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International Relations, Realism, and Liberalism: A Theoretical Review

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 International Journal of Social and Humanities Extension
Vol. 2 No.1 pp. 1-6
www.ijshe.info/index.php/ijshe

Review Article

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS, REALISM, AND LIBERALISM: A

THEORETICAL REVIEW
USMAN SAFIYANU DUGURI1, ISYAKU HASSAN2, YUSUF KAMALUDDEEN IBRAHIM3
1,3
Department of International Relations Faculty of Law and International Relations University Sultan Zainal Abidin 21300 Kuala
Terengganu, Malaysia, 2Faculty of Languages and Communication Sultan Zainal Abidin University 21300 Kuala Terengganu,
Terengganu, Malaysia. Email: usmansufyanduguri@yahoo.com

Received 2021.11.11-Accepted 2021.12.20

ABSTRACT
International Relations is a significant subfield of social science specifically political science. The scope of international
relations refers to the complex relationships that exist between the world's sovereign states. It is primarily concerned,
among other things, with the in-depth examination of all events and situations that affect more than one state.International
relations between countries are essential in today's globalized world. This is because no country is self-sufficient. As a
result, countries all over the world have established bilateral and multilateral relations to advance their economic, security,
and social well-being.This study thoroughly reviews and examines only twotheories(Realism and Liberalism) among
thetheories of international relations as well as its definitions. finally, the study foundthat the term “international " was
used by Jeremy Banthanl for the first time in the late eighteenth century, and also the international relations has been
defined in a variety of ways since its inception by many scholars. In addition,realism,or political realism, has been the
dominant theory of international relations.
Key words: International relations, theory, realism, liberalism, international politics..

INTRODUCTION
international relations and interactions, including the
operations and policies of national governments,
Scholars have been attracted for centuries by
intergovernmental organizations (IGOs),
the study of international relations. However, the term
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and
international was used by Jeremy Banthanl in the late
multinational enterprises (MNCs). It can be both a
eighteenth century, although Rijchare Zouche used the
theoretical and a practical or policy subject, using
Latin equivalent integrated a century earlier. They both
academic techniques that can be empirical, normative,
used this word about the branch of law known as the law
or both. It is frequently seen as a branch of political
of nations, which later became known as 'International
science, but it is also studied by historians (international
Law.' International interactions expanded dramatically
or diplomatic history) and economists (international
over the nineteenth and twentieth century. Today's
economics).It is also a branch of law (public
nation-states are far too intertwined, and their
international law) as well as a branch of philosophy
interactions, whether political or commercial, have
(international ethics). From a broader perspective, IR is
evolved into a crucial topic of study. This topic is
unmistakably an interdisciplinary investigation. Aspects
primarily concerned with the political relationships that
of international relations, particularly war and
exist between sovereign societies known as nations or
diplomacy, have been examined and commented on
nation-states. Although historians, international lawyers,
since the time of the ancient Greek historian
and political philosophers have written about
Thucydides, although IR did not become a formal
international politics for centuries, the formal
academic field until the early twentieth century
recognition of International Relations as a separate
(Jackson, Sørensen& Møller,2019).
discipline is usually thought to have occurred at the end
of World War I with the establishment of a Chair of Why do we need to study International Relations?
International Relations at the University of Wales,
Aberystwyth. Other Chairs followed in the United The main reason we should study international relations
Kingdom and the United States. Before 1919, is that the world's population is divided into separate
international relations were studied, but there was no political communities, or independent states, which have
such thing as a discipline. Its subject content was shared a significant impact on how people live. A sovereign
by several earlier disciplines, including law, philosophy, state is an unambiguous and bordered territory under the
economics, politics, and diplomatic history — but jurisdiction of a supreme government that is
before 1919, the subject was not studied with the zeal constitutionally separate from all foreign governments:
that the First World War produced.(Linklater, Devetak, an independent nation or state. These states work
Donnelly, Paterson, Reus-Smit, & True,2005). together to form a global international state system.At
the moment, there are nearly 200 independent states.
Furthermore, IR is an abbreviation for the academic With very few exceptions, everyone on the planet not
discipline of international relations. It is the study of only lives in one of those countries, but is also a citizen
 Duguri et al.

