2023-03-30 Energy Engineering Chapter 6

Civil Engineering (Pokhara University)

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6 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning commonly known as HVAC refer to the technology
used in buildings to control the temperature, humidity, and air quality for the comfort of
occupants or as required by the objects in the buildings. HVAC systems are designed to provide
thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality/condition in a controlled environment,
typically in commercial or residential buildings, hospitals, schools, and other facilities. These
systems can include various components such as heaters, air conditioners, ventilation fans,
ductwork, filters, and thermostats to regulate and maintain the desired temperature and air
quality.
6.1 Air conditioning fundamentals
The fundamental of air conditioning involves controlling the temperature, humidity, and air
quality of indoor spaces. This is achieved by:
1. Removing heat from the air inside the building through the process of refrigeration.
2. Controlling the moisture content of the air.
3. Filtering the air to remove pollutants and improve air quality.
4. Circulating and distributing the conditioned air to maintain a comfortable environment.
Removing or adding heat inside the room or space is achieved by a refrigeration cycle. The
working mechanism of a refrigeration cycle is explained later on.
6.2 Scope of air conditioning
The scope of air conditioning refers to the various applications and areas where air conditioning
is used to provide thermal comfort and improved indoor air quality. Some of the most common
areas where air conditioning is used include:
1. Residential buildings: Air conditioning is widely used in homes to provide thermal
comfort to the occupants.
2. Commercial buildings: Air conditioning is used in office buildings, shopping malls,
hotels, and other commercial buildings to provide a comfortable environment for
employees and customers.
3. Automobiles: Air conditioning is a common feature in modern cars, providing thermal
comfort to the occupants in hot weather.
4. Data centers: Air conditioning is critical in data centers to maintain a controlled
environment and prevent equipment failure.
5. Medical facilities: Air conditioning is used in hospitals, clinics, and other medical
facilities to maintain a controlled environment and prevent the spread of infections.

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 6. Industrial facilities: Air conditioning is used in factories, warehouses, and other industrial
facilities to provide a comfortable working environment for employees and to prevent
equipment failure.
7. Agriculture: Air conditioning is used in greenhouses to regulate the temperature and
humidity levels, improving crop growth and yield.
6.3 Refrigeration Cycle
The most common refrigeration cycle which is used not a days is Vapor Compression Cycle. It is
the most widely used method for air-conditioning of large public buildings, private residences,
hotels, hospitals, theaters, restaurants and automobiles. It is also used in domestic and
commercial refrigerators, large-scale warehouses for storage of foods and meats, refrigerated
trucks and railroad cars, and a host of other commercial and industrial services.

The four basic components of the vapour compression refrigeration system are Compressor,
Condenser coil (Heat exchanger), Expansion Valve, Evaporator Coil (Heat exchanger). All
components are joined by series of tube and inside the tube flows the refrigerant. Some common
refrigerants are R-22 and R-134a. The detail working mechanism of vapor compression
refrigeration cycle is explained below.
1. Compressor - The compressor is driven by electricity and it increases the pressure of
refrigerant vapor coming from evaporator. The vapor coming from evaporator has low-
pressure, low-temperature. The refrigerant vapor leaving the compressor has high pressure
and high temperature.
2. Condenser – Because of high pressure, the vapor refrigerant cannot remain in vapor form
and changes its phase to liquid phase (Recall that boiling point of a substance changes as the
pressure changes) The high pressure, high temperature refrigerant vapor, while entering the
condenser, has heat removed (latent heat of vaporization) from it to the surrounding and as
results it is condensed back into a liquid phase. Since latent of heat of vaporization is
released to surrounding, heating effect (heating a room in the winter season) is obtained from
condenser.

