PH3251 notes

PH3251- MATERIAL SCIENCE
REGULATION - 2021
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
HOLY CROSS ENGINEERING COLLEGE
TUTICORIN - 628 851

PH3251 MATERIALS SCIENCE LTPC
3003
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
 To make the students to understand the basics of crystallography and its importance in
studying materials properties.
 To understand the electrical properties of materials including free electron theory,
applications of quantum mechanics and magnetic materials.
 To instil knowledge on physics of semiconductors, determination of charge carriers and
deviceapplications
 To establish a sound grasp of knowledge on different optical properties of materials,
optical displays and applications
 To inculcate an idea of significance of nano structures, quantum confinement and ensuing
nano device applications.
UNIT I CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 9
Crystal structures: BCC, FCC and HCP – directions and planes - linear and planar densities –
crystal imperfections- edge and screw dislocations – grain and twin boundaries - Burgers vector
and elastic strain energy- Slip systems, plastic deformation of materials - Polymorphism – phase
changes – nucleation and growth – homogeneous and heterogeneous nucleation.
UNIT II ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 9

Classical free electron theory - Expression for electrical conductivity – Thermal conductivity,
expression - Quantum free electron theory :Tunneling – degenerate states – Fermi- Dirac
statistics – Density of energy states – Electron in periodic potential – Energy bands in solids –
tight binding approximation - Electron effective mass – concept of hole. Magnetic materials:
Dia, para and ferromagnetic effects – paramagnetism in the conduction electrons in metals –
exchange interaction and ferromagnetism – quantum interference devices – GMR devices.
UNIT III SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSPORT PHYSICS 9

Intrinsic Semiconductors – Energy band diagram – direct and indirect band gap semiconductors
– Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors – extrinsic semiconductors - Carrier
concentration in N-type & P-type semiconductors – Variation of carrier concentration with
temperature – Carrier transport in Semiconductors: Drift, mobility and diffusion – Hall effect and
devices – Ohmic contacts – Schottky diode.
UNIT IV OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 9

Classification of optical materials – Optical processes in semiconductors: optical absorption and
emission, charge injection and recombination, optical absorption, loss and gain. Optical
processes in quantum wells – Optoelectronic devices: light detectors and solar cells – light
emitting diode – laser diode - optical processes in organic semiconductor devices –excitonic state
– Electro-optics and nonlinear optics: Modulators and switching devices – plasmonics.
UNIT V NANOELECTRONIC DEVICES 9

Quantum confinement – Quantum structures – quantum wells, wires and dots – Zener-Bloch
oscillations – Resonant tunneling – quantum interference effects - mesoscopic structures - Single
electron phenomena – Single electron Transistor. Semiconductor photonic structures – 1D, 2D
and 3D photonic crystal. Active and passive optoelectronic devices – photo processes –
spintronics – carbon nanotubes: Properties and applications.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
COURSE OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course, the students should be able to
 know basics of crystallography and its importance for varied materials properties
 gain knowledge on the electrical and magnetic properties of materials and their
applications
 understand clearly of semiconductor physics and functioning of semiconductor devices
 understand the optical properties of materials and working principles of various optical
devices
 appreciate the importance of functional nanoelectronic devices

TEXT BOOKS:
1. V.Raghavan. Materials Science and Engineering: A First Course, Prentice Hall India
Learning Private Limited, 2015.
2. S.O. Kasap, Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Mc-Graw Hill, 2018.
3. Jasprit Singh, Semiconductor Devices: Basic Principles, Wiley (India), 2007.
4. Jasprit Singh, Semiconductor Optoelectronics: Physics and Technology, Mc-Graw Hill India
(2019)
5. G.W.Hanson. Fundamentals of Nanoelectronics. Pearson Education (Indian Edition), 2009.
REFERENCES:
1. R.Balasubramaniam, Callister’s Materials Science and Engineering. Wiley (Indian Edition),
2014.
2. Wendelin Wright and Donald Askeland, Essentials of Materials Science and Engineering,
CL Engineering, 2013.
3. Robert F.Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Pearson, 2006
4. Pallab Bhattacharya, Semiconductor Optoelectronic Devices, Pearson, 2017
5. Ben Rogers, Jesse Adams and Sumita Pennathur, Nanotechnology: Understanding Small
Systems, CRC Press, 2017.
UNIT I - CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Crystal structures: BCC, FCC and HCP - directions and planes - linear and planar
densities –- crystal imperfections: edge and screw dislocations- grain and twin
boundaries – Burger vectors and elastic strain energy – Slip systems – plastic
deformation of materials – polymorphism – phase changes – nucleation and growth –
homogenous and heterogeneous nucleation.
INTRODUCTION
The matters in this world are classified as solids, liquids and gases. These materials are made up
of atoms and molecules. Materials differ from one another on their properties. These differences in
properties of the solids are due to their structures. The behavior of a solid material is closely related to
its structure.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS
On the basis of crystal structure materials are broadly classified as
1. Crystalline solids 2. Non-Crystalline or Amorphous solids
CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS OR CRYSTALS: Materials in which the atoms are arranged in systematic
pattern are known as crystalline solids. They have well defined geometrical form. Examples: Diamond,
copper, platinum, silver, polonium, etc.
The crystals are of two forms
1. Single crystal 2. Poly crystal
Single crystal contains only one crystal. Poly crystal is an aggregate of many small crystals separated
by well-defined grain boundaries.
AMORPHOUS SOLIDS: Materials in which the atoms are arranged in an irregular fashion are
known as non-crystalline solids. Examples: Plastics, Rubber and Glass
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
The branch of physics that deals with the structure, properties and external or internal
symmetries in crystals are known as crystal physics or crystallography.
FUNDAMENTALS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC TERMS

1. LATTICE: It is defined as an array of points which represents the position of atoms in the crystals
in three dimensions. It is an imaginary concept.
2. SPACE LATTICE: The geometrical representation of the crystal structure in terms of lattice points
is called space lattice, provided the environment about every point is identical to that of every other
point.
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2 dimensional form of space lattice 3 D form

3. LATTICE POINTS: The points in the space lattice are called lattice points
4. LATTICE LINE: The lines joining the lattice points are called as lattice line.
5. LATTICE PLANE: The place containing the lattice points are called as lattice plane.
6. BASIS: The crystal structure is formed by associating unit assembly of atoms or molecules with
every
lattice point. This unit assembly of atoms or molecules is called basis or motif.
7. CRYSTAL STRUCTURE: Crystal structure is formed by combining space lattice with a basis.
Space lattice + Basis  Crystal Structure

8. UNIT CELL:
A unit cell is defined as the smallest geometric figure which on
repetition in three dimension gives the actual crystal structure. It is also defined
as fundamental elementary pattern with minimum number of atoms or
molecules which represents the total characteristics of the crystal.
9. LATTICE PARAMETERS:
Fig shows the unit cell of a three-dimensional crystal lattice. The
intercepts a, b and c are nothing but the edges of the unit cell which
defines the dimensions of a unit cell. These are known as primitives or
characteristic intercepts on the axes. The distance between two lattice
points is known as axial length. The angles between (a, b), (b, c) and (c,
a) are denoted by γ, α and βrespectively. These three angles (γ, α and β)
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are called interfacial angles. Both intercepts and interfacial angles form the lattice parameters of unit
cell.
10. PRIMITIVE CELL: The primitive cell is the simplest type of unit cell which contains only one
lattice point (only one atom) per unit cell. Example: Simple cubic
11. NON – PRIMITIVE CELLS: If more than one lattice point (more than one atom) in a unit cell,
it is called a non-primitive cell. Example: BCC and FCC
THE CRYSTAL SYSTEMS & BRAVAIS LATTICES

Crystals are classified into 7 crystal systems based on lattice parameters. The 7 basic crystal systems
are
1. Triclinic 2. Monoclinic 3. Orthorhombic 4. Tetragonal 5. Hexagonal 6. Trigonal (or) Rhombohedral
and 7. Cubic
BRAVAIS LATTICES: According to Bravais there are only 14 possible ways of arranging points in
space lattice from the seven crystal systems such that all the lattice points have the same surroundings.
These 14 space lattices are called the Bravais lattices.
Let us discuss seven crystal systems and each Bravais lattice now.
1. MONOCLINIC SYSTEM:
In this system three axes are of different lengths. Two axes are
perpendicular to each other and third is obliquely inclined
i.e., a ≠ b ≠ c and α = γ = 900; β ≠ 900
Example: Sodium Sulphite (Na2SO4), Ferrous Sulphate (FeSO4)
Monoclinic latticehas two possible space lattices.
(a) Simple monoclinic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell.
(b) Base centered monoclinic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell and 2 lattice
points each at the center of two faces opposite to each other.
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2. TRICLINIC SYSTEM:
In this all the crystal axes are of unequal lengths and all are oblique to each
other. i.e., a ≠ b ≠ c and α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 900
Example: Copper sulphate (CuSO4), Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
Triclinic lattice has only one possible type of arrangement.
(a) Simple triclinic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell.
3. ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM: In this system three axes are of different lengths and
are perpendicular to each other.
i.e., a ≠ b ≠ c and α = β = γ = 900
Example: Sulphur, Topaz
Orthorhombic systemhas four possible types of space lattices.
(a) Simple Orthorhombic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell.
(b) Body CenteredOrthorhombic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell and
one lattice point at the centre of the body as shown in figure.
(c) Face CenteredOrthorhombic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell and 6
lattice points at the centre of each of the 6 faces of the unit cell as shown in figure.
(d) Base - CenteredOrthorhombic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell and
2 lattice points each at the centre of two faces (base) opposite to each other as shown in figure.
4. TETRAGONAL SYSTEM: In this the three axes are perpendicular to each other and
two axes are equal in length and the third axis may be longer or shorter.
i.e., a = b ≠ c and α = β = γ = 900
Example: Ordinary white tin, Indium, Tin oxide
Tetragonal lattice has two possible types of arrangement
(a) Simple tetragonal lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell.
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(b) Body centered tetragonal lattice: It has lattice points at all eight corners of the unit cell and one
lattice point at the centre of the body.
5. HEXAGONAL SYSTEM:
In this system, two axial lengths of unit cell (say horizontal) are equal and lying on
one plane at an angle 1200 with each other. The third axial length (say vertical) is
either longer or shorter than other two and it is perpendicular to this plane.
i.e., a = b ≠ c and α = β = 900; γ = 1200
Example: Quartz, Tourmaline.
Hexagonal lattice has only one possible type of arrangement.
(a) Simple hexagonal lattice: It has lattice points at all 12 corners of the
hexagonal prism and 2 lattice points each at the centre of two hexagonal faces of the unit cell.
6. RHOMBOHEDRAL SYSTEM (TRIGONAL): In this system, three axial

lengths of the unit cell are equal. They are equally inclined to each other at an
angle other than 900
i.e., a = b = c and α = β = γ ≠ 900
Example: Calcite, Bismuth, CaSO4
Rhombohedral lattice has only one possible type of arrangement
(a) Simple Rhombohedral lattice: It has lattice Points at all 8 corners of the unit cell.
7. CUBIC SYSTEMS:
In this crystal system, all the three axial lengths of the unit cell are equal, and they
are perpendicular to each other.
i.e., a = b = c and α = β = γ = 900
Example: Iron, Copper, Sodium Chloride (NaCl), Calcium Fluoride (CaF2)
Cubic lattice has three possible types of arrangements.
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(a) Simple (or primitive) cubic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell as shown in
figure.
(b) Body centered cubic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell and one lattice
point at the centre of the body as shown in figure.
(c) Face centered cubic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell and one lattice point
at the centre of each of 6 faces of the cube as shown in the figure.
These 14 types of space lattices are called Bravais lattices. It is mathematically proved that there are
only 14 independent ways of arranging points in three dimensional space such that each arrangement
confirms to the definition of space lattice.
l. No. Crystal System Bravais lattice

Simple
1. Cubic 3 Body centered
Face centered
Simple
2. Tetragonal 2
Body centered
Simple
Body centered
3. Orthorhombic 4
Base centered
Face centered
2 Simple
4. Monoclinic
Base centered
Simple
5. Triclinic 1
Simple
6. Rhombohedral (Trigonal) 1
Simple
7. Hexagonal 1
Total 14
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Axial lengths Interfacial angles (α,

Sl. No Crystal systems Example
(a, b, c) β, γ)
1. Monoclinic a≠b≠c α = γ = 900; β ≠ 900 Na2SO4, FeSO4
2. Triclinic a≠b≠c α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 900 CuSO4, K2Cr2O7
3. Orthorhombic a≠b≠c α = β = γ = 900 Sulphur, Topaz
4. Tetragonal a=b≠c α = β = γ = 900 Ordinary white tin, Indium
5. Hexagonal a=b≠c α = β = 900; γ = 1200 Quartz, Tourmaline
6. Rhombohedral a=b=c α = β = γ ≠ 900 Calcite, Bi, Sb, CaSO4
7. Cubic a=b=c α = β = γ = 900 Iron, Copper, NaCl, CaF2
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE UNIT CELL

A unit cell is characterized by the following properties.
 Number of atoms per unit cell
 Coordination number
 Nearest neighboring distance
 Atomic radius
 Packing factor
1. Number of atoms per unit cell: The total number of atoms present in an unit cell is known as
number of atoms per unit cell or effective number.
2. Coordination number: It is the number of nearest atoms directly surrounding a particular atom. If
the coordination number is high, then the crystal is highly closely packed. If it is low, then the structure
is loosely packed.
3. Nearest neighbouring distance (2r): It is the distance between the centers of two nearest
neighbouring atoms. It is expressed in terms of the length of edge of the unit cell ‘a’ and it is ‘2r’
a = 2r
2r
4. Atomic radius (r): It is half of the distance between two nearest neighbouring atoms in a crystal. It
is denoted by ‘r’
5. Packing factor (PF): Packing factor is defined as the ratio of the total volume occupied by the atoms
in a unit cell to the total volume of a unit cell. It is also known as density of packing.
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CRYSTAL STRUCTURES (SC, BCC, FCC, HCP and DIAMOND CUBIC)

It is noted that a large number of metallic crystal structures have HCP, FCC and BCC structures.
Simple Cubic (SC) structure is very rare in metals.
SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE: Figure shows the unit cell of a simple cubic structure. In this
structure, there is one atom at each of the 8 corners of the unit cell. Let us find the characteristics of the
SC structure.
1. Number of atoms per unit cell:

Simple cube has 8 corners, each corner has 1 atom. But each corner atom is shared by 8
adjacent unit cells. So, each atom will give its part to one unit cell
Thus, the simple cubic is a primitive cell.

2. Co-ordination number
If we consider on corner atom as X, then it is directly surrounded by
6 other atoms. So, Coordination number is 6.

3. Atomic radius:
Consider a face of unit cell of simple cubic structure as shown in figure.
The atoms touch each other along the edges of the cube.
The distance between the centre of the nearest atoms is equal to
the cube edge a. If ‘a’ is the side of the unit cell and ‘r’ be the radius, then
;
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4. Packing factor:
Therefore 52% of the volume of unit cell is occupied by atoms and remaining 48% is vacant.
Example: Only one element Polonium (Po) at certain temperature range exhibits this structure.
BODY CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (BCC)

This type of unit cell has 8 corners, and each corner has one atom and one more atom present at the
centre of the body. Let us find the characteristics of a BCC unit cell.

Body centered cube has 8 corners, each corner has 1 atom. But each corner atom is shared by 8
adjacent unit cells. So, each atom will give its part to one unit cell
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2. Co-ordination number:
If we consider the body centered atom, it is directly surrounded by 8 corner
atoms. So, the coordination number is 8.
3. Atomic radius:
Here the corner atoms do not touch each other. But each corner atom touches the
central atom. The side of a unit cell is ‘a’. Consider the atoms at A, G and O at the centre of the cell.
These atoms lie in one straight line along the body diagonal AG.
From fig.,
Substitute (2) in (1), we get
4. Packing factor
68% of the volume is occupied by atoms and 32% volume is

vacant.
Example: Tungsten, Chromium and Molybdenum
FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (FCC)
This type of unit cell has 8 corners and each corner has 1
atom also each face (totally 6 faces) has 1 atom at its centre.
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10

A unit cell of FCC structure has 8 corner atoms; each corner atom is shared by 8 adjoining cells.
Number of atoms in unit cell due to the contribution of corner atoms atom.
Also there are 6 face centered atoms and each face centered atom is shared by 2 adjacent unit
cells.
FCC structure has 8 atoms at the 8 corners and 6 atoms at
the centers of six faces of a unit cell. If we consider corner atom as
X, then it is directly surrounded by 12 other atoms (both corner and
face centered atoms).
The co-ordination number is = 12.
3. Atomic radius:
The atoms touch each other along the diagonal of any face of the cube. The length of diagonal
of the face is
From the figure,
4. Packing factor:
Number of atoms per unit cell = 4
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11
In FCC unit cell, 74% of the volume is occupied by atoms and 26% volume is vacant.
Example: Copper, Aluminium, Nickel, Gold, Lead and Platinum.
HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED STRUCTURE

It has three layers. At the bottom layer, it has 6 corners and each
corner has 1 atom and one more atom present at the centre of the bottom
face. Also at the top layer, it has 6 corners and each corner has 1 atom
and one more atom present at the centre of the top face. Then the middle
layer has 3 atoms at a distance from bottom or top layer. These 3 atoms
are present totally inside the unit cell.

Height of the hexagon is ‘c’ (distance between bottom and top
layer is ‘c’)
Each corner atom is shared by 6 other unit cells.
Each face centered atom is shared by 2 adjacent unit cells.
There are 3 atoms present inside the unit cell (at the middle layer) which are not shared.
In the bottom layer the face centered atom has 6 nearest neighbour in the same
plane. Then at a distance of there will be 3 atoms above and below the layer. In
total there are 12 nearest neighbors.

Coordination number = 12.
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3. Atomic radius:
Atoms touch each other along the diagonal of the hexagon. The
nearest neighbouring distance
is
4. Calculation of ratio:
Let ‘c’ be the height of the unit cell and ‘a’ is the distance between the neighboring atoms. Let
I,J,K,L,M,N and N are the corner atoms and O be the base atom in the bottom layer of the HCP
structure ad P,Q,T are the middle layer atoms.
Here I, N and O represents the bottom layer atoms. Now, let us draw the normal line OR from O
to the line IN, which bisects the line IN at a point R.
OR
From figure in △IRO cos30∘ = OI
𝑂𝑅 = 𝑂𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠30∘
𝑎 √3
𝑂𝑅 = ----------(1)
2
2
But, from fig, 𝑂𝑆 = 𝑂𝑅 -----------(2)
3
2 𝑎 √3 𝑎
Substituting for OR, we get 𝑂𝑆 = 3 𝑂𝑆 = -----------(3)
2 √3
In the ∆SOP, 𝑂𝑃2 = 𝑂𝑆 2 + 𝑆𝑃2 --------------(4)

𝑎 𝐶
Substituting the values for OP = a, 𝑂𝑆 = and 𝑆𝑃 = in equation (4), we get
√3 2
𝑎2 𝐶2
𝑎2 = + -----------(5)
√3 2
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5. Packing factor:
(i)To find volume of all the atoms in a unit cell, :
(ii)To find the volume of the unit cell, V:
Base of the hexagon has 6 similar triangles so,
Substitute (4) in (3) we get,
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14
Substitute (5) in (2) we get,
Height of the hexagon = c
Substitute (1) and (6) in (7) we get,
Example: Magnesium, Zinc, Titanium, Zirconium, Beryllium and Cadmium.
DIRECTIONS AND PLANES

MILLER INDICES
Miller introduced a set of three numbers to designate a plane in a crystal. This set of three
numbers are said to be miller indices of the plane. The orientations of planes in a crystal may be
described in terms of their intercepts.
In figure OA has 2 units of axial length and OB has 2 units of axial length and OC has only one
unit of axial length. ∴ The numerical parameters are [2,2,1]. Miller described the orientation of a plane
by the reciprocal of its numerical parameters rather than by its linear parameters. These reciprocals are
converted into whole numbers. They are called Miller indices. ∴ The miller indices of the above plane
is [1/2, 1/2, 1/1]
∴ i.e., [1, 1, 2] The general expression for indices is (h, k, l). The symbol for a family of plane is <h, k,
l>
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Definition:Miller indices are the three possible integers which have the same ratios as the reciprocals
of the intercepts of the plane concerned on the three axes.
PROCEDURE FOR FINDING MILLER INDICES:

 Find the intercepts of a plane along the three axes.
 Take reciprocal of these intercepts.
 Reduce the reciprocals into whole numbers.
 Enclose these integers in parenthesis to get Miller indices.
The following points are important for getting the Miller indices.
 When a plane is parallel to one of the co-ordinate axes, then it will meet the axis at infinity ,
the Miller indices for that axis is zero.