of one of them, and very rarely of more than one. As a resistance, or conflict of purpose or interest is present."
result, virtually every man, woman, and child on the "International Relations as a field of study is focused on
planet are linked to a specific state, and through that the process by which states adjust their national interests
state, to the state system, which affects their lives in to those of other states," according to Hartman.
significant ways that they may not be fully aware According to Palmer and Perkins, the primary concern
of(Jackson, Sørensen & Møller,2019). of international politics is the state system. International
politics, according to Sprout and Sprout, are those
International Relations: Meaning and Definitions aspects of the interactions and relations of independent
International Relations is a significant subfield of social political communities in which there is some element of
science. The scope of international relations refers to the opposition, resistance, or conflict(Sprout & Sprout,
complex relationships that exist between the world's 1957).
sovereign states. It is primarily concerned, among other International Relations (IR) can refer to both a
things, with the in-depth examination of all events and "condition" and a "discipline." For example, Quincy
situations that affect more than one state. According to Wright makes this distinction. Official relations between
the great Greek philosopher Aristotle, man is a social sovereign countries are referred to as international
animal by nature. Man, as a social animal, cannot exist relations, though he believes that "............the term
in isolation. His basic nature and basic needs drive him interstate would have been more accurate because, in
to meet his numerous needs in collaboration with others. political science, the term state came to be the terms
Furthermore, no man is self-sufficient in his daily needs, applied to such societies." Thus, international relations
so he must rely on his fellow man for survival. No as a 'condition' refers to the facts of international life,
individual or state can afford to live in isolation, and no that is, the actual conduct of relations between nations
state can afford to live in isolation. No state, like the through diplomacy based on foreign policy. It also
individual, is self-sufficient. It must, of course, cultivate includes actual cooperation, conflict, and war zones.
inter-state relations. International Politics is concerned According to Wright, IR should tell the "truth about the
with these relationships. Political activities and other subject," i.e., how such relationships are conducted, and
types and aspects of interactions between two or more as a discipline, IR should approach them systematically
states are referred to as international relations. and scientifically.In other words, IR should concentrate
International Relations is a branch of political science on the study of all relations-political, diplomatic,
concerned with the study of state relations, nation-state commercial, and academic-between sovereign states that
foreign policy, and the mechanisms and institutions comprise the subject matter of international relations.
(such as international organizations, inter-governmental The scope of IR should include the study of "various
organizations, international and national non- types of groups—nations, states, governments, peoples,
governmental organizations, and multinational regions, alliances, confederations, international
corporations) through which states interact.international organizations, even industrial organizations, cultural
and regional peace and security, international organizations, religious organizations, and so on—that
organizations, nuclear proliferation, globalization, are involved in the conduct of these relations," etc. (
human rights, economic development, intervention, Kaplan,1958).
international financial relations, and international trade
relations are all topics covered in the study Furthermore, the term International Relations
ofinternational relations (Brown&Rengger,2002). (abbreviated as IR in capital letters) refers to the
academic discipline. International Politics, International
Furthermore, International relations have been defined Studies, World Politics, and Global Politics are all terms
in a variety of ways since their inception. The definition used to describe the discipline. The core subject of the
of the subject varies greatly among authors. According academic discipline is referred to as international
to Stanley Hoffman, it appears quite natural "How could relations or international politics (lower case). That is,
one agree once and for all on a definition of a field international relations/international politics are the "real
whose scope is constantly changing, indeed, a field world-processes" studied by IR as an academic
whose fluctuation is one of its primary characteristics?" discipline (or international politics, world politics, or
As a result, no universally accepted definition of global politics, if you prefer). In textbooks, the
international relations exists. International relations, abbreviation SIR, which stands for a scholarship or the
according to Prof. Charles Schleicher, are the study of international relations, is used to refer to
relationships between states. International relations are scholarship that analyses those "real-world-processes
defined as follows by Quincy Wright: "relationships .“Throughout the book, the traditional term
between major groups in world life at any time in "International Relations" refers to the academic
history. “International relations, according to Prof. Hans discipline. The abbreviation "IR theory" is used for the
Morgenthau, are a struggle for power among nations. theory within this academic discipline (International
International relations, according to Norman Podelford Relations theory) (Spindler,2013).
and George Lincoln, are the interaction of state politics
with the changing pattern of power relationships. It is International politics and International relations
defined by Padelford and Lincoln as "interactions of
state policies within changing patterns of power In 1919, the University of Wales (U.K.) established the
relationships"(Morgenthau & Nations,1948). first Chair in International Relations. Professors Alfred
Zinmern and C.K. Webster were the first two occupants
Harold and Margaret Sprout, on the other hand, provide of the chair. International Relations as a subject was
a useful working definition of international relations. little more than diplomatic history at the time. This
International relations are defined as "those aspects of subject's nature and content changed over the next seven
interactions and relations of independent political decades. Today, analytical political studies have taken
communities in which some element of opposition, the place of descriptive diplomatic history. The term