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3. Throttle valve - The high pressure liquid from the condensers then enters to the expansion
valve where it is expanded through a narrow opening, allowing its pressure to drop.
4. Evaporator – When the low pressure refrigerant coming from throttle valve enters the
evaporator coil, the liquid refrigerant evaporates (boils) under reduced pressure and in doing
so absorbs latent heat of vaporization from surroundings and cools the surroundings. The
evaporator is at the lowest temperature in the system and heat flows to it. This heat is used to
vaporize the refrigerant. The temperature at which this occurs is a function of the pressure on
the refrigerant. The refrigerant coming out of the evaporator is a low pressure vapor
refrigerant which is again sent to compressor and cycle continues.
6.4 Psychometric chart and its applications
One of the fundamentals of HVAC is controlling moisture content of the air. So we need to
know some terms relate to the moisture in the air.
Psychrometry: It is the study of the properties of moist air. It is used in the design and analysis
of HVAC systems to calculate and analyze the properties of air and its moisture content.
Absolute humidity: Absolute humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapor present in air,
expressed in grams per cubic meter (g/m³)
Relative humidity: Relative humidity is a measure of the amount of moisture in the air,
expressed as a percentage of the maximum amount of moisture the air can hold at a given
temperature. Relative humidity is an important metric in HVAC, as it affects how air feels to the
human body. When the relative humidity is high, air feels more humid and sticky, whereas low
relative humidity can lead to dry skin and respiratory problems. In general, the ideal range for
relative humidity in indoor spaces is between 30 and 60 percent. Relative humidity can change as
a result of changes in temperature, pressure, or the amount of moisture in the air. For example, if
the temperature decreases, the air can hold less moisture, which can lead to an increase in
relative humidity. Conversely, if the temperature increases, the air can hold more moisture,
which can lead to a decrease in relative humidity.
Dry bulb temperature (DBT): The dry bulb temperature is a measure of the temperature of air,
expressed in degrees Celsius (°C) or degrees Fahrenheit (°F). It is called the "dry bulb"
temperature because it represents the temperature of air as measured by an ordinary
thermometer, known as a dry bulb thermometer, that is not affected by the presence of moisture
in the air.
Wet bulb temperature (WBT): The wet bulb temperature is a measure of the lowest
temperature that can be achieved by evaporating water into air. It is measured by using a
thermometer with its bulb wrapped in a wet wick, and then exposing the wet bulb to moving air.
The evaporation of water from the wet bulb causes heat to be removed from the thermometer,
which lowers the temperature reading.

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 Hygrometer
The wet bulb temperature is therefore a measure of the amount of moisture in the air and the rate
at which moisture is being removed from it. The wet bulb temperature is an important parameter
in HVAC, as it is used in conjunction with the dry bulb temperature and relative humidity to
determine the properties of moist air. For example, the difference between the dry bulb
temperature and the wet bulb temperature is used to calculate relative humidity, and the
combination of the two temperatures can be used to determine the dew point temperature, which
is the temperature at which air will reach 100% relative humidity.

Psychrometric Chart
Psychrometric chart: A psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of the thermodynamic
properties of air-water vapor mixtures. It provides a convenient way to visualize the relationships
between relative humidity, dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature, and other
thermodynamic properties of air-water vapor mixtures.

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6.4.1 Applications of psychrometric chart in HVAC include:
1. HVAC design: Psychrometric charts are widely used in heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC) design to determine the required conditions for cooling, heating,
and dehumidification processes.
2. Indoor air quality: Psychrometric charts can be used to evaluate the indoor air quality in
buildings, including the relative humidity, temperature, and other properties that affect
human comfort.
3. Energy analysis: Psychrometric charts are used in energy analysis to evaluate the energy
consumption of HVAC systems and to identify opportunities for energy savings.
These are some of the most common applications of psychrometric charts, but they are also used
in many other industries and applications where air-water vapor mixtures are involved.
6.4.2 Psychometric process
There are various psychrometric processes an out of those only followings are discussed as per
the scope of the course.
Sensible Cooling
During this process, the moisture content of air remains constant but its temperature decreases.
For which the air is passed over a cooling coil.
Sensible Heating
In sensible heating, air is heated without any change in its specific humidity. During this process,
the moisture content of air remains constant and its temperature increases. For this the air is
passed over a heating coil.
Cooling and Dehumidification
When moist air is cooled below its dew-point by bringing it in contact with a cold surface, some
of the water vapor in the air condenses and leaves the air stream as a liquid, as a result, both the
temperature and humidity ratio of air decreases. This is actual process air undergoes when an air
is cooled with air conditioning system (summer season).
Heating and Humidification
During winter it is essential to heat and humidity the room air for comfort. This is normally done
by first sensible heating the air and then adding water vapor to the air stream through steam
nozzles. It is also common to place a water vessel in front of heater (electric) to humidify the air
during winter season.
6.5 Air conditioning systems and types
Classification of Air Conditioning
System
6.5.1 According to major functions
1. Human Comfort air conditioning