 When the intercept of a plane is on the negative part of any axis, then a minus sign is included in the
miller indices.
d – SPACING IN CUBIC LATTICE

Consider a cube crystal. Let ‘a’ bethe length of cube edge. Consider a
plane ABC as shown in figure. Draw a perpendicular ON from origin
to the plane ABC, which represents the interplanar distance.
OA, OB and OC are the intercepts on the X, Y, Z axes due to the plane
are the angles between the reference axes OX, OY, OZ and ON
respectively.
Miller indices of a plane are the smallest integers of the reciprocals of its intercepts. They can be
expressed in reciprocals of miller indices.
From the figure,
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By the law of direction cosine is
Substituting the values
This is the relation between d and hkl.

DENSITY OF CRYSTAL
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

This is defined as: 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝜌) = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = × 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑀
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = × 𝑛
𝑁𝐴
n → number of atoms per unit cell and
NA → Avogadro’s number,
M → the atomic weight and
a → side of a cubic unit cell
𝑛𝑀
𝑝 =
𝑎3 𝑁𝐴
LINEAR DENSITY
Linear Density (L.D.): It is defined as number of atoms per unit length whose centres on the direction
vector for specific crystallographic direction. This is defined as the number of atoms per unit length
along a specific crystal direction. i.e.,
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
The unit of linear density is m−1, nm-1
PLANAR DENSITY
The planar density of a crystal is the density of atoms in a crystal plane. This is defined as the number
of atoms per unit area on a crystal plane. This affect significantly the rate of plastic deformation. It is
defined as the number of atoms per unit area
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𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
The unit of planar density is m−2, nm-2
CRYSTAL IMPERFECTIONS
Definition: The disturbance occurred in the regular orientation of atoms is called crystal defect or
imperfection.
1. POINT DEFECT
Point defects are crystalline irregularities of atomic dimensions. They are imperfect points like regions
in the crystal. Point defects take place due to imperfect packing of atoms during crystallization. They
produce distortion inside the crystal structure. They produce strain only in its surroundings but does not
affect the regularity in other parts of the crystal.
The different types of point defects are a. Vacancies b. Interstitial c. Impurities
a. VACANCIES
A vacancy is the simplest point defect in a crystal. It refers to a missing atom or vacant atomic site.
These defects may arise due to imperfect packing during crystallization.
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18
Two kinds of vacancies – a) Schottky defect b) Frenkel defect
Schottky Defect Frenkel Defect

a) Schottky defect refers to the missing of pair of positive or negative ions in an ionic crystal.
Since pair is missing, the electrical neutrality is maintained.
b) Frenkel defect is a combination of vacancy and interstitial defects.
(ii) INTERSTITIAL DEFECT: When an extra atom occupies interstitial space within the crystal
structure without removing the parent atom, the defect is called interstitial defect.
Two kinds of Interstitial defect – a) Self interstitial b) Foreign interstitial
a) Self interstitial: if the atom from the same crystal occupies the interstitial site.
b) Foreign interstitial: if an impurity atom occupies the interstitial site.
Self-interstitial Foreign interstitial
C. IMPURITIES: When a foreign atom is added to the crystal lattices, they are known as impurities.
The impurity defect may be of two types
1. Substitutional impurity 2. Interstitial impurity
SUBSTITUTIONAL IMPURITY: It refers to a foreign atom that substitutes for or replaces a parent
atom in the crystal. Pentavalent or trivalent impurity atoms doped in silicon or germanium are also
substitutional impurities in the crystal.
INTERSTITIAL IMPURITY: An interstitial defect arises when an atom occupies a definite position
in the lattice that is not normally occupied in the perfect crystal. If a small sized atom occupies the void
space in the parent crystal without disturbing the parent atoms from their regular sites, then it is called
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19
as ‘interstitial impurity’.
Substitutional impurity Interstitial impurity
2. LINE DEFECTS OR DISLOCATIONS

The defects due to dislocation or distortion of atoms in a line is known as line defects. Line defects are
also called dislocations.
(i) EDGE DISLOCATION: An edge dislocation arises when one of the atomic planes forms
partially and does not extend through the entire crystal. Edge dislocation may be of positive edge
dislocation and negative edge dislocation.
ii) SCREW DISLOCATION: Screw dislocation is due to displacement of atoms in one part of a
crystal relative to rest of the crystal. The displacement terminates within the crystal. The term screw is
to represent that one part of the crystal is moving in spiral manner about the dislocation line.
BURGER VECTOR
The vector which indicates the direction and magnitude of the shift of the lattice on the slip plane is
called a burger vector. Burger vector can be found by burger’s loop by taking integral lattice
translations in each pair of parallel sides in the region of interest.
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20
3. SURFACE DEFECTS
The defects on the surface of a material are called surface defects or plane defects. They are also known
as two dimensional imperfections. Some of the surface defects are
1. Grain boundaries 2. Tilt Boundaries
3. Twin boundaries 4. Stacking Faults
GRAIN BOUNDARIES: A polycrystalline material

consists of several small sized regions known as grains.
The line separating each grain is said to be grain
boundary. Whenever the grains of different orientation
separate the general pattern of atoms the defect caused is
called grain boundary.
TILT BOUNDARIES
This is called low-angle boundary as the orientation difference between two neighbouring crystals is
less than 10°. In general, low-angle boundaries can be described by suitable arrays of dislocation. Low-
angle tilt boundary is composed of edge dislocation lying one above the other. The angle or tilt will be
𝑏
𝜃= where b = Burgers vector and D = the average vertical distance between dislocations.
𝐷
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21
Tilt Boundaries Twin boundaries
TWIN BOUNDARIES
If the atomic arrangement on one side of a boundary is a mirror reflection of the arrangement on the
other side, then it is called as twin boundary. As they occur in pair, they are called twin boundaries. At
one boundary, orientation of atomic arrangement changes. At another boundary, it is restored back. The
region between the pair of boundaries is called the twinned region. These boundaries are easily
identified under an optical microscope.
STACKING FAULT
Whenever the stacking of atomic planes is not in a proper sequence throughout the crystal, the fault
caused is known as stacking fault. For example, the stacking sequence in an ideal FCC crystal may be
described as A-B-C-A-B-C- A-B-C-……. But the stacking fault may change the sequence to A-B-C-A-
B-A-B-A-B-C. The region in which the stacking fault occurs (A-B-A-B) forms a thin region and it
becomes HCP.
This thin region is a surface imperfection and is called a stacking fault.
ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY
 Up to the elastic limit of a sample, all the work done in stretching it is stored potential energy,
or Elastic Strain Energy. This value can be determined by calculating the area under the the
force-extension graph. If the sample obeys Hooke’s Law, and is below the elastic limit.
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22
 When we apply force to the material, it will deform. The external force will do work on the
material, which will be stored in the material as strain energy. Under the elastic limit, the
work done by external force will be equal to the strain energy stored (Work-energy
theorem). It can also be calculated by calculating the area under the curve of the Stress vs
Strain graph up to the elastic limit. The strain energy up to the elastic limit is also known as
Resilience. The unit of strain energy is N−m or Joules.
 Before going for the derivation of the strain energy formula, we will have to make certain
assumptions for the ideal condition.
The assumption for Strain Energy Formula

1. The material should be elastic.
2. Stress developed should be within the proportional limit.
3. Load should be gradually applied.
Let at any instant, the material having original length LL and having area AA is elongated
by xx unit.
From Hooke’s law,
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23
DEFORMATION OF METALS
Materials – Alloys will get deformation or change in dimension when it is loaded.
Elastic deformation : If the material retains its original shape and size once the deforming forces are
removed
Plastic deformation : permanent deformation.
Plastic deformation depends on Applied stress, Temperature and Strain rate
Plastic deformation mechanisms can happen in two ways
1. Slip
2. Twinning
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SLIP AND TWINNING
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UNIT-2 Electrical and Magnetic Properties of materials
Classical free electron theory - Expression for electrical conductivity – Thermal conductivity,
expression - Quantum free electron theory :Tunnelling – degenerate states – Fermi- Dirac
statistics – Density of energy states – Electron in periodic potential – Energy bands in solids
– tight binding approximation - Electron effective mass – concept of hole. Magnetic materials:
Dia, para and ferromagnetic effects – paramagnetism in the conduction electrons in metals –
exchange interaction and ferromagnetism – quantum interference devices – GMR devices.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Low resistive materials are known as conducting materials. They have high electric and thermal
conductivities. The conducting property of a solid is due to the number of valence electrons, which
become free electron when they are detached from the parent atom.
Classification of conducting materials:

Based on their conductivity conducting materials are classified into three types.
 Zero resistivity materials
 Low resistivity materials
 High resistivity materials
ELECTRON THEORY OF SOLIDS: The electron theory of metals aims to explain the structure
and properties of solids through their electronic structure. The electron theory is applicable to all
solids i.e., both metals and non-metals. It explains the electrical, thermal and magnetic properties
of solids etc.
The theory has been developed in three main stages.
The classical free electron theory: Drude and Lorentz proposed this theory in 1900. According
to this theory, the metals containing the free electrons obey the laws of classical mechanics.
The quantum free electron theory: Somerfield developed this theory in 1928. According to this
theory the free electrons obey quantum laws. According to this theory the free electrons are moving
in a constant potential.
The zone theory: Bloch stated this theory in 1928. According to this theory, the free electrons
move in a periodic field provided by the lattice.
POSTULATES OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

In the absence of electrical field: When an electrical field is not applied, the
free electrons move everywhere in a random manner. They collide with other
free electrons and positive ion core. This collision is known as elastic
collision.
P a g e 1 | 35
In the presence of electric field: When the electrical field is applied, the
electrons get some amount of energy from the applied electric field and
they begin to move towards the positive potential.
Since electrons are assumed to be a perfect gas, they obey the laws of kinetic
theory of gases.
Drift velocity: It is defined as the average velocity acquired by the free electrons in a metal in a
𝛌
particular direction by the application of an electrical field. 𝒗𝐝 =
𝛕𝐜
Collision Time: The average time taken by a free electron between any two successive collisions
is known as collision time. 𝛕𝐜 = 𝛌/𝒗𝐝
Mean free path: The average distance travelled by a free electron between any two successive
collisions in the presence of an applied field is known as mean free path. It is the product of drift
velocity of electrons (vd) and collision time (τc). λ = 𝒗𝒅 x τc
Relaxation time: The average time taken by a free electron to reach its equilibrium position from
its disturbed position due to application of an external electric field is called relaxation time. It is
approximately equal to 10-14 second.
Electrical conductivity of a metal
Definition: It can be defined as the quantity of electric charge

(Q) conducted per unit time (t) across unit area (A) of the solid
𝑄
for unit applied electric field (E). 𝜎= Ω−1 m−1
𝑡𝐴𝐸
Derivation: We know in the in the absence of external electric

field, the motion of electrons in a metal moves randomly in all directions. When an electric field
is applied between the two ends of a metallic rod. The electrons will move towards the positive
field direction and produces current in the metallic rod.
If ‘E’ is the electric field intensity and ‘m’ is the mass of the electron, then
Force experienced by the electron F = eE -------(1)

According to the Newton’s second law F = ma -------(2)
Equating (1) and (2) eE = ma
eE
a= ---------(3)
m
Due to the applied electric field, the electron gains acceleration ‘a’
P a g e 2 | 35
Velocity Drift velocity

Acceleration = =
Time Relaxation time
vd
a=
τ
𝒗𝒅 = 𝒂𝝉 ---------(4)
𝐞𝐄
Substituting (3) in (4) 𝐯𝐝 = 𝛕 --------(5)
𝐦
If ‘n’ is the free electron density and ‘e’ is the charge of electron then current density is given by
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑉𝑑 𝑒--------(6)
eE
Sub (5) in (6) J = ne( τ)
m
ne2 E
J= τ --------(7)
m
J
According to ohm’s law, current density (J) is expressed as J = E =σ
E
J ne2
= τ
E m
ne2
σ= τ ------(8)
m
Thus the above equation represents the electrical conductivity of metal.
Thermal conductivity of a metal:

In general, the thermal conductivity takes place not only by thermal motion
of free electrons but also by thermally excited lattice vibrations called phonons. The total thermal
conductivity K tot is given by
K Tot = K electron + K Phonon

In metals, conductivity due to free electrons is predominant. K Tot ≈ K electron
In insulators thermal conductivity is due to atomic or molecular vibrations of the lattice is
predominant ∴ K Tot ≈ K phonon
In semiconductors both electron & phonon will contribute for thermal conduction.
∴ K Tot ≈ K e + K ph
Definition: Thermal conductivity of the material is defined as the amount of heat conducted per
unit area per unit time maintained at unit temperature gradient
P a g e 3 | 35
𝑄
𝐾= 𝑑𝑇
𝑊/𝑚/ 𝐾
𝑡𝐴 (𝑑𝑥 )
Derivation: Let us consider a uniform rod AB with Temp (Hot) T at end A & T-dT (cold) at end
B. Heat flows from hot end to cold end and the distance between A &
B is. The no of conduction electrons in a metal is ‘n’ their average
velocity is v.
3
At A, Average kinetic energy of an electron = 𝐾𝑇 ---------(1)
2
3
At B, Average kinetic energy of an electron = 2 𝐾(𝑇 − 𝑑𝑇)---------(2)
1
The number of electrons crossing per unit area per unit time is 6 𝑛𝑣
3 3 1
Excess of kinetic energy carried by the electron from A to B = [2 𝐾𝑇 − 2 𝐾(𝑇 − 𝑑𝑇)] 𝑛𝑣
6
3 3 3 1
= [ 𝐾𝑇 − 𝐾𝑇 + 𝐾𝑑𝑇] 𝑛𝑣
2 2 2 6
1
= 4 𝑛𝑣𝐾𝑑𝑇 ---------(3)
Similarly the deficient of kinetic energy carried by the electron from A to B per unit area in unit
1
time = - 4 𝑛𝑣𝐾𝑑𝑇 ----------(4)
Hence, the net amount of energy transferred from A to B per unit area per unit time
1 1
𝑄 = (4 𝑛𝑣𝐾𝑑𝑇) − (− 4 𝑛𝑣𝐾𝑑𝑇)
1
𝑄 = 2 𝑛𝑣𝐾𝑑𝑇 -----------(5)
From basic definition of thermal conductivity
𝑑𝑇
The amount of heat conducted per unit time per unit area is 𝑄 = 𝐾 ---------(6)
𝜆
1 𝑑𝑇
Equate (5) and (6) we get, 𝑛𝑣𝐾𝑑𝑇 = 𝐾
2 𝜆
1
𝐾= 𝑛𝜐𝑘𝜆 --------(7)
2
For metals Relaxation time () = Collision time (c)
 =  ---------(8)
1
Sub (8) in (7) we get 𝐾= 𝑛𝜐2 𝑘𝜏 -----------(9)
2
This is the classical expression for thermal conductivity of a metal.
Weidemann-Franz law:
It states that for the metals, the ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature. This ratio is constant for all metals at a given
temperature.
𝐊 𝐊
𝛂𝐓 = 𝐋𝐓
𝛔 𝛔
Where, L is a constant known as Lorentz number.
P a g e 4 | 35
We know that,
ne2
Electrical conductivity of a metal σ = τ ------ (1)
m
1
Thermal conductivity of a metal 𝐾 = 𝑛𝜐 2 𝑘𝜏 ------ (2)
2
ne2
𝐊 τ 𝐊 1 m𝜐2 𝑘
= 1
m
𝑛𝜐2 𝑘𝜏
= ---------- (3)
𝛔 2
𝛔 2 e2
1 3
We know that the kinetic energy of an electron m𝑣 2 = 2 𝑘𝑇 ---------(4)
2
K 3 𝑘
Substituting equation (4) in equation (3), we have = 2 𝑘𝑇
σ 𝑒2
𝐾 3 𝑘2
=2 𝑇
σ 𝑒2
K
= LT ------------ (5)
σ
3 𝑘2
where L = is a constant and it is known as Lorentz number.
2 𝑒2
Thus it is proved that, the ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity of a metal is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the metal. Weidemann -Franz law clearly
shows that if a metal has high thermal conductivity, it will also have high electrical conductivity.
Lorentz number:
The ratio of thermal conductivity (K) of a metal to the product of electrical conductivity
(σ) of a metal and absolute temperature (T) of the metal is a constant. It is called Lorentz number
𝐊
and it is given by 𝐋 = 𝛔𝐓
3 𝑘2
The value of L can be calculated from the expression L = 2 𝑒2
3 (1.38 𝑥 10−23 )2
L=2 (1.6 𝑥 10−19 )2
L = 1.12 x 10-8 W Ω K-2 (By theory)
L = 2.44 x 10-8 W Ω K-2 (By Experiment)
This discrepancy in the experimental and theoretical value of Lorentz number is one of the
drawbacks of classical theory. It is rectified in quantum theory.
Merits of classical free electron theory

 It is used to verify ohm’s law.
 The electrical and thermal conductivities of metals can be explained by this theory.
 It is used to derive Wiedemann-Franz law.
 It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.
P a g e 5 | 35
Drawbacks of classical free electron theory
 It is a macroscopic theory
 Classical theory states that all the free electrons will absorb energy, but quantum theory
states only few electrons will absorb energy.
 This theory cannot explain the Compton, photo-electric effect, paramagnetic,
ferromagnetism, etc.
 The theoretical and experimental values of specific heat and electronic specific heat are not
matched.
 The Lorentz number by classical theory does not have good agreement with the
experimental value and it is rectified by quantum theory.
𝐊
 According to this theory, the ratio 𝛔𝐓 is constant at all temperatures. But it is found that
it is not constant at low temperatures.
 By this theory, the value of specific heat of a metal is 4.5R, but the experimental value is
3R, where R is a universal gas constant.
 The susceptibility of a paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to temperature. But
experimental result shows that Para magnetism of a metal is independent of temperature.
Moreover Ferromagnetism cannot be explained by this theory.
Differences between electrical and thermal conductivity

S. No Electrical Conductivity Thermal Conductivity
1 Electrical conductivity is based on the no Thermal conductivity is based both on

of free electrons electrons and phonons
2 The quantity of electrical charges flowing It is defined as the amount of heat

per unit time across unit area in the metal conducted per unit time through the metal
for unit applied electric field is called having unit area of cross section
electrical conductivity maintaining at unit temperature gradient
between the two ends
3 Electrical conductivity takes place from Thermal conductivity takes place from hot
higher potential side to lower potential end to cold end.
side
4 Unit :Ω-1 m-1 Unit :W m-1 K-1
Quantum free electron theory:

In order to remove the failures of classical free electron theory, Sommerfield proposed
quantum free electron theory in 1928, based on the quantum concepts.
According to this theory, the electrons in a metal move in a constant potential. He derived an
expression for electron energies by using Schrodinger’s wave equation and De- Broglie concept
of matter waves. He treated the problem quantum mechanically using Fermi – Dirac statistics.
P a g e 6 | 35
Important assumptions:
 The potential of an electron is uniform or constant within the crystal.
 The electrons possess wave nature.
 The allowed energy levels of an electron are quantized.
 The electrons have freedom to move within the crystal itself and they are restricted from
leaving crystal due to potential barrier at its surface.
 The free electrons obey Fermi – Dirac statistics.
Merits of quantum free electron theory:

It explains the electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity of
metals, photoelectric effect, Compton Effect etc.
Demerits of quantum free electron theory:

 It fails to provide the distinction between metals, semiconductors and insulators.
 It fails to explain the positive value of Hall coefficient and some transport properties of
metals.
Tunnelling
In quantum mechanics a particle having lesser energy (E) than the barrier potential (V)
can easily cross over the potential barrier having a finite width ‘l ’ even without climbing over the
barrier by tunnelling through the barrier. This process is called tunnelling.
Explanation: let us consider a beam of particles having kinetic energy E, less than the barrier
potential (V), incident from region 1. According to classical mechanics the probability for the
incident particles to cross the barrier is zero, because it has very less energy (E) when compared
to the barrier potential (V).
But according to quantum mechanics, the incident wave from region (1) having the wave
function 1 can cross the barrier region (2) by the process of tunnelling, represented by the wave
function 2 and comes out to the region (3), represented by the wave function 3. However based
on the width of the potential barrier there is a probability for the wave, represented by the wave
’
function 1 to get reflected within the same region (1). The value of transmission coefficient T
depends on the mass of the particle (m), thickness of the barrier (l) and the energy difference i.e,
(V – E).
Examples
1. The tunnelling effect is observed in Josephson junction, in which electron pairs in the
superconductor’s tunnel through the barrier layer, giving rise to the Josephson current.
2. This effect is also observed in the case of emission of alpha particles by radioactive nuclei.
Here, though the ‘’ particle has very less kinetic energy they are able to escape from the
nucleus whose potential wall is around 2.5 MeV high.
3. Tunnelling also occurs in certain semiconductor diodes called tunnel diodes.
4. Electron tunnels through insulating layer and act as a switch by tunnelling effect.
P a g e 7 | 35
Degenerate states: For various combinations of quantum numbers ‘n’ if we get the same
Eigen value (Energy levels) but different Eigen functions, then it is called degenerate state.
The energy of the particle in a 3-dimensional in the ground state is given by

(nx 2 + ny 2 + nz 2 )h2
E nx ny nz =
8ma2
Example: For three combination of quantum numbers say (112), (121) and (211), we get same
6h2
energy values i.e., E112 = E121 = E211 = 8ma2 but different Eigen functions i.e., 112≠121≠211
8 𝜋𝑥 𝜋𝑦 2𝜋𝑧 8 𝜋𝑥 2𝜋𝑦 𝜋𝑧 8 2𝜋𝑥 𝜋𝑦 𝜋𝑧

𝜓112 = √𝑎3 sin 𝑎
sin 𝑎
sin 𝑎
𝜓121 = √𝑎3 sin 𝑎
sin 𝑎
sin 𝑎
𝜓211 = √𝑎3 sin 𝑎
sin 𝑎
sin 𝑎
Fermi Distribution Function

Fermi function F (E) represents the probability of an electron occupying a given energy state at
absolute temperature. The energy distribution of the particles was found by Fermi – Dirac
statistics. Fermi- Dirac Statistics deals with the energy distribution of the particles having half
integral spin values called as Fermions or Fermi particles. Example: Electrons.
𝟏
The Fermi distribution is given by 𝐅(𝐄) = 𝟏+ 𝐞(𝐄−𝐄𝐅 )⁄𝐤𝐓
Where,
E : Energy of the energy level whose occupancy is being considered.
EF : Energy of the Fermi level (Fermi energy)
k : Boltzmann’s constant
T : Absolute temperature
The probability value F (E) lies between 0 and 1.

If F (E) = 1, the energy level is occupied by an electron.
If F (E) = 0, the energy level is vacant.
If F (E) = 0.5, then there is 50% chance for the electron to occupy the given energy level.
Effect of temperature on Fermi function:

The effect of temperature on Fermi function F(E) can be discussed with respect to the above
equation.
Case (1) : Probability of occupation for E < EF at T = 0

1
F(E) = 1+ e(E−EF)⁄kT
1 1
When T = 0 and E < EF, we have F(E) = 1+ e(−ve)⁄0 F(E) = 1+ e−∞
1
F(E) = 1+ 0 F(E) = 1
P a g e 8 | 35
Thus at T = 0, there is 100% chance for the given energy level to be filled with electrons. It can
also be said that the energy levels below the Fermi energy levels are filled with electrons.
Case (2) : Probability of occupation for E> E F at T = 0

1
F( E ) =
1+ e (E−EF )⁄kT
When T = 0 and E> EF, we have

1 1
F(E) = 1+ e(+ve)⁄0 F(E) = 1+ e∞
1 1
F(E) = 1+ ∞ F(E) = ∞
F (E) = 0
Thus at T = 0, there is 0% chance for the given energy level to be filled with electrons. It can also
be said that the energy levels above the Fermi energy level are not occupied by the electrons.
Case (3): Probability of occupation for E = EF at T > 0K

1
F( E ) =
1+ e (E−EF )⁄kT
When T = 0 and E = EF, we have
1 1
F(E) = 1+ 𝑒 0 F(E) = 1+ 1
1
F( E ) = 2 F(E) = 0.5
Here, there is 50% chance for the electrons to occupy Fermi energy level i.e., the value of F(E)
becomes 0.5 at E = EF
Case (4): Probability of occupation at any temperature

When the temperature is raised slowly from absolute zero, the Fermi distribution function
smoothly decreases to zero. Due to the supply of thermal energy the electrons within the range of
kT below the Fermi level alone takes the energy  kT and goes to higher energy state. Hence at
any temperature (T), empty states will also be available below E F. Therefore the fermi distribution
reduces to classical Maxwell Boltzmann statistics.
P a g e 9 | 35
Uses of Fermi distribution function:

 It gives the probability of occupation for a given energy level at a given temperature.
 It gives the idea about filled and unfilled states.
 It is very useful in the calculation of number of free electrons per unit volume at given
temperature.
 It is very useful in the calculation of Fermi energy of a metal.
Density of states
The Fermi function gives only the probability of filling up of electrons in a given energy state, it
does not gives information about the number of electrons that can be filled in a given energy state.
To know that we should know about the number of available energy states so called density of
states.
Definition:
It is defined as the number of available electron states per unit volume in an energy interval E and
E+dE. It is denoted by Z (E) and it is given by
Number of energy states in the energy interval E and E + dE

Z(E)dE =
Volume of the metal piece
Derivation: Let us consider a cubical sample with side ‘a’. A sphere is constructed with three
quantum numbers nx, ny and nz as coordinate axes in three-
dimensional space. A radius vector n is drawn from the origin
‘o’ to a point with coordinates nx, ny and nz in this space. All the
points on the surface of that sphere will have the same energy E.
thus n2 = nx 2 + ny 2 + nz 2 denotes the radius of the sphere
with energy E. This sphere can be further divided into many
shells. Each shell represents a particular combination of
quantum numbers. Therefore it denotes a particular energy value with a particular radius. In this
space, unit volume represents one energy state.
4
Number of energy states within a sphere of radius ‘n’ = 3 πn3 ------------ (1)
P a g e 10 | 35
Since the quantum numbers can have only positive integer values; we have to take only one octant
1
of the sphere, i.e., 8Th of the spherical volume. Therefore the number of available energy states
within one octant of the sphere of radius ‘n’ corresponding to energy E is
1 4
= [ πn3 ]---------------(2)
8 3
Similarly, the number of available energy states within one octant of the sphere of radius ‘n+dn’
1 4
corresponding to energy E+dE is = 8 [3 π(n + dn)3 ] ---------------(3)
Now, the number of available energy states between the shell of radius n and n+dn is determined
by subtracting eqn (2) from eqn (3
1 4𝜋 1 4𝜋
𝑁(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = ( ) (𝑛 + 𝑑𝑛)3 − ( ) 𝑛3
8 3 8 3
1 4π
= ( ) [(𝑛 + 𝑑𝑛)3 − 𝑛3 ]
8 3
𝜋
𝑁(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = ( 6 ) [𝑛 + 𝑑𝑛3 + 3𝑛2 𝑑𝑛 + 3𝑛𝑑𝑛2 − 𝑛3 ]
3
Since dn is very small, higher powers of dn terms dn2 and dn3 can be neglected.
𝜋
𝑁(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = ( ) [3𝑛2 𝑑𝑛] 6
𝜋
𝑁(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = ( 2 ) [𝑛2 𝑑𝑛]
𝜋
𝑁(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = ( 2 ) 𝑛[𝑛𝑑𝑛] -----------(4)
We know that the energy of the electron in a cubical metal piece of sides ‘a’ is given by
n2 h2
𝐸= ----------------(5)
8ma2
8𝑚𝑎2 𝐸
n2 = [ ] -------------(6)
ℎ2
⁄
8𝑚𝑎2 𝐸 1 2
n = [ ] ---------------(7)
ℎ2
8𝑚𝑎2 𝑑𝐸
Differentiating eqn(6) we get ndn = [ ] -------------- (8)
2ℎ2
Substituting eqns (7) and (8) in eqn (4), we have
1⁄2
𝜋 8𝑚𝑎 2 𝐸 8𝑚𝑎 2 𝑑𝐸
𝑁 (𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = 2 [ ] [ ]
ℎ2 2ℎ 2
1⁄2
1 𝜋 8𝑚𝑎 2𝐸 8𝑚𝑎 2 𝑑𝐸
𝑁 (𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = 2 2 [ ] [ ]
ℎ2 ℎ2
1⁄2
𝜋 8𝑚𝑎 2 8𝑚𝑎 2
𝑁 (𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = 4 [ ] 𝐸 1⁄2 [ ] 𝑑𝐸 ------------(9)
ℎ2 ℎ2
3⁄2
𝜋 8𝑚𝑎 2
𝑁 (𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = 4 [ ] 𝐸 1⁄2 𝑑𝐸 ------------(10)
ℎ2
P a g e 11 | 35
Pauli’s exclusion principle states that two electrons of opposite spins can occupy each state and
hence the number of energy states available for electron occupancy is given by
3⁄2
𝜋 8𝑚𝑎 2
𝑁 (𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = 2 𝑋 [ ] 𝐸 1⁄2 𝑑𝐸
4 ℎ2
𝜋 𝑎 3
𝑁 (𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = ( ) (8𝑚)3⁄2 𝐸 1⁄2 𝑑𝐸
2 ℎ
𝜋 𝑎 3
𝑁 (𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = ( ) 8(2𝑚)3⁄2 𝐸 1⁄2 𝑑𝐸
2 ℎ
4𝜋
𝑁 (𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = (2𝑚)3⁄2 𝑎3 𝐸 1⁄2 𝑑𝐸 -------------(11)
ℎ3
Density of the states is given by the number of energy states per unit volume.
𝑁(𝐸)𝑑𝐸
𝑍(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = 𝑉
4π
(2m)3⁄2 a3 E1⁄2 dE
h3
𝑍 (𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = [ ]
a3
4π
𝑍(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = h3 (2m)3⁄2 E 1⁄2 dE ---------------(12)
This is the expression for the density of charge carriers in the energy interval E and E+dE. It
is used to calculate the carrier concentration in metals and semiconductors.
Carrier concentration
Carrier concentration, i.e., the number of electrons per unit volume in a given energy interval
is calculated by summing the product of the density of the state’s Z(E) and the occupancy
probability F(E).
i.e., nc = ∫ Z(E)F(E)dE
Substituting the expressions for Z(E) and F(E), we have
4π 1
nc = ∫ h3 (2m)3⁄2 E 1⁄2 1+ e(E−EF )⁄kT dE -----------(13)
For a metal at absolute zero temperature, the upper most occupied level is E F and all the
levels are completely filled below EF.
For a material at absolute zero F(E) = 1.
3 1
4𝜋
nc=∫ 3
(2𝑚)2 𝐸 2 dE ------------(14)
ℎ
3 1
4𝜋 𝐸
nc = 3
(2𝑚)2 ∫0 𝐹 𝐸 2 dE
ℎ
3 𝐸𝐹
3
4𝜋 𝐸2
= (2𝑚) ( 2 3 )
ℎ3
2 0
3 3
2 4𝜋
= 3
(2𝑚)2 𝐸𝐹 0 2
3ℎ
P a g e 12 | 35
3 3
8𝜋
nc = 3
(2𝑚)2 𝐸𝐹 0 2 -------------(15)
3ℎ
This eqn is used to calculate the carrier concentration in metals and semi conductors.
Expression for Fermi energy at 0K:
3 3
8𝜋
We know nc = 3ℎ3 (2𝑚)2 𝐸𝐹 0 2
3
3
3𝑛𝑐 ℎ2 2
𝐸𝐹 0 =
2 ( )
8𝜋 2𝑚
2
3𝑛𝑐 3 ℎ2
𝐸𝐹 0 = ( ) ( ) -------------(16)
8𝜋 2𝑚
This eqn is used to find out the Fermi energy of metals and semiconductors.
Average Energy of an electron at 0K

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑡 0𝐾 (𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 )
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 0𝐾 𝐸𝐴𝑣𝑔 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 0𝐾 (𝑁 (𝐸 )𝑑𝐸)
Here, the 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑡 0𝐾 (𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 ) =

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 0𝐾 𝑋 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 0𝐾 (𝑁(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸)
𝐸𝐹
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∫ 𝑁(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 . 𝐸
0
𝐸𝐹 0
4π 1⁄2
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∫ 3
(2m)3⁄2 𝐸𝐹 dE . 𝐸
0 h
𝐸𝐹 0
4π 3⁄2
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∫ 3
(2m)3⁄2 𝐸𝐹 dE
0 h
⁄2
4π 𝐸𝐹 0 5
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = (2m)3⁄2
h3 5⁄
2
8π 5⁄2
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 3 (2m)3⁄2 𝐸𝐹 0 ----------(1)
5h
3 3
8𝜋
We know 𝑁(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = (2𝑚 )2 𝐸𝐹 02 ---------- (2)
3ℎ3
8π 5⁄2
3 (2m)3⁄2 𝐸𝐹 0
5h
𝐸𝐴𝑣𝑔 = 3 3
8𝜋
( 2𝑚 ) 2𝐸
𝐹0
2
3ℎ3
3
𝐸𝐴𝑣𝑔 = 𝐸
5 𝐹0
P a g e 13 | 35
ELECTRONS IN PERIODICAL POTENTIAL
The free electron theory explains the properties of thermal conductivity, electrical
conductivity and specific heat of most of the metals. But, it fails to explain why some solids are
conductors, some are insulators and others are semiconductors.
A solution to this problem was given by band theory of solids and is called zone theory.
According to free electron theory, the potential energy of the electron inside the crystal
through which an electron moves is supported to be (zero). So it is completely free to move about
in the crystal, restrained only by the surface of the crystal.
Postulates
1. According to band theory, potential energy of electron within the crystals is periodic due
to periodicity of the crystal i.e., free electron move inside periodic lattice field.
2. The potential energy of the solid of the solid varies periodically with the periodicity of
space lattice ‘a’ which is nothing but interatomic spacing.
Inside a real crystal, the electrons (-) move through

periodic arrangement of positively charged holes (+)
a shown in the fig(a).Fig.(b) shows one dimensional
periodic potential distribution for a crystal. It is
assumed that the potential energy of the electron at the
positive ion site is zero and is maximum when it is
half way between the adjacent nuclei.
ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS

According to the energy band theory of solids, the free electrons move in a periodic
potential produced by positive ion cores. The electrons are treated as weakly perturbed by the
periodic potential. A simple qualitative explanation of the formation of energy bands in a solid
is given below.
A solid contains an enormous number of atoms packed closely together. Each atom when
isolated has a discrete set of electron levels, 1s, 2s, 2p, … If we imagine the N atoms on the
solid to be isolated from one another, they would have completely coinciding schemes of
energy levels.
The energies of electrons within any one isolated atom obey the following conditions.
P a g e 14 | 35
(i) There are specific electronic energy levels in each atom (fig. a).
Electrons cannot occupy space between these
levels
(ii) Electrons fill the lowest energy levels first. A
specific quantity of energy, called a quantum
of energy must be supplied to move an
electron to the next higher level.
(iii) Pauli’s, exclusion principle states that no two
electrons can occupy the same quantum state.
Not more than two electrons can occupy any
one energy level. Two electrons shall occupy the same energy level because they have
opposite electron spins (fig b).
When the atoms are brought in close proximity to form a solid, the valence electrons of
common to the entire crystal, and their outermost electronic orbits overlap. Therefore, N
electrons will now have to occupy different energy levels, which may be brought about by the
electric forces exerted on each electron by all N nuclei. As a result of these forces, each atomic
energy level is split up into a large number of closely spaced energy levels. A set of such
closely spaced energy levels is called an energy band.
Consider 11 electrons of a neutral sodium atom, each occupying specific energy level as
indicated in fig. The energy levels of sodium become bands when the atoms lie close together.
In an energy band, allowed energies are almost continuous. These energy bands are
separated by ranges of energies that have no allowed energy levels. These regions are known
as forbidden bands or energy gaps.
The amount of splitting is not the same for different levels. The levels filled by valence
electrons are disturbed to a greater extent, while this filled by electrons of inner shells are
distributed only slightly. If there are N atoms in a solid, there are N allowed quantum states in
each band. Each quantum state is occupied by a maximum of two electrons with opposite spins.
Thus, each energy band can be occupied by 2N electrons.
P a g e 15 | 35
The valence band consists of a group of states containing the outermost electrons or
valence electrons of an atom. The band formed from atomic energy levels contains valence
electrons is called valence band. These electrons have the highest energy. The band is
obviously the highest occupied band.
Above the valence band, there exists the band of next higher permitted energies called
conduction band. It is separated from the valence band by a gap. The gap represents the
range of energy which electrons cannot possess.
The conduction band corresponds to the first excited states and it

is normally the lowest unfilled energy band. In conduction band, the
electrons can move freely and they are generally called conduction
electrons.
According to free electron theory, the potential energy of the

electron inside the crystal through which an electron moves is
supposed to be constant which an electron moves is supposed to be
constant (zero) and so it is completely free to move throughout the
crystal, restrained only by the surface of the crystal.
P a g e 16 | 35
Classification of Metals, Semiconductors and Insulators