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international politics now refers to a new discipline that The fundamentals of realism
has emerged since World War II. When compared to
International Relations, it is more scientific, but also The first assumption of realism is that the nation-state
more narrow.Even today, the two terms are used (usually abbreviated to state) is the primary actor in
interchangeably. They do, however, have two distinct international relations. Other bodies, such as individuals
areas of study, or content. Hans Morgenthau believes and organizations, exist, but their power is limited.
that "the core of international relations is international Second, the state is a unified actor. National interests,
politics," but there must be a clear distinction between particularly during times of war, compel the state to
the two. International Relations, he claims, has a much speak and act with one voice. Third, decision-makers are
broader scope than International Politics. Whereas rational actors in the sense that rational decision-making
national politics, as Morgenthau puts it, is a power leads to the pursuit of the national interest. Taking
struggle, international relations encompass political, actions that would weaken or expose your state would
economic, and cultural relations(Morgenthau & be illogical in this situation. Realism implies that all
Nations,1948). leaders, regardless of political persuasion, recognize this
as they attempt to manage their state's affairs to survive
According to Harold and Margaret Sprout, international in a competitive environment. Finally, states exist in
relations encompass all human behavior on one side of a anarchy – that is, there is no one in charge
national boundary that affects human behavior on the internationally.In an international emergency, the
other side of the boundary. International politics, on the frequently used analogy of "no one to call" emphasizes
other hand, deals with conflicts and cooperation among this point. Within our states, we typically have police
nations primarily at the political level. International forces, militaries, and courts, among other things. In the
politics, as defined by Padelford and Lincoln, is the event of an emergency, these institutions are expected to
interaction of state policies within a changing pattern of 'do something.' Because there is no established hierarchy
power relationships. Palmer and Perkins both agree that on a global scale, there is no clear expectation of anyone
international politics is primarily concerned with the or anything 'doing something.' As a result, states can
state system. International relations are broader in scope rely on themselves only in the end.(Antunes,&
than international politics because it encompasses all CAMISãO,2018).
types of relationships between sovereign states. As IR
students, we will investigate political conflicts and state Furthermore, in Theory of International Politics (1979),
cooperation. However, we will also look at other aspects Kenneth Waltz modernized IR theory by moving
of international relations, such as economic realism away from its unprovable (though persuasive)
interdependence and the role of non-state assumptions about human nature. His theoretical
actors(Snyder,1955). contribution was dubbed 'neorealism' or ‘structural
realism' because he emphasized the concept of structure
International relations theories in his explanation. Rather than being based on human
nature, a state's decisions and actions are based on a
Different people have different interpretations of the simple formula. First, all states are constrained by their
term theory. It could even mean different things to participation in an international anarchic system (this is
different people. In common parlance, something may the structure).Second, any course of action they take is
be true "in theory" but not in practice or a specific case based on their relative power in comparison to other
or set of circumstances. In this rather broad sense, "in states. As a result, Waltz proposed a version of realism
theory" is synonymous with "in principle" or "in the in which theorists should look to the characteristics of
abstract." Another definition, more consistent with the international system for answers rather than flaws in
usage in this volume, sees theory as simply a method of human nature. In doing so, he ushered in a new era in IR
making the world or some part of it more theory in which social scientific methods were
understandable or intelligible. This is the goal of attempted rather than political theory (or philosophical)
theories dealing with international relations. Making methods. The distinction is that Waltz's variables
things more understandable may, of course, simply (international anarchy, state power, and so on) can be
mean providing a better or more precise description of empirically/physically measured. Human nature is an
what we see. Although an accurate description is assumption based on philosophical views that cannot be
necessary, a theory is more significant. measured in the same way(Antunes,& CAMISãO,2018).
Realism Realists believe that their theory best describes the
Realism is a school of thought in the field of image of world politics held by statecraft practitioners.
International Relations (IR) that emphasizes the As a result, perhaps more than any other IR theory,
competitive and conflictual aspects of international realism is frequently used in policymaking – echoing
relations. The origins of realism are said to be found in Machiavelli's desire to write a manual to guide leaders.
some of the earliest historical writings, particularly Realists' detractors, on the other hand, argue that they
Thucydides' history of the Peloponnesian War, which can contribute to the continuation of the violent and
raged between 431 and 404 BCE. Thucydides, who confrontational world that they depict. Realists
wrote over two thousand years ago, was not arealist,' encourage leaders to act in ways based on suspicion,
because IR theory did not exist in its current form until power, and force by assuming the uncooperative and
the twentieth century. However, when viewed from a egoistic nature of humankind and the absence of
modern perspective, theorists discovered numerous hierarchy in the state system. As a result, realism can be
parallels between ancient and modern thought patterns viewed as a self-fulfilling prophecy. More directly,
and behaviors. They then used his writings, as well as realism is frequently criticized for being overly
the writings of others, to support the idea that there was pessimistic, because it sees the international system's
a timeless theory that covered all of recorded human confrontational nature as unavoidable. Realists, on the
history. 'Realism' was the name given to this theory. other hand, believe that leaders face an endless number

