroomi 0.0025 0.2 (2.5) 1014
0.0025 0.35 (4.3) 579
0.0025 0.5 (6.2) 406
a 2
50% male and 50% female, five occupants per 100 m , ages 21 to 60 y; 1.4 met.
b
24 children at 1.4 met (50% male and 50% female), one adult female, 21 to 60 y; 1.6 met.
c
64 students at 1.2 met (50% male and 50% female, 16 to 20 y), one adult female, 21 to 60 y; 1.4 met.
d
148 students at 1.2 met (50% male and 50% female, 16 to 20 y), one adult female, 21 to 60 y; 1.4 met.
e
150 adults at 1.6 met (50% male and 50% female, 21 to 60 y); 1.6 met.
f
150 adults at 1.6 met (50% male and 50% female, 21 to 60 y); 1.4 met.
g
One male and one female, age 31 y to 40 y; one male and one female, age 6 y to 11 y; 1.4 met; dwelling volume 440 m3.
h
One male and one female, age 31 to 40 y; 1.0 met; bedroom volume 65 m3; outdoor air ventilation uniformly distributed throughout dwelling.
i
One male or one female, age 6 to 11 y; 1.0 met; bedroom volume 44 m3; outdoor air ventilation uniformly distributed throughout dwelling.
[Correction added on 13 June 2017, after first online publication: steady-state CO2 concentration above outdoors unit has been changed from mg/m3 to
ppm(v) in the column heading. And also, the values for office, conference room, adult bedroom have been altered from 643, 1577, 1958 to 568, 1557, 1988
respectively.]

assumed occupants in the noted age ranges; they do not account for
the variation in body mass within these age ranges. Using the outdoor 6 | DISCUSSION
air ventilation requirements from Standard 62.1, the steady-­state CO2
concentrations above outdoors range from about 400 to 2000 ppm(v). The approach described in this paper for estimating CO2 generation
[Correction added on 13 June 2017, after first online publication: rates from individuals is based on concepts from the fields of human
steady-state CO2 concentration above outdoors unit has been changed metabolism and exercise physiology, as well as more recent data that
from mg/m3 to ppm(v).]. Note that these steady-­state concentrations are currently used in the fields of ventilation and IAQ. It is intended
will only be achieved if conditions, including occupancy, are constant to replace the equation that has been used for decades within the
for sufficiently long periods of time. The amount of time depends on ventilation and IAQ communities (Equation 4 in this paper) and offers
the inverse of the air change rate, that is, the time constant of the space, important advantages. First, it is worth noting that the currently used
with three time constants required to achieve about 95% of the steady-­ equation is based on a 1981 reference that provides no explanation of
state concentrations. For a space with a low air change rate, the occu- its basis, while the new approach is clearly derived using principles of
pancy may not be constant for long enough to achieve steady state. CO2 human metabolism and energy expenditure. Also, the new approach
generation rates and steady-­state CO2 concentrations are also shown characterizes body size using mass rather than surface area, which
in Table 5 for some residential cases, specifically whole house values for in practice is estimated not measured. Body mass is easily measured
three different air changes rates (0.2, 0.35, and 0.5 hour−1). Note that for and data on body mass distributions are readily available. The new ap-
the assumed size and occupancy of this residence, ASHRAE Standard proach also explicitly accounts for the sex and age of the individuals
62.2-­2013 would require at outdoor air ventilation rate of 0.34 hour−1.46 being considered, which is not the case with Equation 4. As new data
PERSILY and DE JONGE | 877

on body mass become available, these data can be used to adjust CO2 be increased by characterizing the specific population of interest
generation rates accordingly. Similarly, new research results on BMR in terms of sex, age, body mass, and activity level. Methods for
values and new approaches to their estimation can also be easily ap- performing such characterizations in a standardized fashion are not
plied to these calculations. described in this paper. The increased accuracy of CO2 generation
The approach described in this paper was used to reanalyze the estimates that may be achieved by doing so have not been studied,
CO2 generation rate data collected by Qi et al.29 referred to earlier, but additional research will be useful to demonstrate the value of
in which they noted that the 1981 Nishi equation (Equation 4 in this such methods.