On the basis of width of forbidden gap valence and conduction band the solids are classified
into insulators, semiconductors and conductors.
Insulators
 In case of insulator, the forbidden energy band is very wide as shown in the fig. Due to
this, electrons cannot jump from valance band to conduction band. In insulator, the valance
electrons are bound very tightly to their parent atoms.
 For example, In the case of material like Glass, the valance band is completely full at 0k
and the energy gap between valance band and conduction band of the order of 10eV.
 Even in the presence of high electric field, the
electrons cannot jump from the valance band
to conduction band.
 When a very large energy is supplied, an
electron may jump across the forbidden gap.
Increase in temperature also enables some
electrons to go the conduction band.
 This explains why certain insulators
became conductors at high temperature.
The resistivity of insulators is of the order of
107 Ωm. (ohmmeter)
Semiconductor
 In semiconductors, the forbidden gap is very small as shown in the fig. Germanium and
silicon are the best example semiconductors.
 In germanium, the forbidden gap is of the order of 0.7 eV while in case of silicon, it is the
order of 1.1eV.
 Actually, a semiconductor one whose electrical
property lies between those of insulators and
conductors. At 0k there are no free electrons in
conduction band and valence band is completely
filled.
 When a small amount of energy is supplied, the
electrons can easily jump from valence band to
conduction, since the forbidden gap is very small.
 In semiconductors, the conductivities is the order of
102 Ωm. (ohm meter)
P a g e 17 | 35
Conductor
 In case of conductors, there is no forbidden gap both

conduction band and valence band overlap each other as
shown in the fig.
 In conduction gap, plenty of free electrons available for the
process of electric conduction. The electron from the
valence band enters into the conduction band.
 The most important fact in conductor is that due to the
absence of forbidden gap, there is no structure to establish
holes. The total current in conductor is simply the flow of
electrons.
Tight binding approximation
There are usually two approaches to understand the origin of band theory associated with solids.
One is the “nearly free electron model” and the other “tight-binding model”.
1) Nearly free electron model: In the nearly free electron approximation, interactions between
electrons are completely ignored. In solids there exists the ionic core which are tightly bound
to the lattice location, while the free electrons are free to move here and there throughout the
solid.
2) Tight-binding model: The opposite extreme to the nearly-free electron model assumes the
electrons in the crystal behave much like an assembly of constituent atoms.
 In this approach, the atoms are independent to begin with and they are brought together to
build the solid. The electrons are bound to their respective individual atoms to begin with.
 The atoms are free to begin while the electrons are tightly bound to the atom.
 When atoms are far apart all the bound electrons have fixed energy levels.
 When the atoms are brought close to form a solid, the electrons will maintain their original
energy levels as long as interatomic separation is large.
 When atoms are close enough the outer shell electrons begin to overlap and the energy
levels begin to split above and below the energy level of individual atoms.
 Initially the outer shell electrons overlap and as the interatomic spacing keeps on
decreasing further, the inner shell electrons overlap and hence the corresponding energy
levels also split.
P a g e 18 | 35
Concept of Effective Mass

The mass of an electron in the periodic potentials of a crystal is different from the free electron
mass and is usually referred to as the effective mass. Effective mass of an electron is the mass of
the electron when it is accelerated in a periodic potential. It is denoted as m*.
According to de Broglie hypothesis, a moving electron is associated with a wave. The velocity of
an electron (v) is equal to the group velocity (vg) of the associated wave.
𝑑𝜔
The group velocity is given by 𝑣𝑔 = ----------(1)
𝑑𝑘
Where ω is the angular frequency (2πν) and K is the propagation vector of the wave.
In quantum mechanics, the energy, ‘E’ of an electron is given by 𝐸 = ℎ𝜐
ℎ𝜔
𝐸=
2𝜋
𝐸 =ℏ𝜔
𝐸
𝜔= --------(2)
ℏ
𝒅 𝑬
Substituting value of 𝜔 from eq (2) to eq (1), we get 𝒗𝒈 = 𝒅𝒌 ( ℏ)
𝟏 𝒅𝑬
𝒗𝒈 = ℏ 𝒅𝒌 ------------(3)
Differentiating Equation (3) with respect to ‘t’ , we get acceleration of electron as
P a g e 19 | 35
𝑑(𝒗𝒈 )
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝟏 𝒅𝑬
𝑎= ( )
𝑑𝑡 ℏ 𝒅𝒌
𝟏 𝒅𝟐𝑬 𝑑𝑘
𝑎 = ℏ ( 𝒅𝒌𝟐 ) 𝑑𝑡 --------------(4)
ℎ
In quantum theory, the momentum of an electron is given by 𝑝 = 𝜆
ℎ 2𝜋
𝑝=
2𝜋 𝜆
𝑝 = ℏ𝑘 -----------(5)
𝑑𝑝 𝒅𝒌
Differentiating momentum with respect to t =ℏ
𝑑𝑡 𝒅𝒕
𝑑𝑝
Since force acting on the electron F=
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝒌 𝒅𝒌 𝑭
𝐹=ℏ = -----------(6)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 ℏ
𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝑬 𝑭
Substituting egn (6) in (4) we get, 𝑎= ( )
ℏ 𝒅𝒌𝟐 ℏ
𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝑬
𝑎= ( )𝑭
ℏ𝟐 𝒅𝒌𝟐
ℏ𝟐
𝑭= [ 𝒅𝟐 𝑬
]𝒂 ---------(7)
( )
𝒅𝒌𝟐
When an electric field is applied, acceleration of the electron due to this field
𝑒𝐸 𝐹
𝑎= =
𝑚∗ 𝑚∗
𝐹 = 𝑚∗ 𝑎 -------------(8)
ℏ𝟐
Comparing equations (7) and (8), we have 𝑚∗ 𝑎 = [ 𝒅𝟐 𝑬
]𝒂
( 𝟐)
𝒅𝒌
P a g e 20 | 35
ℏ𝟐
𝑚∗ = [ 𝒅𝟐 𝑬
]
( 𝒅𝒌𝟐 )
The above equation indicates the effective mass of an electron is not a constant, but depends on
𝒅𝟐 𝑬
the value of ( 𝒅𝒌𝟐 )
Special cases
𝒅𝟐 𝑬
Case (1): If ( 𝒅𝒌𝟐 ) is positive, then 𝑚∗ is also positive
𝒅𝟐 𝑬
Case (2): If ( 𝒅𝒌𝟐 ) is negative, then 𝑚∗ is also negative
𝒅𝟐 𝑬
Case (3) If (𝒅𝒌𝟐 ) is large, then the electron behave as a light particle
𝒅𝟐 𝑬
Case (4) If (𝒅𝒌𝟐 ) is very small, then the electron behave as heavy particle
Concept of holes
 Effective mass plays an important role in conduction process of semiconductors & holes –
full or filled valence bands.
 Effective mass is –ve near zone edges of filled valence bands.
 Electrons are accelerated in direction opposite to that the applied field direction – negative
mass behavior of electrons.
 Electrons with negative effective mass is considered as a new entity having same positive
mass as that of an electron but with a positive charge – hole
 Positive hole conduction and negative electron conduction are in equilibrium.
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
Magnetism arises from the magnetic moment or magnetic dipole of the magnetic
materials. When an electron revolves around the positive nucleus, orbital magnetic moment arises.
Similarly when the electron spins, spin magnetic moment arises. Any material can be magnetized
by an external magnetic field is called as magnetic materials. When a magnetic field is applied
externally, the magnetic materials can be easily magnetized since they have permanent magnetic
moment. Among the different types of magnetic materials, the following five will be having
practical application.
P a g e 21 | 35
1. Dia magnetic materials

2. Para magnetic materials
3. Ferro magnetic materials
4. Anti Ferro magnetic materials
5. Ferrimagnetic materials etc.
BASIC TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

1. Magnetic dipole: Magnetic dipole is a system consisting of two equal and opposite magnetic
poles separated by a small distance ‘𝒍’. Where ‘𝒍’ is the length of the magnet.
2. Magnetic moment: The product of magnetic pole strength ‘𝒎’ and the length of the magnet ‘𝒍’
is known as magnetic moment (M) 𝑴 = 𝒎. 𝒍
3. Magnetic flux (): Total number of magnetic lines of forces passing through a surface is known
as magnetic flux. It is represented by  and its unit is weber (WB).
4. Magnetic induction (or) Magnetic Flux density: Magnetic induction is the number of magnetic
𝜙
force passing through unit area perpendicularly. 𝐵 = Its unit is ‘𝑊𝑏/𝑚2‘or Tesla.
𝐴
5. Magnetic field intensity (or) Strength (H): It is defined as the force experienced by a unit North
Pole placed at the given point in a magnetic field. Its unit is 𝑁/𝑊𝑏 or Ampere/meter.
6. Intensity of magnetization: Magnetization means the process of converting a Non-magnetic
material into the magnetic material. It measures the magnetization of a magnetized specimen. It is
𝑴
defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume.𝑰 = Its unit is 𝑾𝒃/𝒎𝟐
𝑽
7. Magnetic permeability (μ): It is the ratio between magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetic
field intensity (H). 𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝜇 = BH

8. Relative permeability (μr): It is the ratio between permeability of the medium to the permeability
μ
of free space 𝜇𝑟 =
𝜇0
9. Magnetic Susceptibility, 𝝌: It is the ratio between intensity of magnetization (I) and the
𝐼
magnetic field intensity (H) 𝝌 = 𝐻
P a g e 22 | 35
Relation between μr and χ:
We know, 𝐵 = μ𝐻
In other way 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (I + 𝐻)
I
𝐵 = 𝜇0 H( + 1)
H
𝐵
= 𝜇0 (1 + 𝜒)
𝐻
𝐵
The relative permeability 𝜇 = 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 and = 𝜇
𝐻
𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 = 𝜇0 (1 + 𝜒)
𝜇𝑟 = 1 + χ
Where is the Susceptibility of the medium.
ORIGIN OF MAGNETIC MOMENT AND BOHR MAGNETON
ORIGIN OF MAGNETIC MOMENT

Any matter is basically made up of atoms. The property of magnetism exhibited by certain
materials with the magnetic property of its constituent atoms. We know that electrons in an atom
revolve around the nucleus in different orbits.
Basically there are three contributions for the magnetic dipole moment of an atom.
1. The orbital motions of electrons (the motion of electrons in the closed orbits around the
Nucleus) are called orbital magnetic moment.
2. Spin motion of the electrons (due to electron spin angular momentum) is called spin magnetic
moment.
3. The contribution from the nuclear spin (due to nuclear spin angular momentum) is nearly 10 3
times smaller than that of electron spin; it is not taken into consideration.
BOHR MAGNETRON: The magnetic moment contributed by an electron with angular

momentum quantum number n = 1 is known as Bohr Magnetron.
𝑒ℎ 𝐴
𝜇𝐵 = 𝜇𝐵 = 9.27 𝑥 10−24 2
4𝜋𝑚 𝑚
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS:

(On the basis of magnetic moment)
Magnetic materials are basically divided into two types on the basis of magnetic moments,
namely
1. Materials not having any permanent magnetic moment.
Examples: Dia-magnetic material
2. Materials having permanent magnetic moment
Examples: Para-magnetic materials
Ferro magnetic materials
Ferri magnetic materials
P a g e 23 | 35
Depending on the interaction between the induced dipoles, magnetic materials having permanent
magnetic moment are classified into three.
Magnetic
Materials
Atoms having Atoms having

no permanent permanent
dipole moment dipole moment
Anti-
Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic Ferrimagnetic
ferromagnetic
Materials Materials Materials Materials
materials
 If the permanent dipoles do not interact among themselves, the materials are known as
paramagnetic materials
 If the permanent dipole is strong and all the dipoles line up in parallel, the materials are known
as Ferromagnetic materials.
 If the permanent dipoles line up in anti parallel direction, the materials are known as
antiferromagnetic or Ferrimagnetic materials.
DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
Diamagnetism is exhibited by all the materials. The atoms in the diamagnetic materials do
not possess permanent magnetic moment. However, when a material is placed in a magnetic field,
the electrons in the atomic orbits tend to counteract the external magnetic field and the atoms
acquire an induced magnetic moment. As a result, the material becomes magnetized. The direction
of the induced dipole moment is opposite to that of externally applied magnetic field. Due to this
effect, the material gets very weakly repelled, in the magnetic field. This phenomenon is known
as diamagnetism.
When a magnetic field Ho is applied in the direction shown in fig., the atoms acquire an
induced magnetic moment in the opposite direction to that of the field. The strength of the induced
magnetic moment is proportional to the applied field and hence magnetization of the material
varies directly with the strength of the magnetic field. The induced dipoles and magnetization
vanish as soon as the applied field is removed.
P a g e 24 | 35
Properties:
 Permanent dipoles are absent. Therefore the magnetic effects are very small.
 They repel the magnetic lines of force.
 The susceptibility is negative, and is independent of temperature and applied field.
 Permeability is less than unity.
 When temperature is less than critical temperature diamagnets become normal material
Examples: Gold, germanium, Silicon, water, alcholol, etc.
PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
In certain materials, each atom or molecule possesses a net permanent magnetic moment
(due to orbital and spin magnetic moment) even in the absence of an external magnetic field. The
magnetic moments are randomly oriented in the absence of external magnetic field. Therefore the
net magnetic moment is zero, and hence the magnetization of the material is zero. But, when an
external magnetic field is applied, the magnetic dipoles tend to align themselves in the direction
of the magnetic field and the material becomes magnetized. As shown in fig. This effect is known
as paramagnetism.
Thermal agitation disturbs the alignment of the magnetic moments. With an increase in
Temperature, the increase in thermal agitation tends to randomize the dipole direction thus leading
to a decrease in magnetization. This indicates that the paramagnetic susceptibility decreases with
increases in temperature. It is noted that the paramagnetic susceptibility varies inversely with
temperature.
P a g e 25 | 35
𝐶
𝜒=
𝑇
This is known as curie’s law of paramagnetism and C is called Curie’s constant.
Properties:
 The magnetic lines of force pass through the material.
 They have permanent magnetic dipoles.
 The susceptibility is positive and it depends on the
temperature.
 Permeability is greater than one.
 When the temperature is less than critical temperature, the material becomes diamagnetic.
Examples: CuSO4, MnSO4, Platinum, aluminium, etc.
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
In ferromagnetic material the numbers of unpaired electrons are more. Most of the spin
magnetic moment points in one direction. In the absence of magnetic field the dipoles align
themselves parallel to each other and give rise to
magnetic field called as spontaneous magnetization.
When a small magnetic field is applied, the dipoles get
reorient itself along the direction of the magnetic field
and they becomes very strong magnets.
Properties:
 All the magnetic lines of force passes through the material, since it has own magnetization.
 They have magnetization, even in the absence of external field.
 They have permanent magnetic dipoles.
 The susceptibility is positive and very high.
According to Curie Weiss law the susceptibility is given
𝐶
by 𝜒 = 𝑇−𝜃
 Permeability is very much greater than I
 When the temperature is greater than Curie temperature, they become paramagnetic.
COMPARISON OF DIAMAGNETIC, PARAMAGNETIC AND FERROMAGNETIC

MATERIALS.
S.No Dia magnetic materials Paramagnetic materials Ferromagnetic materials

1 In diamagnetic materials there In paramagnetic materials In ferromagnetic materials
are equal number of electron there is unequal number of there is more number of
spins which are randomly electron spins and hence unequal electron spins and
oriented and hence the net there exists a permanent hence there exists
magnetic moment is zero. magnetic moment. enormous amount of
permanent magnetic
moment.
P a g e 26 | 35
2 When the external magnetic When the external magnetic When the external
field is applied, the electrons field is applied, the electrons magnetic field is applied,
will align perpendicular to the will align parallel to the field the electrons which are
field direction and hence it direction and hence the aligned parallel will
reduces the magnetic material is magnetized. Thus reorient itself to the field
induction present in the they are named as strong direction and will be easily
material. Thus they are named magnets. magnetized. Thus they are
as weak magnets. named as very strong
magnets.
3 When the material is placed in When the material is placed When the material is
the magnetic field, the in the magnetic field, the placed in the magnetic
magnetic flux lines are magnetic flux lines passes field, the magnetic flux
repelled away from the
through the material. lines are highly attracted
material.
towards the center of the
material.
4 The susceptibility is negative. The susceptibility is positive The susceptibility is

(𝜒 = −𝑣𝑒) and small. (𝜒 = +𝑣𝑒) positive and large. (𝜒 =
+𝑣𝑒)
5 The susceptibility is The susceptibility varies The susceptibility depends
independent of temperature. inversely with the absolute upon the temperature.
temperature.
6 Permeability is less than 1. Permeability is greater than Permeability is very much
1. greater than 1.
7 When the temperature is less When the temperature is less When the temperature is
than critical temperature, the than curie temperature, the greater than curie
diamagnetism suddenly paramagnetic material is temperature, the
disappears and becomes a converted into diamagnetic ferromagnetic material is
normal material. material. converted into
paramagnetic material.
8 Examples: gold, bismuth, Examples: platinum, Examples: iron, nickel,
water, antimony, hydrogen, chromium, aluminium, cobalt, steel, etc.
alcohol, germanium, silicon, copper sulphate, manganese
etc. sulphate, etc.
ORIGIN OF FERROMAGNETISM AND EXCHANGE INTERACTION

Concept: Metals contain large number of electrons (i.e.,) free electrons. Each electron posses a
magnetic moment. When the magnetic field is applied, then the elementary electrons behave as
magnetic dipoles, which tend to orient along the direction of external magnetic field. Thus the
electrons affect the paramagnetism volume susceptibility (𝜒𝐶 ).
P a g e 27 | 35
Explanation
1
Langevin showed that paramagnetic susceptibility varies as
𝑇
1
𝜒𝐶 =
𝑇
Where 𝜒𝐶 is called paramagnetic susceptibility.
Its value is 10-4 at room temperature but experimental observation shows that the paramagnetic
susceptibility value has very small value sy, in the order of 10-6 and is independent of temperature.
Pauli applied Fermi Dirac statistics to explain this disagreement as follows. Each electron has a
magnetic moment 𝐼 μ𝐵 along the direction of magnetic field.
If there are ‘n’ number of conduction electrons per unit volume, then
The net magnetization is 𝑀 = μ𝐵 𝑛
𝑀 = μ𝐵 (𝑛+ − 𝑛− ) ---------------- (1)
Where 𝑛 = 𝑛+ − 𝑛−
Here 𝑛+ is the number of electrons with magnetic moment parallel to the magnetic field B and
𝑛− is the number of electrons with magnetic moment anti-parallel to the magnetic field B.
The concentration of electrons with magnetic moments parallel to the magnetic field is
1 𝐸
𝑛+ = 2 ∫μ 𝐹 𝐹(𝐸) 𝑔 (𝐸 + μ𝐵 𝐵)𝑑𝐸 ---------------- (2)
𝐵
1 𝐸𝐹 1
𝑛+ = 2
∫0 𝐹(𝐸) 𝑔 (𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 + 2 μ𝐵 𝐵 𝑔 (𝐸𝐹 ) ---------------- (3)
Similarly,
1 𝐸𝐹
𝑛− = ∫μ 𝐹(𝐸) 𝑔 (𝐸 − μ𝐵 𝐵)𝑑𝐸
2 𝐵
1 𝐸𝐹 1
𝑛− = 2
∫0 𝐹(𝐸) 𝑔 (𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 − 2 μ𝐵 𝐵 𝑔 (𝐸𝐹 ) ---------------- (4)
1
Where F(E) is called Fermi-Dirac distribution function and 2
𝑔 (𝐸 ± μ𝐵 𝐵) is the density of
orbitals of one spin (either + or (or) -) orientation.
Substituting equation (3) and equation (4) in equation (1), we get
1 𝐸 1
The net magnetization 𝑀 = μ𝐵 {2 ∫0 𝐹 𝐹(𝐸) 𝑔 (𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 + 2 μ𝐵 𝐵 𝑔 (𝐸𝐹 ) −
1 𝐸 1
[ ∫0 𝐹 𝐹(𝐸) 𝑔 (𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 − μ𝐵 𝐵 𝑔 (𝐸𝐹 )]}
2 2
𝑀 = μ𝐵 [μ𝐵 𝐵 𝑔 (𝐸𝐹 )]
𝑀 = μ𝐵 2 𝐵 𝑔 (𝐸𝐹 ) ---------------- (5)

3 𝑛
We know, density of states 𝑔 (𝐸𝐹 ) = ---------------- (6)
2 𝐸𝐹
P a g e 28 | 35
Where 𝐸𝐹 is the Fermi Energy.