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of constraints and few opportunities for collaboration. view based on a different reading of history than that
As a result, they have few options for escaping the found in realist scholarship.
realities of power politics. For a realist, facing the reality
of one's situation is prudence, not pessimism. The realist The Fundamentals of Liberalism
account of international relations emphasizes the limited Liberalism is founded on the moral argument that the
possibility of peaceful change, or indeed any type of highest goal of government is to protect an individual's
change. It would be foolish for a leader to place his or right to life, liberty, and property. As a result, liberals
her faith in such an idealistic outcome(Antunes,& emphasize individual well-being as the foundation of a
CAMISãO,2018). just political system. A political system characterized by
Many critics of realism focus on one of its central unchecked power, such as a monarchy or a dictatorship,
strategies in world affairs management – an idea is is incapable of protecting its citizens' lives and liberties.
known as "the balance of power." This describes a As a result, liberalism's primary concern is to build
situation in which states are constantly making decisions institutions that protect individual liberty by limiting and
to strengthen their capabilities while undermining the checking political power. While these are domestic
capabilities of others. This creates a sort of 'balance' in issues, the field of international relations is also
that (theoretically) no state is allowed to become too important to liberals because a state's actions abroad can
powerful within the international system. If a state tries have a significant impact on liberty at home. Militaristic
to push its luck and grow too much, as Nazi Germany foreign policies particularly irritate liberals.The primary
did in the 1930s, it will spark a war because other states concern is that war necessitates states amassing military
will ally to try to defeat it – that is, restore balance.One power. This power can be used to fight other countries,
of the reasons that International Relations are anarchic is but it can also be used to oppress its citizens. As a result,
because of the balance of power system. No single state political systems based on liberalism frequently limit
has ever been able to become a global power and unify military power by ensuring civilian control over the
the entire world under its direct rule. As a result, realism military(Meiser,2018).
emphasizes the importance of adaptable alliances in Territorial expansion wars, or imperialism – when states
ensuring survival. These alliances are determined less by seek to build empires by capturing territory elsewhere –
political or cultural similarities between states and more are especially upsetting to liberals. Expansionist wars
by the desire to find fair-weather friends, or 'enemies of not only strengthen the state at the expense of the people
my enemy.'This may help to explain why the United but also necessitate long-term commitments to military
States and the Soviet Union were allies during World occupation and political control of foreign territory and
War II (1939–1945): they both saw a similar threat from peoples. Large bureaucracies with a vested interest in
a rising Germany and sought to balance it. However, maintaining or expanding the occupation of foreign
within a few years of the war's end, the nations had territory are required for occupation and control. For
become bitter enemies, and the balance of power began liberals, the central issue is how to create a political
to shift again as new alliances were formed during what system that allows states to protect themselves from
became known as the Cold War (1947–1991). While foreign threats without jeopardizing their citizens'
realists see the balance of power as a prudent strategy liberties.In liberal states, the primary institutional check
for managing an insecure world, critics see it as a means on power is free and fair elections through which the
of legitimizing war and aggression(Antunes,& people can remove their rulers from power, providing a
CAMISãO,2018). fundamental check on the government's behavior. The
Despite these criticisms, realism remains central to the division of political power among different branches and
field of international relations theory, with most other levels of government – such as a parliament/congress,
theories concerned (at least in part) with critiquing it. As an executive, and a legal system – is a second significant
a result, it would be inappropriate to write an IR theory limitation on political power. This enables power to be
textbook without including realism in the first chapter. used with checks and balances(Meiser,2018).
Furthermore, because of its history of providing Democratic peace theory is perhaps liberalism's most
policymakers with tools of statecraft, realism continues significant contribution to international relations theory.
to offer many important insights into the world of It asserts that democratic states are extremely unlikely to
policymaking. go to war with one another. This phenomenon can be
explained in two parts. First, as previously stated,
Liberalism
democratic states are distinguished by internal power
Liberalism is a distinguishing feature of modern restraints. Second, democracies tend to see each other as
democracy, as evidenced by the use of the term "liberal legitimate and unthreatening, and thus have a greater
democracy" to describe countries with free and fair capacity for cooperation with each other than non-
elections, the rule of law, and protecting civil liberties. democracies. Statistical analysis and historical case
However, when discussed within the context of studies provide strong support for democratic peace
international relations theory, liberalism has evolved theory, but several issues remain unresolved. First,
into its distinct entity. Liberalism encompasses a wide democracy is a relatively new development in human
range of ideas and arguments about how institutions, history. This means that democracies have few
behaviors, and economic ties contain and mitigate state opportunities to compete with one another. Second, we
violence. When compared to realism, it incorporates don't know whether the peace is truly "democratic," or
more factors into our frame of reference, particularly the whether it is the result of other factors associated with
inclusion of citizens and international organizations. democracy, such as power, alliances, culture,
Most notably, liberalism has been the traditional foil to economics, and so on. A third point is that, while
realism in IR theory, offering a more optimistic world democracies are unlikely to go to war with one another,
some research suggests that they are more likely to be