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Comfort air conditioning is such type of air conditioning whose objective is to produce
comfortable and healthy conditions for occupants by controlling the conditions of temperature,
humidity, air cleanliness and distribution in conditioned space. It includes the air conditioning of
spaces, places and surroundings which is occupied by human beings. Comfort air conditionings
are used in residences, hospitals, departmental stores, public buildings including theatres, cinema
halls, restaurants, dancing halls, night clubs etc. The comfort feeling of the people in an air-
conditioned space depends upon following factors
• Supply of oxygen and removal of carbon-dioxide
The human body requires adequate supply of oxygen to sustain combustion. Each person
requires nearly 0.65 cu m of oxygen per hour and produces 0.2 cu m of CO 2 under normal
condition. Continuous consumption of O2 increases the concentration of CO 2. When the
percentage of CO2 in air exceeds above 2% the breathing becomes difficult. Extreme
discomfort exists when the percentage of CO2 reaches 6% and unconsciousness occurs at
10% of CO2. The quality of air-supply to an air conditioned space should be maintained in
such a way that the percentage of CO2 should not exceed than minimum.
• Removal of body heat dissipated by the occupants
The human body can be considered as an engine which converts thermal energy due to
metabolic activity into mechanical work with a thermal efficiency of 20% and remaining
amount of work is dissipated to the atmosphere. The atmosphere surrounding the person
must be capable to absorb the heat dissipated by the person otherwise discomfort exists.
• Removal of body moisture dissipated by occupants
The body ability to dispose of heat by evaporation to atmosphere decreases as the air
humidity increases. High humidity of air reduces the apparent freshness of air in an enclosed
space in addition of disposing of body heat. The ventilation system should be capable of
must be capable to maintain humidity to desired level.
• Sufficient air movement and air distribution in occupied space
The effect of increased velocity is to increase the body heat loss. Suitable air velocity reduces
the feeling of discomfort when ambient air temperature is lower than body temperature.
• Air purity by removing odour or dust
The quality of air in regard to odour, dust, toxic gases and bacteria is considered for defining
the purity of air.
2. Industrial air conditioning
Industrial air conditioning is defined as the process of simultaneously controlling temperature,
relative humidity, ventilation, cleaning and movement of air within an enclosure intended to
manufacture, inspection and measurement of a product which is atmospheric conditions. It
covers a large number of industries requiring controlled air-conditions for their efficient and
accurate manufacture as well as healthy and comfortable environments for the workers. Air –

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conditioning is essential for the manufacture of rayon and various plastics, paper, colour
printing, in tobacco industries, in precision manufacturing and measurement works, textiles,
leather, electric equipment, photographic materials etc
6.5.2 According to arrangement of equipment
1. Winter air conditioning system: These systems when properly designed and installed,
maintain indoor atmospheric conditions for winter comfort. Winter heating is accomplished
by distributing heated air to spaces by ductwork or by distributing heat in the space by fin
tube radiation or fan coils. Heat is supplied by furnaces or boilers fired with gas, oil or coal
or by electric resistance heaters.
2. Summer air conditioning system: Cooling is accomplished by mechanical refrigeration.
Removal of moisture is accomplished as condensation of water vapour in the air occurs on
cold coil surfaces.
3. Year round air conditioning system: This type of system is combination of both winter and
summer air conditioning.
6.5.3 According to arrangement of equipment
1. Central station air conditioning
In a central station air-conditioning system, all the components of the system are grouped
together in one central room and conditioned air is distributed from the central room to the
required places through ducts. Central air conditioning is situated usually at basement from
where conditioned air is led through sheet metal ducts to various rooms or space of building.
There are return ducts for carrying air from these rooms back to the central place where it is
dehumidified, cooled and recharged with fresh air. The circulation of air is achieved either
naturally or by a fan or blower. This type of air conditioning is best suited for big installations,
factories and industrial concerns.
The central plants require following component and all the components are assembled on the site
• Cooling, heating and dehumidifying coils
• Blower with motor
• Air cleaning equipment
• Control device
Advantages
• The capital cost and running cost are less per unit of refrigeration.
• It can be located away from the air conditioned places which is useful and less costly.
• Noise and vibration troubles are less to the people living in air-conditioned places as the
air conditioned plant is far away from air-conditioned places
• Better accessibility for maintenance
Disadvantages