paper) tended to overestimate the CO2 generation rates relative to The energy requirement values in the FAO report and the com-
their measurements. Based on the body mass values in that paper, pendium cover a wide range of activities, but they only provide single
the BMR for each test subject was calculated using the equations in values or ranges of values for particular activities (eg, those associ-
Table 1. As noted in the Qi paper, the measured CO2 generation rates ated with office work), which may not capture the variability in the
were on average 23% and 24% lower for females sitting and standing, activities that occur in different building environments. It should
and 16% and 16% lower for males sitting and standing, relative to the be possible to use these general values to convert detailed activity
values predicted with Equation 4. Using the approach described in this schedules into more accurate estimates of energy requirements for
paper, with values of M for sitting and standing of 1.2 and 1.3 (based specific building occupants, but methods for doing so are not de-
on Tables 2 and 3) and RQ equal to 0.85, the mean differences be- scribed in this paper. While the application of such schedule-­based
tween the measured and predicted CO2 generation rates decrease to approaches has not been studied, they certainly have merit. Future
29
−7%, 3%, −10%, and 0%. Therefore, the conclusion of Qi et al. that research to demonstrate and quantify the improvement in the accu-
Equation 2 should be adjusted with a correction factor when applied racy of estimated CO2 generation rates using activity schedules will
to Chinese subjects more likely reflects the use of the older calcula- be of interest. Additional work is also needed to examine the uncer-
tion method and data rather than a fundamental difference for the tainty associated with these estimates of CO2 generation for groups
test subjects. That said, the BMR values of Chinese adults have been as a function of the number of individuals in the group, as well as for
shown to be lower than predicted using available equations, which individuals.
may explain some of the observed differences between the predic-
tions and measurements.47 However, the BMR values calculated using
the equations in Liu et al. do not result in significantly better agree- 7 | CONCLUSIONS
ment between predicted CO2 generation rates and those measured
by Qi et al. This paper presents an approach to estimating CO2 generation rates
48
Fan et al. report measured CO2 generation rates in a naturally from building occupants for use in the fields of IAQ and ventilation.
ventilated room, and compare them to predictions using the approach The approach and data are based on concepts from the fields of
embodied in Equation 4 of this paper. For the six subjects in the Fan human metabolism and exercise physiology. They constitute a sig-
et al. study (three males and three females in their mid-­twenties), nificant advance in the analysis of IAQ and ventilation and should be
the measured generation rates were on average 17% and 25% lower considered in future applications of CO2 in ventilation and IAQ studies
than those predicted by Equation 4 for the male and female sub- and standards. In addition, the sources of physical activity data iden-
jects, respectively. Using the BMR-­based calculation presented in tified should be incorporated into the references that currently use
this paper in Equation 9, with a value of 1.1 met as employed by older and much more limited data sources, that is, ASHRAE Standard
Fan et al., the measured rates were on average 2% and 8% higher 55, the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook, ISO Standard 8996, and
than the calculated rates for the male and female subjects, respec- ASTM D6245.16,20,24,28 In addition, guidance on CO2 set points for the
tively, again demonstrating the improved accuracy of this estimation application of demand control ventilation should be updated to reflect
method. Other than these two studies (Qi and Fan), there is very lit- the information in this paper.
tle published data on measured CO2 generation rates from people.
Additional data will be helpful in assessing the estimation method
presented in this paper. AC KNOW L ED G EM ENTS
The CO2 generation rate estimation method described here
The authors acknowledge Stephen Hermann of the Children’s Health
is applicable to groups of individuals, as the theory behind the
Research Center at Sanford Research for his assistance in understand-
method and the data are based on groups, not single individuals.
ing and using the compendium of physical activities, and Gregory
As noted earlier, if the rate of energy consumption or CO2 gener-
Linteris of NIST for his help in confirming many of the calculations in
ation of a specific individual is needed, it has to be measured for
the study.
that individual to account for differences that can exist due to that
person’s body composition, diet, genetics, and other factors. When
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48. Fan G., Xie J., Liu J. Human CO2 generation rate calculation based
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2017;27:868–879. https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12383
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