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aggressive toward non-democracies, such as when the United Nations rules), in a move widely regarded as
US went to war with Iraq in 2003. Regardless of the illegitimate.
debate, the prospect of a democratic peace gradually
replacing a world of constant war – as described by The majority of liberal scholarship today focuses on
realists – is an enduring and important aspect of how international organizations foster cooperation by
liberalism(Meiser,2018). assisting states in overcoming the incentive to avoid
international agreements. This type of scholarship is
We now live in an international system shaped by the known as 'neoliberal institutionalism,' which is often
post-World War II liberal world order. The international abbreviated to just 'neoliberalism.' This frequently leads
institutions, organizations, and norms (expected to misunderstanding because neoliberalism is also a
behaviors) of this world order are built on the same term used outside of IR theory to describe a widespread
foundations as domestic liberal institutions and norms; economic ideology of deregulation, privatization, low
the desire to restrain the violent power of states. taxes, austerity (cuts in government spending), and free
However, power is more diluted and dispersed trade. When applied to international relations, the
internationally than it is within states. Aggression wars, essence of neoliberalism is that states can benefit
for example, are forbidden under international law.There significantly from cooperation if they trust one another
is no international police force to enforce this law, but to follow through on their commitment detection is more
an aggressor understands that breaking it risks severe likely in situations where a state can benefit from
international repercussions. States, for example, can cheating and avoid punishment. However, when a third
impose economic sanctions or intervene militarily party (such as an unbiased international organization)
against the offending state, either individually or as part can monitor the behavior of agreement signatories and
of a collective body such as the United Nations. provide information to both parties, the incentive to
Furthermore, an aggressive state risks missing out on defect decreases, and both parties can commit to
peace's benefits, such as gains from international trade, cooperating. In these cases, all agreement signatories
foreign aid, and diplomatic recognition. can benefit from absolute gains. Absolute gains are a
general increase in welfare for all parties involved –
The most comprehensive account of the liberal world everyone benefits to some extent, but not necessarily
order can be found in the work of Daniel Deudney and equally. According to liberal theorists, states care more
G. John Ikenberry (1999), who describe three about absolute gains than relative gains. Relative gains,
interconnected factors: First, international law and which are closely related to realist accounts, describe a
agreements are accompanied by international situation in which a state measures its increase in
organizations to form an international system that welfare relative to other states and may avoid any
extends far beyond a single state. The United Nations is agreements that strengthen a competitor. By focusing on
the archetypal example of such an organization, as it the more optimistic viewpoint of absolute gains and
pools resources for common goals (such as combating providing evidence of its existence via international
climate change), maintains near-constant diplomacy organizations, liberals see a world where states will
between enemies and friends, and gives all member likely cooperate in any agreement where any increase in
states a voice in the international community. prosperity is probable(Meiser,2018).
Second, the spread of free trade and capitalism by
CONCLUSION
powerful liberal states and international organizations
such as the World Trade Organization, the International In conclusion,International Relations is a significant
Monetary Fund, and the World Bank creates an open, subfield of social science specifically political science.
market-based international economic system. This The scope of international relations refers to the
situation is mutually beneficial because increased trade complex relationships that exist between the world's
between states reduces conflict and makes war less sovereign states. It is primarily concerned, among other
likely because war disrupts or cancels the benefits things, with the in-depth examination of all events and
(profits) of trade. States with extensive trade ties are situations that affect more than one state.International
thus strongly compelled to maintain peaceful relations. relations between countries are essential in today's
According to this calculation, war is not profitable for globalized world. The core argument of liberalism is
the state, but rather detrimental(Meiser,2018) that concentrations of unaccountable violent power pose
the most serious threat to individual liberty and must be
International norms are the third pillar of the liberal limited. Institutions and norms at both the domestic and
international order. Liberal principles promote international levels are the primary means of restraining
international cooperation, human rights, democracy, and power. Institutions and organizations at the international
the rule of law. When a state violates these standards, it level limit the power of states by encouraging
faces a variety of penalties. However, because of the cooperation and providing a mechanism for imposing
wide range of values around the world, international costs on states that violate international agreements.
norms are frequently contested. However, there are Because of the substantial benefits that can be derived
consequences for breaking liberal norms. Direct and from economic interdependence, economic institutions
immediate costs can occur. Following its violent are particularly effective at fostering cooperation.
suppression of pro-democracy protesters in 1989, the Furthermore, liberal norms constrain the use of power
European Union, for example, imposed an arms by shaping our understanding of what types of behavior
embargo on China.The embargo remains in effect until are acceptable.Today, it is clear that liberalism is not a
further notice. Costs can also be indirect but significant. 'utopian' theory describing a fantasy world of peace and
For example, favorable views of the United States happiness, as it was once accused. It offers a consistent
declined significantly around the world following the counter-argument to realism that is grounded in
2003 invasion of Iraq, owing to the invasion being evidence and a long theoretical tradition. However,
carried out unilaterally (in violation of established realism is a theory that claims to explain the reality of