Substituting equation (6) in equation (5), we get
3 𝑛
𝑀 = μ𝐵 2 𝐵 2 𝐸 ---------------- (7)
𝐹
Since 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻, we can write equation (7) as

3 𝑛
𝑀 = μ𝐵 2 𝜇0 𝐻
2 𝐸𝐹
𝑀 3 μ𝐵 2 𝜇0 𝑛
= ---------------- (8)
𝐻 2 𝐸𝐹
𝑀
Since 𝜒𝐶 = , we can write equation (8) as
𝐻
3 μ 2𝜇 𝑛
𝜒𝐶 = 2 𝐵𝐸 0 ---------------- (9)
𝐹
Equation (9) is called as the Pauli’s paramagnetic susceptibility of a Fermi gas of conduction
electrons.
Here in equation (9) we can note that the susceptibility is independent of temperature thus verifying
the experimental also.
ORIGIN OF FERROMAGNETISM AND EXCHANGE INTERACTION

The ferromagnetic property is exhibited by transition elements such as iron, cobalt and nickel at
room temperature and rare earth elements such as gadolinium and dysprosium. The ferromagnetic
materials possess parallel alignment of dipoles. This parallel alignment of dipoles is not due to the
magnetic force existing between any two dipoles. The reason is that the magnetic potential energy
is very small and it is smaller than thermal energy.
3d orbitals 4s orbitals
The electronic configuration of iron is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d6 and 4s2. For iron, the six electrons
present in the 3d sub shell occupy the orbitals such that there are four unpaired electrons and two
paired electrons. These four unpaired electrons contribute a magnetic moment of 4β. This
arrangement shows the parallel alignment of four unpaired electrons. The parallel alignment of
dipoles in iron is not due to the magnetic interaction. It is due to the Pauli’s exclusion principle
and electrostatic interaction energy.
P a g e 29 | 35
The Pauli’s exclusion principle and electrostatic interaction energy are combined together and
constitute a new kind of interaction known as exchange interaction. The exchange interaction
is a quantum mechanical concept.
Quantum Interference Devices

A Quantum Interference Device is a very sensitive device which is used to measure very weak
magnetic fields at the order of 5 x 10-18 Tesla, using the principle of interference.
Examples
1. Superconducting quantum interference devices
2. GMR devices etc.
Applications
1. These devices are used in research and biological studies.
2. They are used in ultra-sensitive electronic and magnetic measurements.
Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUID)

SQUID [Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices] are the improved model of Josephson
devices. It has high efficiency, sensitivity and quick performance.
Principle: Small change in magnetic field, produces variation in flux quantum.
Explanation:
It consists of a super conducting rings
which can have magnetic fields of
quantum values (1,2,3, ….) of
flux placed in between the two Josephson
junctions.
When the magnetic field is applied
perpendicular to the plane of the ring,
current is induced at the two Josephson
junctions and produces interference
pattern. The induced current flows around
the ring so that the magnetic flux in the ring can have quantum values of flux, which corresponds
to the value of magnetic field applied. Therefore SQUIDS are used to detect the variation in very
minute magnetic signals in terms of quantum flux. They are used ad storage devices for magnetic
flux. They are also used in the study of earthquakes, removing paramagnetic impurities, detection
of magnetic signals from the brain, heart etc.
P a g e 30 | 35
GMR Devices
Giant magnetoresistance (GMR) is a quantum mechanical magnetoresistance effect observed in
thin film structures composed of alternating ferromagnetic and nonmagnetic layers. Giant
magnetoresistance is a large change in electrical resistance due to spin alignment of electrons in
alternating magnetic layers separated by a non-magnetic layer. GMR Devices are widely used as
magnetic sensors, read heads in hard disks, magnetometers, compass system, etc.
MAGNETIC HARD DISK DRIVE (HDD) WITH GMR SENSOR
The GMR read head sensor in a hard disk is built using a spin valve. Spin valve resistance
demonstrates a steep change in the small field range close to H=0. As the magnetic bits on the
hard drive pass under the read head, the magnetic alignment of the sensing layer in the spin valve
changes resulting in the resistance change.
As the read head passes over the disk, the free

layer shifts its magnetic orientation to match
that of the bit. So sometimes the direction of the
free layer’s magnetic field is aligned with the
field of the pinned layer (which never changes),
and sometimes it is opposite. When they are
aligned, most of their electrons will share the same up or down spin. As some of these electrons
pass through the layers in the form of current, there will be minimal scattering. The low resistance
means a current will be detected, and the computer computes a 1 bit.
When the free layer’s magnetic orientation switches to opposite that of the pinned layer, there’s a
much different result. The electrons in the two layers have opposing spins. So as the current passes
through the magnetized layers, those electrons will scatter in one or the other of them, resulting in
a much weaker current and a 0 bit.
PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the drift velocity of the free electron with a mobility of3.5 x 10 -3 m2V-1s-1 in
copper for an electric field strength of 0.5 V/m.
Drift Velocity 𝑣𝑑 =μ E
𝑣𝑑 = 3.5x10-3x 0.5
𝑣𝑑 = 1.75x10-3 m/s
𝑣𝑑 = 0.00175 m/s
P a g e 31 | 35
2. A conducting rod contains 8.5x1028 electrons per m3. Calculate the electrical
conductivity at room temperature if the collision time for electron is 2 x 10 -14s.
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜎 =
𝑚
(8.5 𝑥 1028 𝑥 (1.609 𝑥 10−19 )2 𝑥 2 𝑥 10−14 )
𝜎 =
9.11 𝑥 10−31
𝜎 = 4.83 𝑥 107 𝑚ℎ𝑜/𝑚
3. The mobility of electron in copper is 3x10-3 m2/Vs. Assuming e = 1.6 x 10-19 C and
me= 9.1x10-31 kg, calculate the mean free time.
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜎 = and 𝜎 =𝜇𝑛𝑒
𝑚
𝜇𝑚
Equating above eqns we can write 𝜏= 𝑒
3 𝑥 10−3 𝑥 9.1 𝑥 10−31
Mean free time 𝜏 = 1.6 𝑥 10−19
Mean free time τ = 1.70625x10-14 seconds

4. Evaluate the Fermi function for energy K BT above the Fermi energy.
E-EF = KB T
1 1 1
F( E ) = E− EF F( E ) = kB T F( E ) =
⁄k T ⁄k T 1+exp(1)
1+ e B 1+ e B
1
F( E ) = F(𝐄) = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟗
1 + 2.78
5. The Fermi temperature of a metal is 24600 K. Calculate the Fermi velocity.
The relation between Fermi energy, Fermi velocity and Fermi temperature is given by
1
𝐸𝐹 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇𝐹 = 𝑚𝑣𝐹 2
2
2𝐾𝐵 𝑇𝐹 2 𝑥 1.38 𝑥 10−23 𝑥 24600

𝑣𝐹 = √ = √
𝑚 9.11 𝑥 10−31
𝑣𝐹 = 0.8633 𝑋 106 𝑚/𝑠

6. Calculate the electrical and thermal conductivities for a metal with a relaxation time 10-14
second at 300 K. Also calculate Lorentz number using the above result. (Density of
electrons = 6x1028 m-3).
P a g e 32 | 35
7. The density of silver is 10.5x103 kg/m3. The atomic weight of silver is 107.9. Each silver
atom provides one conduction electron. The conductivity of silver at 20 °C is 6.8 x 107
Ω-1m-1. Calculate the density of electron and also the mobility of electrons in silver.
Density
Number of atoms present per m3 = Avagadro No. , X Atomic weight
6.023 X1023 X 10.5 X 103

= 107.9 X 10−3
Number of atoms present per m3 = 5.86 X 1028 atoms/m3

σ
μ=
ne
6.8 X 107
μ= 𝛍 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐 𝐗 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝐦𝟐 𝐕 −𝟏 𝐬 −𝟏
5.86 X 1028 X 1.6 X 10−19
8. Use the Fermi distribution function to obtain the value of F (E) for the level just
0.01eV above the Fermi level at 200 K.
E-EF = 0.01eV
1
F( E ) = E− EF⁄
1+ e kT
1
F( E ) = 0.01 X 1.6 X 10−19
1 + exp (1.38 X 10−23 X 200 )
P a g e 33 | 35
1
F( E ) =
1 + e0.05797
𝐅(𝐄) = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝟖𝟗
9. The Fermi energy of silver is 5.51 eV. What is the average energy of a free electron at
0K?
3
̅̅̅̅̅̅
Eavg = E
5 F
3
̅̅̅̅̅̅
Eavg = ( 5.51 X 1.6 X 10−19 )
5
̅̅̅̅̅̅
Eavg = 5.2896 X 10−19 J
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐄𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟎𝟔 𝐞𝐕
10. Magnetic field Intensity of a paramagnetic material is 104 A/m. At room temperature,
its susceptibility is 3.7 x 10-3. Calculate the magnetization in the material.
11. A magnetic field of 1800 ampere/meter produces a magnetic flux of 3 x 10 -5 weber in

an iron bar of cross sectional area 0.2 cm2. Calculate permeability.
12. A magnetic field of 2000 A/m is applied to a material which has a susceptibility of 1000.
Calculate the (i) Intensity of Magnetization and (ii) Flux density.
P a g e 34 | 35
13. The magnetic susceptibility of a medium is 940 x 10-4. Calculate its absolute and relative
permeability.
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜇𝑟 = 1 + 𝜒
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜇𝑟 = 1 + (940 x 10−4 )
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜇𝑟 = 1 + (0.094)
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜇𝑟 = 1.094
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜇 = 4𝜋 x 10−7 x 1.094
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜇 = 13.74 x 10−7 N/𝐴2
14. Iron has relative permeability of 5000. Calculate its magnetic susceptibility.
15. The magnetic field strength of silicon is 1500 A/m. if the magnetic susceptibility is
, calculate the magnetization and flux density in Silicon.
Intensity of magnetization 𝐼 = 𝜒𝑚 𝐻
𝐼 = − 0.3 x 10−5 𝑥 `1500
𝐼 = − 4.5 x 10−3 𝐴 /𝑚
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻
𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻
𝐵 = (1 + 𝜒𝑚 )𝐻
𝐵 = (1 − 0.3 x 10−5 )1500
𝐵 = (0.999997 )1500
𝑩 = 𝟏𝟒𝟗𝟗. 𝟗 𝑾𝒃/𝒎𝟐
P a g e 35 | 35
UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
Intrinsic Semiconductors – Energy band diagram – direct and indirect band gap
Introduction:
semiconductors – Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors – extrinsic
semiconductors - Carrier concentration in N-type & P-type semiconductors – Variation
of carrier concentration with temperature – Carrier transport in Semiconductors: Drift,
mobility and diffusion – Hall effect and devices – Ohmic contacts – Schottky diode.
A semiconductor is a solid which has the resistivity in between the conductor and the insulator. It
act as insulator at low temperature and act as conductors at high temperature. Examples:
Germanium, Silicon, GaAs, InP, etc. The resistivity of semiconductors are from 10-4 to 0.5 ohm
– metre. The study of semiconducting materials is essential for engineers due to their wide
application in semiconductor devices in engineering and technology.
Properties of semiconductors:
 The resistivity lies between 10-4 to 0.5 ohm meters.

 At 0K, they behave as insulators.
 They empty conduction band and almost filled valence band.
 The conductivity of a semiconductor increases both due to the temperature and impurities.
 They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
 In semiconductors both the electron and holes are charge carriers and will take part in conduction.
Classification of semiconductors:
Based on composition they are classified as
(i) Elemental semiconductors (ii) Compound semiconductors
P a g e 1 | 32
(i) Elemental semiconductors: They are made from a single element of fourth group
elements of the periodic table. They are also called as indirect band gap semiconductors.
Examples: Germanium, Silicon, Diamond.
(ii) Compound semiconductors: They are formed by combining third and fifth group
elements or second and sixth group elements in the periodic table. They are also called as direct
band gap semiconductors. Examples: GaP, GaAs, MgO, ZnO, ZnS.
S.No Elemental semiconductors Compound semiconductors

1 They are made up of single element. They are made up of compounds.
2 They are made from a single element They are formed by combining third and
of fourth group elements of the fifth group elements or second and sixth
periodic table. group elements in the periodic table.
3 They are called indirect band gap They are called as direct band gap
semiconductors. semiconductors.
4 Here heat is produced during Here the photons are emitted during
recombination. recombination.
5 Life time of charge carriers is more. Life time of charge carriers is less.
6 Current amplification is more. Current amplification is less.
7 They are used in the manufacture of They are used for making LED’s, laser
diodes and transistors, etc. diodes, IC’s, etc.
8 Examples: Ge, Si, etc. Examples: GaAs, GaP, CdS, MgO, etc.
Types of semiconductors:
Depending on the impurity added, there are two types.
(i) Intrinsic semiconductor (or) pure semiconductors
(ii) Extrinsic semiconductor (or) impure semiconductors
(a) N-type semiconductor
(b) P-type semiconductor
Intrinsic semiconductor:
The semiconductor in extremely pure form, without addition of impurities is known as an

intrinsic semiconductor. In intrinsic semiconductor, holes and electrons are created by thermal
agitation. As there are no impurities the number of free electrons must be equal to the number of
holes. Examples: silicon and germanium.
P a g e 2 | 32
They belong to the fourth group element in the periodic table. They are tetravalent atoms since
they have four valence electrons. The neighboring atoms form covalent bonds by sharing four
electrons with each other so as to form a stable structure. At very low temperatures say 0 K, no
free electrons are available for conduction. Hence this semiconductor behaves as an insulator.
Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors:

The number of electrons in the conduction band per unit volume of the material or the
number of holes in the valence band of the material is known as carrier concentration. It is also
known as density of charge carriers.
Calculation of density of electrons in conduction band:

The number of electrons in the energy interval E and E + dE is given by
P a g e 3 | 32
dn = Z (E) F (E) dE ……………(1)
Where Z (E) dE → Density of energy states
F(E) → Electron probability occupancy.
The number of electrons in the conduction band for the entire region is calculated by integrating
the equation (1) from energy Ec to +∞.
+∞
n = ∫ dn = ∫𝐸𝑐 𝑍(𝐸)𝐹(𝐸)𝑑𝐸….. … (2)
Where
4𝜋
Z (E) dE = (2me*) 3/2E1/2dE ….…….(3)
ℎ3
The electrons in the conduction band are move in a periodic
potential , so m = me*
Where me* → Effective mass.
E c → The potential energy of an electron at rest.
E-E c → The kinetic energy of the conduction electron
at higher energy levels.
Equation (3) is modified as

4𝜋
Z(E)dE = (2me*) 3/2 (E- Ec) 1/2 dE …………(4)
ℎ3
1
Where F(E) = ………….(5)
1+𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇
Substitute equation (4) and (5) in equation (2) we have

3 1
+∞ 4𝜋 1
n=∫𝑬𝒄 (2m∗e )2 (E − 𝐸𝑐 )2 dE
ℎ 3 1+𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
3 1
4𝜋 +∞ 1
n= (2m∗e )2 ∫𝑬𝒄 (E − 𝐸𝑐 )2 dE …………. (6)
ℎ 3 1+𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
Since kT is very small and𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇 is very large compared to 1. 1 from the denominator of
equation (6) is neglected.

3 1
4𝜋 +∞
n= (2m∗e )2 ∫𝑬𝒄 (E − 𝐸𝑐 )2 𝑒 −(𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 dE
ℎ3
P a g e 4 | 32
3 1
4𝜋 +∞
n= (2m∗e )2 ∫𝑬𝒄 (E − 𝐸𝑐 )2 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸)/𝑘𝑇 dE
ℎ3
3 +∞ 1 𝐸
4𝜋
n= (2m∗e )2 𝑒 𝐸𝐹/𝑘𝑇 ∫𝑬𝒄 (E − 𝐸𝑐 )2 𝑒 −𝑘𝑇 dE …….….(7)
ℎ3
Take E − 𝐸𝑐 = 𝓍, dE = d𝓍, E = 𝐸𝑐 + 𝓍
When E = 𝐸𝑐 , 𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝑐 = 𝓍 , 𝓍=0
When E =+ ,+ −𝐸𝑐 = 𝓍 , 𝓍= +
Substituting the above values in equation (7) we have

3 1
4𝜋 ∗ 2 𝐸𝐹 /𝑘𝑇 +∞ (𝓍)2 e−(Ec +𝓍)/𝑘𝑇 d𝓍
n= 3
(2me) 𝑒 ∫𝟎
ℎ
3 1
n=
4𝜋
(2m∗e )2 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 )/𝑘𝑇 +∞
∫𝟎 (𝓍)2 e−𝑥/𝑘𝑇 d𝓍 … … … (8)
ℎ3
3 1
1 𝓍
+∞ −( ) (𝑘𝑇)2 π2
Using the gamma function,∫0 (𝓍)2 e 𝑘𝑇 d𝓍 = … … … (9)
2
3 1
3 (𝑘𝑇)2 π2
4𝜋
Substituting equation (9) in equation (8) we have n = (2m∗e )2 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑐 )/𝑘𝑇
ℎ3 2
2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2
n = 2( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑐 )/𝑘𝑇 ……..(10)
ℎ2
This is the expression for the concentration of electrons in the conduction band of an intrinsic
semiconductor.
Calculation of density holes in the valence band:
If an electron is transferred from valence band to conduction band, a hole is created in the
valence band. Let dP be the number of holes in the valence band for the energy range E and
E+dE dP = Z(E) (1-F(E))dE ………….(1)
Where 1-F(E) → Probability of an unoccupied electron state i.e., presence of a hole
(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1 1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
1-F(E) = 1 - [ (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) ] 1-F(E) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) 1-F(E) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) …………(2)
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇 1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇 1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇
(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
E is very small compared to 𝐸𝐹 , 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 is very small. So the second term in the denominator of
(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
equation (2) is neglected. ie, 1 + 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ≈ 1
P a g e 5 | 32
(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
∴ 1-F(E) = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 …………(3)
4𝜋
Density of states in the valence band Z (E) dE = ℎ3 (2mh*) 3/2 E1/2 dE ………….(4)
Where mh* → Effective mass of the hole in the valence band.