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 • Absence of any adjustment of individual room temperature
• Costly ducting systems
• Mixing of odours, smoke and bacteria present in the return air from infected rooms and
redistributing them to healthy rooms
Details of central air conditioning is discussed in section 6.7
2. Unitary air conditioning system
In this system, factory assembled air conditioners are installed in or adjacent to the space to be
conditioned.
Advantages
• The installation and assembly labour charges are less.
• Extensive duct work is eliminated.
• Individual room temperature control is specific feature of this system.
• The units are kept running where the cooling is required. The other units can be stopped
where no cooling is required.
There are two types of unitary systems
2.1 Split type air conditioning systems
A split type air conditioning system is one where the two main components of the unit are split
between two physical locations. Although the initial installation cost is generally higher for a
split type air conditioner, they tend to be more energy efficient in the long run. This savings is
energy will quickly recoup the installation cost. There is a big noise reduction as the compressor
is located in the outside unit. Split type air conditioners are suggested in places where there is a
space problem.
The air handling unit is on the inside. This consists of the evaporator section and the duct work
that circulates and delivers the air. The fan motor is also located inside along with the filters. The
evaporator coil is located inside also. The evaporator coil is where the refrigerant actually
vaporizes and the heat adsorption takes place. The thermostat which controls the system is
located indoors also, of course, but usually at a more central location where a temperature
measurement can be more effectively made.
The split unit is often referred to as having a cold side and a hot side. The cold side is the indoor
unit where cooling actually takes place.

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The hot side is the outdoor unit where heat is given up from the refrigerant. The hot side unit has
a fan assembly to aid in the removal of heat from the condenser coils. It also has its own control
logic. Split type air conditioners are used in homes as well as business buildings. Many office
buildings and retail establishments use split types due to the larger size of the condenser units.
The larger size condensers can be located more easily outdoors behind the buildings, A split-
system air conditioner splits the hot side from the cold side of the system as in figure.
2.2 Window type air conditioning
A window air conditioner unit implements a complete air conditioner in a small space. The units
are made small enough to fit into a standard window frame.

They are self contained units of small capacity and are mounted in a window or through a wall.
These units are designed for comfort cooling and to provide delivery of conditioned air to a room
either without ducts or with very short ducts. They include a prime source of refrigeration,
dehumidification, means for circulating and cleaning air, and may also include means for

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ventilating, and/or exhausting and heating. They are employed to condition the air of one room
only. If the room is bigger in size, two or more units are installed.
6.6 Thermal comfort
American Society of Hating Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) defines
thermal comfort as “that condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment” and defined the six factor indicating thermal comfort as
6.6.1 Six factors indicating thermal comfort
• Air temperature
• Radiant temperature
• Air movement and speed
• Humidity
• Clothing and PPE insulation
• Work rate and metabolic heat
Air temperature
The temperature of the air surrounding the body is usually given in degrees Celsius (°C). It can
be measured using thermometers but, on its own, this will not give an indication of thermal
comfort. Generally the comfort temperature ranges from 20°C to 26°C, however, it largely
depends on individual choices,
Radiant temperature
Thermal radiation is the heat that radiates from warm objects like the Sun, heaters, ovens and so
on. Radiant temperature will have a greater influence than air temperature on how hot the
workplace will feel.
Air movement and speed
The speed of air moving in the room/space makes the occupant feel if the air is cooler than the
environment. This is an important factor in thermal comfort, for example:
• still or stagnant air in artificially heated indoor environments may cause people to feel
stuffy. It may also lead to a build-up in odour
• moving air in warm or humid conditions can increase heat loss through convection
without any change in air temperature
• physical activity also increases air movement, so it can be corrected to account for a
person's work
• small air movements in cool or cold environments may be perceived as a draught as
people are particularly sensitive to these movements