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international politics. It emphasizes the political Jackson, R., Sørensen, G., & Møller, J. (2019).
constraints imposed by humanity's egoistic nature and Introduction to international relations: theories and
the lack of a central authority above the state. For approaches. Oxford University Press, USA.
realists, the highest goal is the survival of the state, Kaplan, M. A. (1958). Toward a theory of international
which explains why states' actions are judged by ethics politics: Quincy Wright's Study of international
of responsibility rather than moral principles. The relations and some recent developments. Journal
dominance of realism has resulted in a significant body of Conflict Resolution, 2(4), 335-347.
of literature critical of its central tenets.Finally, the study Knutsen, T. L. (2020). A history of international
found that the term “international" was used by Jeremy relations theory. Manchester University Press.
Banthanl for the first timein the late eighteenth century. Linklater, A., Devetak, R., Donnelly, J., Paterson, M.,
Also, international Relations has been defined in a Reus-Smit, C., & True, J. (2005). Theories of
variety of ways since its inception by many scholars.In international relations. Palgrave Macmillan.
addition,realism,or political realism, has been the McGuire, R. H. (2021). A Relational Marxist Critique of
dominant theory of international relations. Posthumanism in Archaeology. Cambridge
Archaeological Journal, 31(3), 495-501.
Conflict of Interest Meiser, J. W. (2018). Introducing Liberalism in
The authors declare no conflict of interest International Relations Theory. International
Relations Theory.
Authors’ Contributions Morgenthau, H., & Nations, P. A. (1948). The struggle
The manuscript was written by Usman Safiyany Duguri for power and peace. Nova York, Alfred Kopf.
and Revised by Dr. Isyaku Hassan Morgenthau, H., & Nations, P. A. (1948). The struggle
for power and peace. Nova York, Alfred Kopf.
Funding Mouritzen, H. (2005). Kenneth Waltz: a critical
rationalist between international politics and
This research received no external funding
foreign policy (pp. 84-108). Routledge.
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