E v → the potential energy of a hole at rest.
Ev - E → the kinetic energy of the hole at level below Ev.
4𝜋
∴Equation (4) is modified as Z(E)dE = ℎ3 (2mh*) 3/2 (Ev - E) 1/2 dE …………(5)
Substitute equation (3) and (5) in equation (1) we have

3 1 (E−EF )
4𝜋
dP = (2m∗h )2 (Ev − E)2 e kT dE …………(6)
ℎ3
Integrating equation (6) with respect to limit -∞ to Ev

3 1 (E−EF )
𝑬 4𝜋
∫ dP = ∫−∞𝒗 (2m∗h )2 (Ev − E)2 e kT dE
ℎ3
3 E 1 𝐸
4𝜋
P= (2m∗h )2 𝑒 −𝐸𝐹/𝑘𝑇 ∫−∞v(Ev − 𝐸 )2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 dE … … …...(7)
ℎ3
Take 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸 = 𝓍 , dE = - d𝓍 , E = - 𝓍+𝐸𝑣
When E = 𝐸𝑣 , 𝓍 = 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑣 , 𝓍 =0
When E = -∞ , 𝓍 = 𝐸𝑣 +∞, 𝓍 = + ∞
Substituting the above values in equation (7) we have
3 1 (−𝓍+Ev)
4𝜋 0
P= (2m∗h )2 𝑒 −𝐸𝐹/𝑘𝑇 ∫∞ (𝓍)2 e kT (−d𝓍) ………(8)
ℎ3
3 1 (−𝓍)
4𝜋 ∞
P= (2m∗h )2 𝑒 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 ∫𝟎 (𝓍)2 e kT (d𝓍) ………(9)
ℎ3
3 1
1 𝓍 (𝑘𝑇)2 π2
+∞ −( )
Using the gamma function,∫0 (𝓍)2 e 𝑘𝑇 d𝓍 = ..……(10)
2
3 1
3 (𝑘𝑇)2 π2
4𝜋
Substituting equation (10) in equation (9) we have P = (2mh∗ )2 𝑒 (𝐸𝑣−𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇
ℎ3 2
3/2
2𝜋m∗h kT
P = 2( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 …………(11)
ℎ2
This is the expression for the concentration of holes in the valence band of an intrinsic
semiconductor.
P a g e 6 | 32
Intrinsic carrier concentration:
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of electrons in the conduction band is
equal to the concentration of the holes in the valence band. We can rewrite n = p = ni
Where ni → Intrinsic carrier concentration
np = ni X ni and np = ni2
3/2
2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2 2𝜋m∗h kT
∴ ni2 = 2( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑐)/𝑘𝑇 × 2( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇
ℎ2 ℎ2
2𝜋kT 3
ni2 = 4( ) (m∗e m∗h )3/2 𝑒 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑐)/𝑘𝑇
ℎ2
2𝜋kT 3
ni2 = 4( ) (m∗e m∗h )3/2 𝑒 (−𝐸𝑔 )/𝑘𝑇
ℎ2
where 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝑣 = 𝐸𝑔 , 𝐸𝑔 → Forbidden energy gap

2𝜋kT 3/2
∴ ni = 2( ) (m∗e m∗h )3/4 𝑒 (−𝐸𝑔)/2𝑘𝑇 ……….(12)
ℎ2
Limitations of intrinsic semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductors cannot be directly used to fabricate devices due to the following
limitations;
(i) Electrical conductivity is low. Germanium has a conductivity of 1.67 Ω−1 𝑚−1 which is nearly
107 times smaller than that of copper.
(ii) Electrical conductivity is a function of temperature and increases exponentially as the
temperature increases.
In intrinsic or pure semiconductors, the carrier concentration of both electrons and holes is very
low at normal temperatures. In order to get sufficient current density through semiconductor, a
large electrical field should be applied. This problem is overcome by adding suitable impurities
into intrinsic semiconductors.
Extrinsic semiconductor:
Impure semiconductors in which charge carriers are produced due to the impurity atoms
are called extrinsic semiconductors. It is also known as doped semiconductor. The addition of
impurities to a pure semiconductor is known as doping and added impurity is called as doping
agent or dopant. The addition of impurities increases the number of free electrons and holes in
semiconductor and hence increases its electrical conductivity. Some of the common doping agents
are arsenic, aluminium and boron.
Depending on the impurity atom they are classified in to two types

(i) n- type semiconductor and (ii) p- type semiconductor
P a g e 7 | 32
n- type semiconductor: They are obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with
pentavalent impurity atoms like phosphorous and arsenic. The four valence electron of impurity
atom will be bonded with four valence electrons of semiconducting atom and one electron is free
which is responsible for conduction. Majority carriers are electrons.
p- type semiconductor: They are formed by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with trivalent
impurity atoms like Galium and Indium. The three valence electrons of the impurity atom pairs
with three valence electrons of the semiconductor and one position of the impurity atom is left free
(vacant). The excess holes produced are the majority carriers.
S.no Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor

Semiconductor in a pure form is called Semiconductor which are doped with impurity is
1 intrinsic semiconductor. called Extrinsic semiconductor
Example: Si, Ge Example: Si, Ge doped with Al, In,P
The charge carriers are produced only due The charge carriers are produced due to impurities
2
to thermal agitation. and may also be produced due to thermal agitation.
3 They have low electrical conductivity They have high electrical conductivity.
4 They have low operating temperature. They have high operating temperature.
At 0 K, Fermi level exactly lies between At 0 K, Fermi level lies closer to conduction band
5 conduction band and valence band. in n-type semiconductor and lies near valence band
in p-type semiconductor.
S.no n- type Semiconductor p-type semiconductor

n-type semiconductor is obtained by p-type semiconductor is obtained by doping an
1 doping an intrinsic semiconductor with intrinsic semiconductor with trivalent impurity.
pentavalent impurity.
Here electrons are majority carriers and Here holes are majority carriers and electrons are
2
holes are minority carriers. minority carriers.
It has donor energy level very close to It has acceptor energy level very close to valence
3
conduction band. band.
When the temperature is increased, these When the temperature is increased, these
semiconductors can easily donate an semiconductors can easily accept an electron from
4
electron from the donor energy level to the the valence band to acceptor energy level.
conduction band.
P a g e 8 | 32
Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the
5 the donor level and the bottom of the acceptor level and the top of the valence band
(𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝑐 ) (𝐸𝑎 +𝐸𝑣 )
conduction band 𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸𝐹 =
2 2
Fermi level decreases with increase of Fermi level increases with increase of temperature.
6
temperature.
n- type semiconductor:
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor. Such
impurities are known as donor impurities because they donate free electrons to the semiconductor
crystal. In n- type semiconductor electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are minority
charge carriers.
Let us consider, pentavalent impurity phosphorus is added to silicon as shown in below

figure. Phosphorus atom has 5 valence electrons and silicon has 4 valence electrons. Phosphorus
atom has one excess valence electron than silicon. The four valence electrons of each phosphorus
atom form 4 covalent bonds with the 4 neighboring silicon atoms. The fifth valence electron of the
phosphorus atom cannot able to form the covalent bond with the silicon atom because silicon atom
does not have the fifth valence electron to form the covalent bond.
Thus, fifth valence electron of phosphorus atom does not involve in the formation of covalent
bonds. Hence, it is free to move and not attached to the parent atom. This shows that each
phosphorus atom donates one free electron. Therefore, all the pentavalent impurities are called
donors. The number of free electrons are depends on the amount of impurity (phosphorus) added
to the silicon. A small addition of impurity (phosphorus) generates millions of free electrons.
P a g e 9 | 32
Carrier concentration in n- type semiconductor:
In an n-type semiconductor, the donor level is just below the conduction band. 𝑁𝑑 denotes
the donor concentration and 𝐸𝑑 denotes the energy of donor level.
Density of electrons per unit volume in the conduction band is given by
2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2
n =2( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑐 )/𝑘𝑇 ………..(1)
ℎ2
Density of ionized donors = 𝑁𝑑 (1- F(Ed))

1
= 𝑁𝑑 (1 − [ (𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹 ) ])
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇
(𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹 )
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1
= 𝑁𝑑 [ (𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹 ) ]
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝑒 𝑘𝑇
= 𝑁𝑑 [ (𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹 ) ]
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇
If 𝐸𝐹 lies more than a few kT above donor levels. So the

denominator may be neglected.
∴ Density of ionized donors = 𝑁𝑑 [𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ] ………(2)
At equilibrium density of electrons in the conduction band is equal to the density of ionized
donors.
2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2
2( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐)/𝑘𝑇 = 𝑁𝑑 [𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ] ………(3)
ℎ2
Taking log on both sides, we get

2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2
log [2 ( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑐 )/𝑘𝑇 ] = log (𝑁𝑑 [𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ])
ℎ2
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝐹 𝑁𝑑

Rearranging, = log [ 2𝜋m∗e kT 3
]
𝑘𝑇
2( )2
ℎ2
2𝐸𝐹 − (𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝑐 ) 𝑁𝑑

= log [ ∗ kT 3 ]
𝑘𝑇 2𝜋me
2( 2 )2
ℎ
P a g e 10 | 32
𝑁𝑑
2𝐸𝐹 = (𝐸𝑑 + 𝐸𝑐 ) + 𝑘𝑇 log [ 2𝜋m∗e kT 3
]
2( )2
ℎ2
𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝑐 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑑
𝐸𝐹 = + log [ 2𝜋m∗e kT 3
] ……..(4)
2 2
2( )2
ℎ2
Substituting the expression of 𝐸𝐹 from equation (5) in (1)
𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝑐 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑑
+ log [ 3 ] − 𝐸𝑐
2 2 2𝜋m∗e kT
2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2 2(
ℎ 2 )2
n = 2( ) exp
ℎ2 𝑘𝑇
[ ]
2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑑 𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝑐 −2𝐸𝑐

n = 2( ) exp [2𝑘𝑇 log [ 3 ] + ]
ℎ2 2𝜋m∗e kT 2
2kT
2( )
ℎ2
2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2 1 𝑁𝑑 𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝑐

n = 2( ) exp [2 log [ 3 ] + ]
ℎ2 2𝜋m∗e kT 2
2kT
2( )
ℎ2
1
2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2 (Nd )2 ( 𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝑐 )
n = 2( ) exp [ log 3 + ]
ℎ2 1 2𝜋m∗ kT 4 2kT
(2)2 ( e )
ℎ2
1
2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2 (Nd )2 𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝑐
n = 2( ) 3 exp[ ]
ℎ2 1 2𝜋m∗ kT 4 2kT
(2)2 ( e )
ℎ2
3
1
2𝜋m∗ kT 4 −∆E
n = (2Nd ) 2 ( ℎ2e ) exp[ 2kT ] where ∆E = 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝑑
∆E → Ionisation energy of the donor. ie, The amount of energy required to transfer an electron
from donor energy level 𝐸𝑑 to conduction band 𝐸𝑐 .
3
1
2𝜋m∗ kT 4 −∆E
n = (2Nd ) 2 ( ℎ2e ) exp[ 2kT ]
It is clear that the density of electrons in the conduction band is directly proportional to the
square root of donor concentration.
P a g e 11 | 32
p- type semiconductor:
When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it becomes
p- type semiconductor typical examples of trivalent impurities are gallium and indium. Such
impurities are known as acceptor impurities because the holes they create can accept electrons. In
p- type semiconductor holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority charge carriers.
Let us consider, trivalent impurity boron is added to silicon as shown in below figure.
Boron atom has three valence electrons and silicon has four valence electrons. The three valence
electrons of each boron atom form 3 covalent bonds with the 3 neighboring silicon atoms. In the
fourth covalent bond, only silicon atom contributes one valence electron, while the boron atom has
no valence electron to contribute. Thus, the fourth covalent bond is incomplete with shortage of
one electron. This missing electron is called hole. This shows each boron atom accept one electron
to fill the hole. Therefore, all the trivalent impurities are called acceptors. A small addition of
impurity (boron) provides millions of holes.
Carrier concentration in p- type semiconductor:

In p-type semiconductors, the acceptor level is just above the valence band. Let𝐸𝑎 represent
the energy of the acceptor level, and 𝑁𝑎 represent the number of acceptor atoms per unit volume.
Density of holes per unit volume in the valence band is given by
3/2
2𝜋m∗h kT
P = 2( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 ………..(1)
ℎ2
1
Density of ionized acceptors = 𝑁𝑎 F(𝐸𝑎 ) =𝑁𝑎 [ (𝐸𝑎 −𝐸𝐹 ) ]
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇
P a g e 12 | 32
(𝐸𝑎 −𝐸𝐹 )
Since 𝐸𝑎 − 𝐸𝐹 >> kT, 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 is very large quantity and thus 1 can be neglected from the
denominator.
(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑎 )
∴ Density of ionized acceptors = 𝑁𝑎 [𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ] ………(2)
At equilibrium density of holes in the valence band is equal to the density of ionized acceptors.
3/2 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑎 )
2𝜋m∗h kT
2( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝑣−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇 = 𝑁𝑎 [𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ]
ℎ2
Taking log on both sides, we get

3/2 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑎)
2𝜋m∗h kT
log(2 ( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 ) = log (𝑁𝑎 [𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ] )
ℎ2
Rearranging,
𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐹 +𝐸𝑎 𝑁𝑎

= log [ 2𝜋m∗h kT 3
]
𝑘𝑇
2( )2
ℎ2
−2𝐸𝐹 +(𝐸𝑎 +𝐸𝑣 ) 𝑁𝑎

= log [ 2𝜋m∗h kT 3
]
𝑘𝑇
2( )2
ℎ2
𝑁𝑎
−2𝐸𝐹 = −(𝐸𝑎 + 𝐸𝑣 ) + 𝑘𝑇 log [ 2𝜋m∗h kT 3
]
2( )2
ℎ2
(𝐸𝑎 +𝐸𝑣 ) 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑎
𝐸𝐹 = − log [ 2𝜋m∗h kT 3
] ……..(3)
2 2
2( )2
ℎ2
Substituting the expression of 𝐸𝐹 from equation (3) in (1)
(𝐸𝑎+𝐸𝑣) 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑎
𝐸𝑣 −
2
− 2 log 3
2𝜋m∗hkT 2
3/2 2( 2 ) ]
2𝜋m∗h kT [ ℎ
p = 2( ) exp
ℎ2 𝑘𝑇
[ ]
P a g e 13 | 32
3/2
2𝜋m∗h kT 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑎 2𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑎 −𝐸𝑣
p = 2( ) exp log 3 +
ℎ2 2𝑘𝑇 2kT
2𝜋m∗h kT 2
2( )
[ [ ℎ2 ] ]
3/2
2𝜋m∗h kT 1 𝑁𝑎 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑎
p = 2( ) exp log 3 +
ℎ2 2 2kT
2𝜋m∗h kT 2
2( )
[ [ ℎ2 ] ]
1
3/2
2𝜋m∗h kT (Na )2 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑎
p = 2( ) exp log 3 +
ℎ2 1 2𝜋m∗ kT 4 2kT
(2)2 ( h )
[ ℎ2 ]
1
3/2
2𝜋m∗h kT (Na )2 ( 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑎 )
p = 2( ) 3 exp[ ]
ℎ2 1 2𝜋m∗ kT 4 2kT
(2)2 ( h )
ℎ2
3
1
2𝜋m∗h kT 4 −∆E
p = (2Na ) (2 ) exp[ 2kT ] where ∆E = 𝐸𝑎 − 𝐸𝑣
ℎ2
∆E → Ionisation energy of the acceptor.

ie, The amount of energy required to transfer an holes from acceptor energy level 𝐸𝑎 to
valence band 𝐸𝑣 .
3
1
2𝜋m∗h kT 4 −∆E
p = (2Na ) ( 2 ) exp[ 2kT ]
ℎ2
It is clear that the density of holes in the valence band is directly proportional to the square
root of acceptor concentration.
Variation of carrier concentration with temperature
In extrinsic semiconductors, the resistivity decreases linearly with increase in temperature. This
variation is considered under three different regions.
(i) Extrinsic or impurity range

(ii) Exhaustion range
(iii) Intrinsic range
For an n-type semiconductor, the variation of carrier concentration n and p with temperature is
shown in the graph. At 0 K, both conduction and valence bands are free from any charge carriers
and hence the electrical conductivity is zero.
P a g e 14 | 32
Now when the temperature is slowly increased, the donor atom gets ionized and
the electrons move towards the conduction band. Here the carrier concentration (ne) increases
slowly in the conduction band for electrons. Since this range is obtained due to impurity atoms, it
is called impurity range shown by the curve AB.
When the temperature is further increased to reach upto say room temperature, all
donor atoms is ionized and hence the carrier concentration increases in the conduction band and
reaches to a steady state. Since this range is obtained due to exhaustion of donor atoms, it is called
exhaustion range shown by the curve BC.
When the temperature is still further increased, due to thermal ionization, the
electron from the valence band is lifted up to go to the conduction band and hence there is an
increase in the carrier concentration (ne). In this case the number of electrons in the donor energy
level is almost exhausted, many number of electrons are shifted from valence band to conduction
band and hence the carrier concentration increases rapidly, tracing the curve CD. Since the material
practically becomes intrinsic in this range, this range is known as intrinsic range.
The dotted curve indicates the hole concentration in an intrinsic range.
Carrier transport in semiconductor
Random motion and mobility

In absence of an electrical field the free electrons move in all directions in an random manner.
They collide with other free electrons and positive ion core during the motion. This collision is
known as elastic collision.
As the motion is random the resultant velocity in any particular direction is zero. When an
electrical field is applied in a semiconducting material the free charge carriers such as free
P a g e 15 | 32
electrons and holes attain drift velocity Vd. The drift velocity attained by the carriers is
proportional to the electric field 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐸.
Vd 𝛼 E Vd = µ 𝐸
Where µ is a proportionality constant and it is known as the mobility of the charge carrier. This
velocity Vd is different for different semiconductors and for different type of charge carriers.
If E = 1 V/m then µ = Vd.
Thus mobility µ 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 velocity of charge carrier per unit electrical field strength.
µn and µp denote electron mobility and hole mobility respectively. Since the types of drift of
electrons and of holes are different the mobility of an electron at any temperature is different from
that of hole.
The electrical conductivity 𝜎𝑖 of an intrinsic semiconductor having ni electron – hole pairs per unit
volume is given by
𝜎𝑖 = 𝑒 n𝑖 ( µ𝑛 + µ𝑝 )
Drift and diffusion Transport

The net current flow across a semiconductor has two components:
(i) Drift current (ii) Diffusion current.
Drift current
Definition: The electric current produced due to the motion of charge carriers under the influence
of an external electric field is known as drift current.
When electrical voltage is applied to a material, electric field is produced at every
point within the material. The charge carriers are forced to move in a particular direction due to
the electric field. This is known as the drift motion and the current is known as drift current.
Drift current in a semiconductor due to electrons 𝐽𝑛 (𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) = 𝑛𝜇𝑛 𝑒𝐸

Drift current in a semiconductor due to holes 𝐽𝑝 (𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) = 𝑝𝜇𝑝 𝑒𝐸
P a g e 16 | 32
Where n and p are number of electrons and holes per unit volume. 𝜇𝑛 and 𝜇𝑝 are the nobilities of
electrons and holes respectively, e is charge of electrons and E is electric field.
So total drift current density J = 𝐽𝑛 (𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) + 𝐽𝑝 (𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡)
𝐽 = 𝑛𝜇𝑛 𝑒𝐸 + 𝑝𝜇𝑝 𝑒𝐸
For Intrinsic semiconductor
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒(𝜇𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 )𝐸
Diffusion current
Definition: the non-uniform distribution of charge carriers creates the regions of uneven
concentrations in the semiconductor.
The charge carriers move from the regions of higher concentration to the regions
of lower concentration. This process is known as diffusion. The current is known as diffusion
𝑑𝑛
current. Consider a semiconductor having a concentration gradient of electrons within the
𝑑𝑥
semiconductor. The electrons diffuse from high concentration to low concentration due to the
concentration gradient.
𝑑𝑛
Rate of flow of electrons through unit area ∞ − (𝑑𝑥 )
Here negative sign denotes that the electrons are diffusing from higher concentration to lower
concentration region.
𝑑𝑛
Rate of flow of electrons through unit area = −𝐷𝑛 (𝑑𝑥 )
Where 𝐷𝑛 is a proportionality constant and it is known as diffusion coefficient of electrons.
𝑑𝑛
Rate of flow of electrons through unit area = −𝑒 𝑋 − 𝐷𝑛 (𝑑𝑥 )
Rate of flow of electrons through unit area is the diffusion current density of electrons
𝑑𝑛
𝐽𝑛 (diffusion) = 𝑒 𝐷𝑛 (𝑑𝑥 )
𝑑𝑛
Similarly, the diffusion current density of holes is given by 𝐽𝑝 (diffusion) = −𝑒 𝐷𝑝 (𝑑𝑥 )
Where 𝐷𝑝 is diffusion constant of holes.
P a g e 17 | 32
Hall Effect
Hall Effect is used to distinguish between the two types of charge carriers. It is also used to
determine the charge carrier densities and the mobility of charge carriers.
Statement: When a conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current (I) is placed in a
perpendicular magnetic field (B) , a potential difference (electric field) is produced inside the
conductor in a direction normal to the directions of both the current and the magnetic field.
Hall effect in n-type semiconductor:

Let us consider a n-type semiconductor material in the form of rectangular slab. In such a
material current flows in the X-direction, magnetic field B is applied in the Z direction. As a result
Hall voltage is developed along Y-direction. The current flow is entirely due to the flow of
electrons moving from right to left. When a magnetic field is applied, the electrons moving with
velocity v will experience a downward force Bev.
Where B → Applied magnetic field
e → Charge of an electron
The downward force deflects the electrons in downward direction and therefore there is an
accumulation of negatively charged electrons on the bottom face of the slab.
∴ A potential difference is established between top and bottom of the specimen. This potential
difference causes an electric field 𝐸𝐻 called Hall field.This field will give rise to a force e𝐸𝐻
acting in the upward direction on each electron.
At equilibrium, downward force Bev will balance the upward force e𝐸𝐻 .
∴ Bev = e𝐸𝐻
P a g e 18 | 32
𝐸𝐻 = Bv ……..(1)
The current density 𝐽𝑥 = nev
𝐽
∴ v = − 𝑛𝑒𝑥 ……..(2)
Where n → concentration of current carrier (electrons)
Substitute equation (2) in (1) we have
B𝐽𝑥
𝐸𝐻 =− …….(3)
𝑛𝑒
𝐸𝐻 = 𝑅𝐻 𝐽𝑥 B ……..(4)
𝐸𝐻
∴ 𝑅𝐻 = 𝐽𝑥 B
1
Where 𝑅𝐻 =− 𝑛 ….(5)
𝑒
Where 𝑅𝐻 → Hall coefficient or Hall constant.
Hall effect in p type semiconductor:
Consider a rectangular slab of p-type semiconducting material and the current flow in this case is
entirely due to the flow of positive holes from left to right. The current flow is along x- direction
and the magnetic field is applied in the z- direction. Due to applied magnetic field, the holes are
accumulated in the bottom of the slab and thus produce a potential difference.
1
Hall coefficient can be written as 𝑅𝐻 =+ 𝑝 …….(6)
𝑒
Where p → Concentration of current carriers(holes)

Hall coefficient in terms of Hall voltage:
If t is the thickness of the sample and 𝑉𝐻 is the Hall voltage, then 𝑉𝐻 = 𝐸𝐻 𝑡 ….(7)
Where EH is the Hall field
P a g e 19 | 32
Substitute equation (4) in (7) we 𝑉H =RH Jx Bt ……(8)
If b is the breadth of the sample, then Area of the sample (A) = Breadth (b) x Thickness (t)
= bt
𝐼𝑥 𝐼
Current density 𝐽𝑥= 𝐽𝑥= 𝑥 ……..(9)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒(𝐴) 𝑏𝑡
𝑅𝐻 𝐼𝑥 𝐵𝑡
Substituting equation (9) in (8) we have 𝑉𝐻 =
𝑏𝑡
𝑅𝐻 𝐼𝑥 𝐵
∴ 𝑉𝐻 =
𝑏
𝑉𝐻 b
Hall coefficient, 𝑅𝐻 = ……….(10)
𝐼𝑥 𝐵
Mobility of charge carriers:

Electrical conductivity of a n-type semiconductor σe = n e μe
−1
∴ 𝑅𝐻 = ……… (11)
𝑛𝑒
Where μe → mobility of charge carriers (electrons)
Electrical conductivity of a p-type semiconductor σh = p e μh

−1
∴ 𝑅𝐻 = ……… (12)
𝑝𝑒
Where σh→ mobility of charge carriers(holes)
Determination of Hall coefficient:

A semiconductor material is taken in the form
of a rectangular slab of thickness t and breadth b.
A suitable current 𝐼𝑥 ampere is allowed to pass
through this sample along x- axis by connecting it
to a battery.The sample is placed in between two
poles of an electromagnet such that the applied
magnetic field is along the z-axis ie, perpendicular
to the plane of paper.
Hall voltage 𝑉𝐻 is developed in the sample

is measured by fixing two probes at the centres of the bottom and top faces of the sample. By
P a g e 20 | 32
measuring Hall voltage, hall coefficient is determined from the formula
𝑉𝐻 b
𝑅𝐻 = 𝐼𝑥 𝐵
Applications of Hall Effect:

(i) Determination of semiconductor type: the sign of the hall coefficient is used to find whether
a given semiconductor is n-type or p-type.
(ii)Calculation of carrier concentration: by measuring hall coefficientR H , carrier concentration

1
is determined from the relation n=
𝑒𝑅𝐻
(iii) Determination of mobility: we know that electrical conductivity

𝜎𝑒
𝜎𝑒 = 𝑛𝑒µe µe = µe = 𝜎𝑒 𝑅𝐻
𝑛𝑒
(iv) Magnetic field meter: Hall voltage 𝑉𝐻 for a given current is proportional to B. Hence 𝑉𝐻
measures the magnetic field B.
(v) Hall effect multiplier: It can give an output proportional to the product of two signals. If current
I proportional to one input and if B proportional to the second input, then 𝑉𝐻 is proportional to
the product of two inputs.
Hall Devices
The devices which uses the Hall Effect for its applications is known as hall device. There are 3
types of hall devices.
1. Gauss meter
2. Electronic Multiplier
3. Electronic Wattmeter
a) Gauss meter
𝑅𝐻 𝐵𝑍 𝐼𝑥
The hall voltage 𝑉𝐻 = . In this 𝑉𝐻 ∝ 𝑩𝑍 for a given hall element; 𝑅𝐻 and t are constant.
𝑡
The current I through Hall element is also kept constant.
This principle is used in Gauss meter. It is used for measuring magnetic field. The variation of Hall
voltage with magnetic field is shown in fig. the voltmeter which is used to measure 𝑉𝐻 can be
P a g e 21 | 32
directly calibrated in terms of gauss. The graph can also be used to measure any unknown magnetic
fields.
b) Electronic Multipliers
From Hall Effect, we have
𝑅𝐻 𝐵𝑍 𝐼1
𝑉𝐻 =
𝑡
Since 𝑅𝐻 and t are constant for an element.

𝑉𝐻 = 𝐵𝑍 𝐼1
But, the magnetic field 𝐵𝑍 is proportional to
current (𝐼2 ) through the coil.
i.e; 𝐵𝑍 ∝ 𝐼2
∴ 𝑉𝐻 ∝ 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝑉𝐻 is a measure of the product of two currents.
This is the basic principle used in analog
electronic multipliers.
c) Electronic Wattmeter
Hall Effect is used to measure electrical power dissipated in a load. The instrument used to
measure the power in a circuit using Hall Effect principle is known as Hall Effect – Watt meter. S
P a g e 22 | 32
is Hall Effect sample. It is placed in a magnetic field 𝐵𝑍 produced by the load current 𝐼𝐿 passing
through the coils CC.
𝑉𝐿
The voltage across the load 𝑉𝐿 drives the current 𝐼𝑦 = through the sample. R is a series
𝑅
resistance which is >> than the resistance of the sample and that of the load. Also 𝐼𝑦 ≪ 𝐼𝐿
If “t” thickness of the sample, then the measured hall voltage
𝑅𝐻 𝐵𝑍 𝐼1
𝑉𝐻 =
𝑡
𝑉𝐻 ∝ 𝐵𝑍 𝐼𝑦 (Since RH and t are constant).
Since 𝐵𝑍 ∝ 𝐼𝐿 and 𝐼𝑦 ∝ 𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝐻 ∝ 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿
This is the electric power dissipated by the load. The voltmeter that measures 𝑉𝐻 can be
calibrated directly to read power.
Metal – Semiconductor Contact
Metal – semiconductor contact plays e very important role in the present day electronics devices
and integrated circuit technology.
When a metal and a semiconductor are brought into contact, there are 2 types of junctions formed
depending on the work functions of the metal and semiconductor.
P a g e 23 | 32
Types of Metal – Semiconductor junction
(i) Schottky junction - 𝜙𝑚 > 𝜙𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖
(ii) Ohmic junction - 𝜙𝑚 < 𝜙𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖
Work function: energy required to raise the electron from the metal or the semiconductor to the
vacuum level.
Schottky Diode
When the metal has high work function than that of n-type semiconductor then the junction formed
is called Schottky diode.
Principle: Schottky diode is a unilateral device in which current flows from metal to semiconductor
(n-type) in one direction.
Consider a junction formed between a metal and n-type semiconductor. The Fermi level of the
semiconductor is higher (since its work function is lower) than the metal. The electrons in the
conduction level of the semiconductor move to the empty energy states above the Fermi level of
the metal. This leave a positive charge on the semiconductor side and due to the excess electrons,
a negative charge on the metal side, leading to a contact potential.
P a g e 24 | 32
When a Schottky junction is formed between the metal and semiconductor, the Fermi level lines
up and also a positive potential is formed on the semiconductor side. Because the depletion region
extends within a certain depth in the semiconductor there is bending of the energy bands on the
semiconductor side. Bands bend up in the direction of the electric field.
The Schottky junction can be biased by application of an external potential.
There are two types of bias
1. Forward bias - metal is connected to positive terminal and n-type semiconductor connected
to negative terminal
P a g e 25 | 32
2. Reverse bias - metal is connected to negative terminal and n-type semiconductor connected
to positive terminal
The current flow depends on the type of bias and the amount of applied external potential.
Forward bias:
In a forward biased Schottky junction the external potential is applied in such a way that it opposes
the in-built potential. The electrons injected from the external circuit into the n-type semiconductor
have a lower barrier to overcome before reaching the metal. This leads to a current in the circuit
which increases with increasing external potential.
Reverse bias:
In the case of a reverse bias the external potential
is applied in the same direction as the junction
potential. This increases the width of depletion
region further and hence there is no flow of
electron from semiconductor to metal. So a
Schottky junction acts as a rectifier i.e. it
conducts in forward bias but not in reverse bias
The I − V characteristics of the junction is shown

in figure. There is an exponential increase in
current in the forward bias (I quadrant) while
there is a small current in reverse bias.
Advantages of Schottky diode
 In Schottky diode, stored charges or depletion region is negligible. So a Schottky diode has
a very low capacitance.
 The Schottky diode will immediately switch from ON state to OFF state since the depletion
region is negligible.
 A small voltage is enough to produce large current.
 It has high efficiency.
 It operates at high frequencies.
 It produces less noise.
Applications of Schottky diode
 It can be used for rectification of signals of frequencies even exceeding 300 MHz.
P a g e 26 | 32
 It is commonly used in switching device at frequencies of 20GHz.
 It is used in radio frequency applications.
 It is widely used in power supplies.
 It is used in logic circuits.
 Its low noise figure finds application in sensitive communication receivers like radars.
 It is also used in clipping and clamping circuits and in computer grating.
Ohmic Contacts
When the semiconductor has a higher work function the junction formed is called the Ohmic
junction.
Principle: An Ohmic contact is an non-rectifying contact which obeys Ohm’s law (V=IR). The
resistance of the Ohmic contact should always be low i.e., conductivity should be large.
Here, the current is conducted equally in both directions and there is a very little voltage drop
across the junction. Before contact, fermi level of the metal and semiconductor are at different
positions.
At equilibrium, electrons move from the metal to the empty states in the conduction band so that
there is an accumulation region near the interface (on the semiconductor side) from the metal to
the empty states in the conduction band so that there is an accumulation region near the interface
(on the semiconductor side).
Applications
He use of Ohmic contacts is to connect one semiconductor device to another, an IC, or to connect
an IC to its external terminals.
P a g e 27 | 32
PROBLEMS
1. Find the resistance of an intrinsic Ge rod 1 cm long, 1 mm wide and 0.5 mm thick at
300 K. For Ge, 𝒏𝒊 = 2.5 x 1019/m3, 0.39 m2V-1 s-1 and 0.19 m2V-1 s-1 at 300 K.
Given:
ni = 2.5 x 1019/m3, µe =0.39 m2V-1 s-1,µh =0.19 m2V-1 s-1, e = 1.6 × 10−19 J
𝑙 =1 cm = 1 × 10−2 m, Width = 1 mm, thickness = 0.5 mm
Conductivity 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒(𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ )
𝜎 = 2.5 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10−19 (0.39 + 0.19)
𝜎 = 2.32 Ω−1 𝑚−1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ × 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 1 × 10−3 × 0.5 × 10−3
𝑙 1×10−2
𝑅= =
𝜎𝐴 2.32 ×(1×10−3 ×0.5×10−3 )
𝑅 = 8620.6 Ω
2. The intrinsic carrier density is 1.5×1016/m3.If the mobility of electron and hole are 0.13
and 0.05 m2V-1s-1calculate the conductivity.
Given: 𝑛𝑖 =1.5×1016/m3, 𝜇𝑒 =0.13m2V-1s-1,𝜇ℎ =0.05 m2V-1s-1
𝜎 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒(𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ )
𝜎 = 15 × 1016 × 1.6 × 10−19 (0.13 + 0.05)
𝜎 = 4.32 × 10−4 Ω−1 𝑚−1
3. The donor density of an n-type germanium sample is 1021 /m3.The sample is arranged in
a Hall experiment having magnetic field of 0.5 Tesla and the current density is 500
ampere/m2. Find the Hall voltage if the sample is 3 mm wide.
Given: ne =1021 /m3, B = 0.5 Tesla, t =3 mm =3 × 10−3 m, 𝐽𝑥 =500 ampere/m2
1
𝑅𝐻 =
𝑛𝑒 𝑒
1
𝑅𝐻 =
1021 × 1.6 × 10−19
P a g e 28 | 32
𝑅𝐻 = 6.25 × 10−3
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑅𝐻 𝐽𝑥 𝐵𝑡
𝑉𝐻 = 6.25 × 10−3 × 500 × 0.5 × 3 × 10−3
𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝐻 = 4.6875 × 10−3 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
4. In a p-type germanium, ni = 2.1x 1019 m-3, density of boron = 4.5 x 1023 atoms m-
3. The electrons and hole mobility are 0.4 and 0.2 m2/volt sec respectively. What is its
conductivity before and after the addition of boron atoms?
Given: ni = 2.1x 1019/m3; μe = 0.4m2/volt; μh = 0.2m2/volt.sec
(i) Before including boron atoms, the semiconductor is an intrinsic semiconductor.
Therefore, Conductivity (σ) = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒(𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ )
= 2.1x1019x1.6x10-19(0.4+0.2)
σ = 2.016 Ω-1 m-1
(ii) After the boron atoms are included, each boron atoms are ready to accept one electron.
Therefore, Conductivity of p type semiconductor after boron atoms are included.
σ´ = p𝑒𝜇ℎ
σ´ = 4.5x1023x1.6x10-19x0.2
σ´ = 1.44x104 Ω-1m-1
5. A n-type semiconductor has Hall coefficient = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎−𝟑 𝒄−𝟏 .The conductivity is
108 ohm-1m-1. Calculate its charge carrier density ne and electron mobility at room
temperature.
Given:𝑅𝐻 = 4.16 × 10−4 𝑚−3 𝑐−1 , σ = 108 Ω-1m-1
1
For n-type the charge carrier density is 𝑛𝑒 = − 𝑒𝑅
𝐻
3𝜋 1
𝑛𝑒 =
8 𝑒𝑅𝐻
3 × 3.14 1
𝑛𝑒 =
8 1.6 × 10−19 × 4.16 × 10−4
𝑛𝑒 = 1.7690 × 1022 /m3.
P a g e 29 | 32
𝜎𝑒 108
i) Electron mobility µ𝑒 = µ𝑒 =
𝑛𝑒 𝑒 1.769×1022 ×1.6×10−19
µ𝑒 = 0.03816 m2V-1s-1
6. The Hall co-efficient of certain silicon was found to be -7.35 x10-5 m3C-1 from
100 to 400 K. Determine the nature of the semiconductor. If the conductivity was found
to be 200 m-1 Ω-1, calculate the density and mobility of the charge carriers.
Since Hall coefficient is negative the given semiconductor is an ‘n’ type semiconductor.
For an n-type semiconductor, Conductivity σ = nee μe
𝜎
Mobilityµ𝑒 =
𝑛𝑒 𝑒
1 1
Here 𝑛𝑒 = − 𝑒𝑅 𝑛𝑒 = − 1.6×10−19 ×−7.35×10−5
𝐻
Charge density of electrons 𝑛𝑒 = 8.503x1022/m3

200
Thereforeµ𝑒 =
8.503×1022 ×1.6×10−19
Mobility of charge carriers µ𝑒 = 0.0147m2V-1s-1.
7. The energy gap of Si is 1.1 eV. Its electron and hole mobilities at room temperature
are 0.48 and 0.013 m2V-1s-1.Evaluate its conductivity.
𝜇𝑒 = 0.48 m2V-1s-1 𝜇ℎ = 0.013 m2V-1s-1

2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 − 𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑖 = 2 [ ] exp
ℎ2 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2 × 3.14 × 9.11 × 10−31 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300 − 1.1 × 1.6 × 10−19

𝑛𝑖 = 2 [ ] exp
(6.625 × 10−34 )2 2(1.38 × 10−23 × 300)
𝑛𝑖 = 1.4707 × 1016 /𝑚3
Conductivity 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒(𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ )
𝜎 =1.4707× 1016 × 1.6 × 10−19 × (0.48 + 0.013)
P a g e 30 | 32
𝜎 = 1.160 × 10−3Ω-1m-1.
8. A patient with a pacemaker is mistakenly being scanned for an MRI image. A 10 cm

long section of pacemaker wire moves at a speed of 10 cm/s perpendicular to the MRI
unit’s magnetic field and a 20mV Hall voltage is induced. What is the magnetic field
strength?
Length of the path 𝑙 = 10 𝑐𝑚 = 0.1 𝑚, Velocity 𝑉 = 10𝑐𝑚/𝑠 = 0.1𝑚/𝑠
Induced voltage 𝑉 = 20 mV = 20 × 10−3 V
Induced Hall voltage 𝑉 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙
𝑉
𝐵=
𝑣𝑙
20 × 10−3
𝐵=
0.1 × 0.1
𝐵 = 2 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎
9. The Hall Co-efficient of a specimen of doped silicon is found to be3.66 ×10-4 m-3/C. The
resistivity of specimen is 8.93×10-3 Ωm. Find the mobility and density of charge
carriers.
3π 1
Charge carrier density ne = 8 eRH
3 X 3.14 1
ne = −19
8 1.6 X 10 X 3.66 X 10−4
ne = 2.0107 X 1022 /m3