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Humidity
Humidity in indoor environments can vary greatly. High-humidity environments have a lot of
vapour in the air, which prevents sweat evaporating. In hot environments, humidity is important
because less sweat evaporates when humidity is high (over 80%). Sweat evaporating is the main
method of heat reduction.
Clothing/PPE insulation
A comfortable working temperature very much depends on the insulating effect of clothing.
Wearing too much clothing or PPE may be a primary cause of heat stress even if the
environment is not considered warm or hot. In cold conditions, if clothing does not provide
enough insulation, the wearer may be at risk from cold stress and suffer injuries such as frostbite
or hypothermia.
Work rate and metabolic heat
The impact of work rate on thermal comfort is critical because physical activity creates more
body heat. So the thermal comfort in the room also depends on the physical activity of occupants
in the room. Factors such as size and weight, age and fitness level can all have an impact on how
they feel, even if other factors such as air temperature, humidity and rate of air movement are all
constant.

Comfort zone in psychrometric chart

6.7 Air distribution system and components
In this section, distribution of conditioned air in central air conditioning system is discussed in
details.

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6.7.1 All-air system
In an all-air system, air is blown across the cold evaporator coil and then delivered by ducts to
the rooms that require cooling. The great advantage of all-air systems is that complete control
over air quality is possible. The main disadvantages are that all-air systems are very bulky and a
significant part of the building volume must be devoted to the delivery of air. They are also less
efficient because moving large quantities of air requires a great deal of power.

Schematic diagram of all-air system

Supply and return duct in all-air system

6.7.2 All-Water Systems
In an all-water system, the water is chilled by the evaporator coil and then delivered to fan-coil
units (FCU) in each space. Although the piping in the building takes up very little space, the
FCUs in each room do require some space.

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 Schematic diagram of all-water system
Fan-coil-unit (FCU) consists of a heating or cooling coil, a fan, and a filter. The coil is connected
to a chilled or hot water source, which circulates the cooling or heating medium through the coil
to either cool or warm the air passing through it. The fan then blows the treated air into the
space. Fan-coil units can also be placed above a dropped ceiling or in a small closet. There can
be condensation on the cooling coils while cooling which must be collected in a pan and drained
away.

Typical FCU

FCU placement
6.7.3 Combined Air-water system
An air-water system is a combination of the above-mentioned air and water systems (Fig.
16.12e). The bulk of the cooling is handled by fan-coil units and air-handling-units (AHU),

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 Schematic diagram of air-water system

Schematic diagram of air-water system in a multi-storied building

Air Handling Unit (AHU)
It is typically a large metal box (large than FCU) that contains a blower, heating and/or cooling
coils, filters, and other components. The AHU is responsible for regulating the temperature and
air quality of a space by taking air to be conditioned and faction of outside fresh air. It then
conditions it and then distributes it through a network of ducts to the various rooms or spaces.
The blower in an AHU draws in air from a return duct, which is filtered to remove impurities
such as dust and allergens. The air then passes through the coil (heating or cooling) and finally,
the conditioned air is distributed through the ducts to the spaces.

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6.7.4 Air distribution duct
Air is usually supplied to rooms by means of round, rectangular, or oval ducts. Although round
ducts are preferable for a number of reasons, they require clearances that are not always
available. Consequently, rectangular ducts are very popular. However, the ratio of short to long
sides, the aspect ratio, should not exceed 1:5 because the resulting high airflow friction requires
the ducts to have excessively large areas and perimeters.

Different cross-section of duct

6.8 Ventilating
Ventilating is the process of changing or replacing air in any space to control temperature or
remove moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust and airborne bacteria. Ventilation includes both the
exchange of air to the outside as well as circulation of air within the building. Ventilation is used

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to remove unpleasant smells and excessive moisture, introduce outside air, and to keep interior
building air circulating, to prevent stagnation of the interior air.
Ventilation air is that air used for providing acceptable indoor air quality. When people or
animals are present in buildings, ventilation air is necessary to dilute odours and limit the
concentration of carbon dioxide and airborne pollutants such as dust, smoke and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs). Ventilation air is often delivered to spaces by mechanical systems which
may also heat, cool, humidify and dehumidify the space. Buildings normally have sufficient air
leakage to prevent dangerous levels of carbon dioxide. Inadequate ventilation in a densely
occupied room can cause the level of carbon dioxide to increase leading to sleepiness and
reduced efficiency at work In certain applications, such as submarines, pressurized aircraft, and
spacecraft, ventilation air is also needed to provide oxygen, and to dilute carbon dioxide for
survival.
The ventilation rate is normally expressed by the volumetric flow rate of outside air being
introduced to the building. The typical units used are cubic feet per minute (CFM) or liters per
second (L/s). The ventilation rate can also be expressed on a volume flow per person or per unit
floor area basis, such as CFM/p or CFM/ft², or as air changes per hour.
6.8.1 Purposes of ventilation
Maintaining human comfort and health are two key reasons for providing ventilation in
buildings. To achieve these purposes, a ventilation system should be able to meet the following
criteria:
• provide sufficient supply of air/oxygen for the physiological needs of human beings
(minimum of normally 10.4 l/s/person) and/or livestock;
• provide sufficient supply of air/oxygen for industrial, agricultural and other processes
(for example, provision of oxygen for burning and combustion processes);
• remove the products of respiration and bodily odor (including those from smoking) of
human and/or animal occupants;
• remove contaminants or harmful chemicals generated by processes or from building
materials;
• remove heat generated by people, lighting and equipment inside the occupied space;
• create some degree of air movement which is essential for feelings of freshness and
comfort (usually a velocity of 0.1 to 0.3 m/s is required)
• air cleanliness achieved by filtration of fresh air intake and recirculated room air
6.9 Types of ventilation
1. Mechanical or forced ventilation
"Mechanical" or "forced" ventilation is used to control indoor air quality when natural ventilation
is insufficient. It uses fans, blower and other mechanical system for air movement. Kitchens and
bathrooms typically have mechanical exhaust to control odors and sometimes humidity. Factors

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in the design of such systems include the flow rate (which is a function of the fan speed and
exhaust vent size) and noise level. Ceiling fans and table/floor fans circulate air within a room
for the purpose of reducing the perceived temperature because of evaporation of perspiration on
the skin of the occupants.
2. Natural ventilation
Natural ventilation is the ventilation of a building with outside air without the use of a fan or
other mechanical system. It can be achieved with operable windows when the spaces to ventilate
are small and the architecture permits. In more complex systems warm air in the building can be
allowed to rise and flow out upper openings to the outside (stack effect) thus forcing cool outside
air to be drawn into the building naturally through openings in the lower areas. These systems
use very little energy but care must be taken to ensure the occupants' comfort. In warm or humid
months, in many climates, maintaining thermal comfort via solely natural ventilation may not be
possible so conventional air conditioning systems are used as backups.
6.9.1 Principles of Natural Ventilation
For air to move into and out of a building, a pressure difference between the inside and outside
of the building is required. The resistance to flow of air through the building will affect the actual
air flow rate. In general, controlled natural ventilation and infiltration are driven by pressure
difference across the building envelope. The pressure difference is caused by:
Wind effect
When air flow is due to wind, air enters through openings in the windward walls, and leaves
through openings in the leeward walls. The pressure distribution patterns due to wind in a
number of cases are illustrated in figures.

Air flow around the building (Plan view)

Air flow around the building (Elevation)

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Wind pressures are generally high/positive on the windward side of a building and low/negative
on the leeward side. The occurrence and change of wind pressures on building surfaces depend
on:
• wind speed and wind direction relative to the building;
• the location and surrounding environment of the building; and
• shape of the building.
For a building with numerous partitions and openings, it is under various pressures depending on
the relative sizes of the openings and the wind direction. With large openings on the windward
face, the building tends to be under positive pressure. The reverse is true if the openings are
smaller than those downstream.
Stack effect
When air movement is due to temperature difference between the indoor and outdoor, the flow
of air is in the vertical direction and is along the path of least resistance. The temperature
difference causes density differentials, and therefore pressure differences, that drive the air to
move. During the winter season, the following stack effect occurs:
• indoor temperature is higher than outdoor temperature;
• the warmer air in building then rises up;
• the upward air movement produces negative indoor pressure at the bottom;
• positive indoor pressure is created on the top;
• warmer air flows out of the building near the top; and
• the air is replaces by colder outside air that enters the building near its base.

Stack effect
During the summer season, the reverse occurs when indoor temperature is lower than outdoor
temperature. Stack effect that may occur in different forms of buildings, including a building
with no internal partition, a building with airtight separation of each storey, and an ideal building

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with vertical shafts and horizontal openings. When thermal force is acting alone, a neutral
pressure level (NPL) exists, where the interior and exterior pressures are equal. At all other
levels, the pressure difference between the interior and exterior depends on the distance from the
neutral pressure level and the difference between the densities of inside and outside air.
Combined effect of wind and temperature difference
In most cases, natural ventilation depends on a combined force of wind and stack effects. The
pressure patterns for actual buildings continually change with the relative magnitude of thermal
and wind forces. The pressures due to each effect are added together to determine the total
pressure difference across the building envelope. The relative importance of the wind and stack
pressures in a building depends on building height, internal resistance to vertical air flow,
location and flow resistance characteristics of envelope openings, local terrain, and the
immediate shielding of the building structure.
Combination of natural and mechanical systems
1. Natural inlet and outlet
• Utilizing openable windows, door-ways, chimneys, doorways, air bricks
• Upto about 3 air changes per hour may be provided
• Air change per hour depends upon wind direction and strength, stack effects of rising
warm air currents and adventitious openings around doors and windows
2. Natural inlet, mechanical outlet
• Used where air is to be discharged away from the occupied space owning to its
contamination with heat, fumes, smoke, water vapor or odor
• Mechanical extract fans in windows or roofs and ducted system
• A slight reduction in air static pressure is caused within the building and external air
flows inwards
• Particularly used for toilet or kitchen extraction, smoke removal from public rooms and
heat or fume removal from industrial premises
3. Mechanical inlet, natural outlet
• Air is blown into the building through a fan convector or ducted system to pressurize the
internal atmosphere slightly with a heated air supply
• Air leaks out of building through adventitious openings, and permanent air bricks or
louvers
• Can be used for offices, factories, large public halls or underground boiler plant rooms
4. Mechanical inlet and outlet
• Used where natural ventilations openings would become unable to cope with large air
flow rates without disturbing the architecture or causing uncontrollable draughts
• Full mechanical control of air movement is assumed

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6.10 Cross ventilation
Cross ventilation occurs where there are pressure differences between one side of a building and
the other. Typically, this is a wind-driven effect in which air is drawn into the building on the
high pressure windward side and is drawn out of the building on the low pressure leeward side.
Cross ventilation is most suited for buildings that are:
• Narrow.
• On exposed sites.
• Perpendicular to the prevailing wind.
• Free from internal barriers to air flow.
• Provided with a regular distribution of openings.

Cross ventilation in a building

6.11 Heating and cooling load calculations

Following section highlights the factors that need to be considered while calculating heating and
cooling load of a building.
In HVAC, the size of the plant in often expressed in Tons of Refrigeration (TR or ToR). It refers
to the amount of heat that has to be removed from 1 ton of water at 0 °C to make it 1 ton of ice at
0°C in 24 hours. In imperial unit system 1 ton = 2000 lb and heat of fusion = 144 BTU/lb
So,

In SI system, 1 ton (short ton is different from Metric Ton) = 907.18 kg and heat of fusion = 334
kJ/kg
So,

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6.11.1 Heating load estimation
An estimate of the heating load is made on the basis of the maximum probable heat loss of the
room or space to be heated. Thus the plant for heating system is to be designed that it has a
capacity just sufficient to meet the heating load requirement which develops when most severe
weather condition occur. Followings are the factors on which heating load depends
• Transmission heat loss
• Cooling load is usually high at the morning time so there will not be solar radiation load
• Internal heat gain from occupants, light source and appliances
6.11.2 Cooling load estimation
Cooling load estimation of a room depends on the following factors
• Transmission heat gain through external wall, partition wall, floor, roofs etc
• Solar radiation and transmission heat gain through glass
• Heat gain through infiltration of air through door gaps
• Internal heat gain from occupants, light source, appliances,
• Time of the days
• Orientation of the wall

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