σe 1
Electron mobility µe = µe =
ne e ρe ne e
1
µe =
8.93 X 10−3 X2.0107 X 1022 X 1.6 X 10−19
µe = 0.0348 m2 /Vs.
10. A silicon plate of thickness 1mm, breadth 10 mm and length 100 mm is placed in a
magnetic field of 0.5 Wb/m2 acting perpendicular to its thickness. If 10-2 A current flows
P a g e 31 | 32
along its length, calculate the Hall voltage developed, if the Hall coefficient is 3.66 × 10 4
m3/coulomb.
𝑅𝐻 𝐼𝐻 𝐵 3.66×10−4 ×10−2 ×0.5
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑉𝐻 = 1.83 × 10−3 Volts.
𝑡 1×10−3
P a g e 32 | 32
UNIT - IV OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Classification of optical materials – Optical processes in semiconductors: optical

absorption and emission, charge injection and recombination, optical absorption, loss and
gain. Optical processes in quantum wells – Optoelectronic devices: light detectors and solar
cells – light emitting diode – laser diode - optical processes in organic semiconductor
devices –excitonic state – Electro-optics and nonlinear optics: Modulators and switching
devices – plasmonics.
INTRODUCTION:
Engineering materials are important in everyday life because of their versatile structural properties.
Other than these properties, they do play an important role because of their physical properties. Prime
physical properties of materials include: electrical properties; thermal properties; magnetic properties
and optical properties. The optical properties of engineering materials are useful in different
applications. Ex.: domestic, medicine, astronomy, manufacturing.
Optical property of a material is defined as its interaction with electro-magnetic radiation in the
visible. Electromagnetic spectrum of radiation spans the wide range from γ-rays with wavelength as
10-12m, through x-rays, ultraviolet, visible, infrared, and finally radio waves with wavelengths as
along as 105m. Visible light is one form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from
0.39 to 0.77 μm. Light can be considered as having waves and consisting of particles called photons.
P a g e 1 | 27
MATERIAL – LIGHT INTERACTION
* Interaction of photons with the electronic or crystal structure of a material leads to a
number of phenomena.
* The photons may give their energy to the material (Absorption);
* Photons give their energy, but photons of identical energy are immediately emitted by the
material (Reflection);
* Photons may not interact with the material structure (Transmission); or during transmission
photons are changes in velocity (Refraction).
* At any instance of light interaction with a material, the total intensity of the incident light
striking a surface is equal to sum of the absorbed, reflected, and transmitted intensities i.e.
I0 = IA + IR + IT
CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL MATERIALS
Materials are classified on the basis of their interaction with visible light into three categories.
(1) Transparent Materials: Materials that are capable of transmitting light with relatively little
absorption and reflection are called transparent materials i.e. we can see through them.
Examples: Plain glass, clear water, etc.
(2) Translucent materials: Materials through which light is transmitted diffusely i.e. objects are not
clearly distinguishable when viewed through.
Examples: Butter paper, plastic covers, frosted glass, hydrogel and colloidal materials. Smoke,
fog and cloud can also be considered as translucent materials.
(3) Opaque Materials: Those materials that are impervious to the transmission of visible light are
termed as opaque materials. These materials absorb all the energy from the light photons.
Examples: Metals, wood, brick stone, etc.
OPTICAL PROCESSES IN SEMICONDUCTORS

When light is incident on a semiconductor, an electron in the valence band goes to the
conduction band. This process generates electron-hole pairs. It is also possible for an electron and a
hole to recombine and emit light.
The interaction between light and electron in the semiconductor provides a variety of
phenomena. These are used in the field of optoelectronics. The important optoelectronic interaction
P a g e 2 | 27
in semiconductors is the band-to-band transition. In the photon absorption process, a photon scatters
an electron in the valence band.
Thus, electron jumps to the conduction band and leaving a hole in the valence band. In the
reverse process the electrons in the conduction band recombines with a hole in the valence band to
generate a photon. These two processes are importance for light detection and light emission devices.
The rate of the light emission and absorption processes are determined by quantum mechanism.
OPTICAL ABSORPTION AND EMISSION OF LIGHT IN SEMICONDUCTORS

In semiconductors, light photons is absorbed in several ways. In intrinsic semiconductors such
as Si, Ge and GaAs, light photons is absorbed to create electron-hole pairs. This absorption causes
electrons to jump across the energy band gap from the valence band to the conduction band.
Absorption of Photons in Semiconductors
P a g e 3 | 27
This transition occurs i.e., the excitation of electron due to absorption can take place if the
photon energy is greater than that of the band gap 𝐸𝑔 , that is if ℎ𝜐 > 𝐸𝑔
Where h – Planck’s constant
𝜐 – Frequency of the light photon
ℎ𝑐
In terms of wavelength 𝜆 > 𝐸𝑔
𝜆
The maximum wavelength for visible light 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 is about 0.7 µm. therefore, the minimum band gap
energy 𝐸𝑔(min) for which there is absorption of visible light is given by
ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝑔(min) =
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥
Substituting the corresponding values, we have
−34 8
(6.62 x 10 ) (3 x 10 )
𝐸𝑔(min) =
0.7 𝑥 10−6
𝐸𝑔(min) = 2.84 𝑥 10−19 J
2.84 𝑥 10−19
𝐸𝑔(min) =
1.6 𝑥 10−19
𝐸𝑔(min) = 1.8 𝑒𝑉
The result indicates that all visible light is absorbed by those semiconductors having band gap
energies less than about 1.8 eV. Thus, these semiconductors are opaque.
In extrinsic semiconductors, the presence of acceptor and donor impurities creates new energy levels
namely acceptor level (p-type semiconductor) and donor level (n-type semiconductor). These
impurity levels lie within the band gap of the material.
Light radiation of specific wavelength may be absorbed as a result of electron transitions from or to
these impurity levels within the band gap.
CHARGE INJECTION AND RADIATIVE RECOMBINATION

Electrons and holes can be injected into the conduction and valence band in a number
of way. The light incident on the material and the absorption of photons creates electron-hole pairs.
We also use an external battery bias in a p-n diode also inject electrons and holes. The electrons and
holes will recombine with each other and the electron in the conduction band will return to the valence
band.
P a g e 4 | 27
This recombination process can be made in two processes. They are (i) radiative
processes and (ii) non-radiative processes. In the radiative process the electron-hole pair recombines
and a photon is emitted. This is the inverse of the photon absorption process.
Electron-hole pairs can also recombine without emitting light. Instead, they may emit
(i) heat or (ii) a phonon or (iii) a long-wavelength photon together with a phonon. Such processes are
non-radiative processes. As the electrons and holes are pumped into the semiconductor they
recombine through the process of spontaneous emission. This process does not require photons to be
present for the photon emission process to occur.
Types of carrier injections

(i) Minority Carrier Injection: If n >> p and the sample is heavily doped n-type,
recombination rate is proportional to hole density. Thus the recombination rate is
proportional to the minority carrier density.
(ii) Strong injection: this case is important when a high density of both electrons and holes is
injected. The rate of recombination rate is proportional to the majority charge carrier.
(iii) Weak injection: in this case, the rate of recombination is low.
(iv) At low injection, the electrons have a low probability to find a hole with which to
recombine.
CARRIER GENERATION AND RECOMBINATION PROCESSES
Carrier generation: The process by which free electrons and holes are generated in pair is called
generation of carriers. When electrons in a valence band get enough energy, then they will absorb this
energy and jumps into the conduction band. The electron which is jumped into a conduction band is
called free electron and the place from where electron left is called hole.
Types:
1. Photo generation: The generation of an
electron-hole pair, is triggered by a sufficiently
energetic photon which transfers its energy to a
P a g e 5 | 27
valence band electron which is excited to the conduction band leaving a hole behind.
2. Phonon generation: This occurs when a semiconductor is under thermal excitation. Due to
increase in temperature the lattice vibrations increases which causes the covalent bonds to break
and electron hole pairs are generated.
3. Impact ionization: a highly energetic carrier moves to the conduction or valence band,
depending on the carrier type, and the excess energy is used to excite an electron from the valence
band to the conduction band generating another electron hole pair
Carrier recombination: The process by which free electrons and the holes annihilate each other
is called recombination of carriers. When free electron in the conduction band falls in to a hole in the
valence band, then the free electron and hole gets recombined with the release of energy.
Types:
1. Radiative recombination: the process of electrons jumping
down from the conduction band to the valence band in a radiative
manner. During this recombination, the energy absorbed by a
material is released in the form of photons. Generally these
P a g e 6 | 27
photons contain the same or less energy than those initially absorbed.
2. Shockley-Read-hall recombination: the electron in transition between bands passes through a
new energy state (localized state) created within the band gap by a dopant or a defect in the crystal
lattice; such energy states are called traps. Non-radiative recombination occurs primarily at such
sites. The energy is exchanged in the form of lattice vibration, a phonon exchanging thermal energy
with the material.
3. Auger Recombination: In Auger recombination the energy is given to a third carrier which is
excited to a higher energy level without moving to another energy band. After the interaction, the
third carrier normally loses its excess energy to thermal vibrations.
OPTICAL ABSORPTION LOSS AND GAIN

Optical Gain
Optical gain in semiconductor lasers describes the optical amplification of the
semiconductor material which is due to the stimulate emission associated light emission created by
recombination of electrons and holes.
From the figure, we can see that due to recombination of electrons and holes, we get photons. Here,
we get two photons due to stimulate emission process. Hence there is increase in intensity. Since there
is increase in intensity it is called optical amplification (or) OPTICAL GAIN.
P a g e 7 | 27
Optical Absorption and Loss

Optical loss is due to light which could have generated an electron-hole pair but due to
absorption of light there is loss in intensity of light.
From the figure, we can see that a photon is absorbed by the electron in the valence band and hence
the electron goes to conduction band. Here, a photon is lost in the absorption process and hence the
intensity decreases. Since there is decrease in intensity of light, this phenomenon is known as
OPTICAL LOSS.
OPTICAL PROCESSES IN QUANTUM WELLS

The term “well” refers to a semiconductor region that is grown to possess a lower energy, so that it
acts as a trap for electrons and holes. These are called quantum wells because these semiconductor
regions are only a few atomic layers thick. Quantum wells are real-world implementation of the
“particle in one-dimensional box” problem.
Quantum sized effects
While dealing the electronic properties of bulk materials, the electron mean free path due to the
application of external field (or) de Broglie wavelength is much smaller than the sample dimensions.
Suppose the mean free path of the carriers are most comparable with the dimensions of the material,
quantum sized effects becomes important, which dominates the electronic properties of material.
Quantum well structures are made by fusing the two semiconductors (of different band gap energies
and of thickness comparable to the electron mean free path) together.
The basic properties of a quantum well is understood from the simple ‘particle in a box’ model. In
quantum well an isolated thin semiconductor sheet of thickness L is considered as length of the box.
Solving the Schrodinger equation and applying boundary conditions result in the following quantized
energies for charge carrier.
𝑛2 ℎ 2 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐸𝑛 = 𝜓𝑛 = √ sin ( )
8𝑚𝐿2 𝐿 𝐿
Where
n = 1,2,…… quantum numbers
h – Planck’s constant
m – Mass of charge carrier (electron or hole)
P a g e 8 | 27
OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES
LIGHT DETECTORS
Light detectors are the devices which convert the light signal into electrical signals. The two
important types of light detectors used in optical communication system are
 p-i-n Photo diode
 Avalanche Photo diode
PIN PHOTODIODE
Principle: Under reverse bias when light is made to fall on the neutral (or) intrinsic region electron
hole pairs are generated. These electrons and holes are generated by the external electric field which
results in photocurrent. Thus light is converted into electrical signal.
Construction
It consist of 3 regions – p type, intrinsic and n type. The p
and n regions are made up of Si, Ge and their alloys and are
heavily doped. The intrinsic layer is a neutral layer and it is
lightly doped with p or n- type material. The intrinsic layer
is made as large as possible in order to have large light
absorption. Since the p-n region is separated by an intrinsic
region it is called as positive – intrinsic-negative (p-i-n)
photo diode.
Working
The pin photo diode is applied with high reverse bias voltage. Since the intrinsic region contains very
less mobile charge carriers, the width of the depletion region is increased. When photon of energy
equal to or greater than the bandgap of the material is incident on the intrinsic region, the electron
hole pairs are created due to photon absorption. The mobile charge carriers are accelerated to high
voltages, which gives rise to photo current in the photo diode. This photodiode acts as a linear device
since the photocurrent is directly proportional to the optical power incident on it.
AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE
This works under avalanche mechanism. The creation of shower of electron hole pairs from a single
electron hole pair by collision process.
P a g e 9 | 27
Principle: Under reverse bias when light is made to fall on the neutral (or) intrinsic region electron
hole pairs are generated. By avalanche effect more
amount of electron hole pairs are created which
results in large photo current than that of PIN
photodiode. Thus light is converted into electrical
signal.
Construction
It consists of 4 layers. The Layer 1 consists of a
heavily doped n-region, denoted by n+. The Layer
2 is made up of P-region and Layer 4 is heavily
doped p-region denoted by p+. Layer 3 is intrinsic region lightly doped with p-material.
Working
Before light is incident on the diode, a reverse bias voltage is applied. At a certain voltage the
depletion region widens. Since both i and p are lightly doped the intrinsic region widen up – depleted
mode. When light is allowed to fall on the diode light is absorbed by the intrinsic region and hence
called as collection region. This creates the electron hole pairs in the intrinsic region.
When the biasing voltage is increased the electrons moves from the intrinsic region to p layer and
then to n layer. Here the electrons collide with the valence electrons and releases more number of
free (or) conduction electrons and hence avalanche effect is produced.
Therefore, one generated photoelectron releases / liberates 1000’s of free electrons by avalanche
effect and in turn increases the output current enormously. Since large current is produced even when
a single photon incidents on the diode, these diodes are termed as highly sensitive detectors.
SOLAR CELL
Principle: A solar cell is a basically a large area photo-diode which converts sunlight (solar energy)
directly into electricity (electrical energy), with larger efficiency, of photon absorption.
P a g e 10 | 27
Construction: A solar cell is made up of a heavily doped ‘p’ and ‘n’ type materials grown over the
substrate with larger exposure area for the sunlight to pass through it. The upper surface of the cell is
made of the thin layer of the p-type material so that the light can easily enter into the material. The
metal rings are placed around p-type and n-type material which acts as their positive and negative
output terminals respectively. The ‘p’ and ‘n’ type material is connected to the load resistance R L
through the Ohmic contacts.
Working:
1. The solar cell is exposed to the light without load resistance (RL)
and the photons are allowed to fall on the ‘p’ and ‘n’ type
materials.
The photons collide with the valence electrons and eject it out
from the parent atoms, thus electron-hole pairs are generated.
2. The electrons and holes are quickly diffuses and reaches the
depeletion region.
3. Now, due to strong barrier field, the electrons (minority charge
carrier) from ‘p’ type moves towards the ‘n’ side and similarily holes
from ‘n’ type moves towards the ‘p’ side.
4. As the p-n junction diode is open circuited, the electrons and holes are
accumulated on either side of the junction, which gives rise to a open-
circuit voltage(V0).
5. Now if a load resistance RL is connected across the diode, then a
reverse current IR flows through the circuit.
6. Here the magnitude of the current generated in the solar cell is
proportional to the intensity of light falling on it.
Merits:
 The energy used by the solar cell is a renewable energy source.
 The cells are eco-friendly and saves electricity charges.
 Pollution free device.
 High efficiency.
 Long life time and durability.
P a g e 11 | 27
Demerits:
 Investment / installation cost is high.
 Device s cannot work under winter / rainy seasons.
 Solar panels occupy more space during installation.
 The electrical energy generated should always be converted from DC to AC which is
practically difficult.
Applications
 Solar cells are used in the production of electricity to our daily needs.
 Solar cells also provide electricity which may be used for commercial purposes.
 They are used in artificial satellites and in space probes.
 Solar panels are used in calculators, watches, street lights, toys, etc.
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

A light Emitting Diode (LED) is an optical semiconductor device that emits light when voltage is
applied. In other words, LED is an optical semiconductor device that converts electrical energy into
light energy.
Principle: A light Emitting Diode (LED) is an optical semiconductor device that emits light
when voltage is applied. In other words, LED is an optical semiconductor device that converts
electrical energy into light energy.
Construction:
The p-n junction is formed by
diffusion or epitaxial techniques. The
pn junction is made by doping silicon
with GaAs crystal. Since silicon can
act both as donor (when it replaces
Gallium) and acceptor (when it
replaces arsenide) if it is used as the
impurity atom or dopant. Therefore a shallow p-n junction is formed on Ga As substrate such that p-
layer is formed by diffusion on n-layer.
In order to increase the probability of radiative recombination, the thickness of the ‘n’ layer is taken
P a g e 12 | 27
higher than that of the thickness of the ‘p’ layer.
Ohmic contacts are made with the help of aluminium in such a way that top layer of the ‘p’ material
is left uncovered, for the emission of light. Proper biasing can be applied at the Ohmic contacts. The
whole p-n junction is surrounded by plastic material so that the losses due to reflection can be
minimized.
Working: Light Emitting Diode (LED) works only in forward bias condition. When Light Emitting
Diode (LED) is forward biased, the free electrons from n-side and the holes from p-side are pushed
towards the junction. When free electrons reach the junction or depletion region, some of the free
electrons recombine with the holes in the positive ions. Thus, free electrons recombine with holes in
the depletion region. In the similar way, holes from p-side recombine with electrons in the depletion
region. Because of the recombination of free electrons and holes in the depletion region, the width of
depletion region decreases. As a result, more charge carriers will cross the p-n junction. Some of the
charge carriers from p-side and n-side will cross the p-n junction before they recombine in the
depletion region. Thus, recombination takes place in depletion region as well as in p-type and n-type
semiconductor. The free electrons in the conduction band releases energy in the form of light before
they recombine with holes in the valence band.
Advantages of LED
 Light emitting diodes consume low energy.
 LEDs are very cheap and readily available.
 LEDs are light in weight.
 Smaller size.
 LEDs have longer lifetime.
 LEDs operates very fast. They can be turned on and off in very less time.
P a g e 13 | 27
Disadvantages of LED
 LEDs need more power to operate than normal p-n junction diodes.
 Luminous efficiency of LEDs is low.
DOME SHAPED LED

In the planar LED, the reflection loss is more because most of the emitted light strikes the material
interface at an angle greater than the critical angle. Therefore they are totally internally reflected and
will not come out of the interface. Thus the light is lost. This loss of light due to internal reflection
can be minimized by two ways.
(i) By making the ‘p’ material in the shape of a hemispherical dome. The angle at which the light
strikes the interface can be made less than the critical angle and hence the light will not be
lost by total internal reflection.
(ii) By covering the p-n junction by a plastic medium of higher refractive index in the shape of
hemispherical dome. The total internal reflection can be reduced. This LED is used for
commercial purpose. Hence, usually the dome shaped hemispherical LED is preferred than
planar LED
LASER DIODE
Definition: If the p-n junction is formed with different semiconducting materials, then it is called as
hetero-junction laser. Ex: hetero-junction laser can be formed between GaAs and GaAlAs.
Principle: When the p-n junction diode is forward biased, the electrons from n-region and the holes
from p-region cross the junction and recombine with each other. During the recombination process,
the light radiation (photons) is released. This light radiation is known as recombination radiation. The
P a g e 14 | 27
photons emitted during recombination stimulate other electrons and holes to recombine. As a result,
stimulated emission takes place which produces laser.
Construction:
This laser consists of five layers as
shown in figure. A layer of Ga-As P-type (3rd
layer) will act as the active region. This layer is
sandwiched between the two layers having
wider band gap. i.e., GaAlAs p-type (2nd layer)
and GaAlAs n-type (4th layer). Electric current
applied to the crystal through the electrodes
which are fixed on the top and bottom layer.
The end faces of the 3rd and 4th layers are well
polished and made parallel to each other. They act as an optical resonator.
Working: Figure shows the energy level diagram of hetero-junction semiconductor laser. When the
p-n junction is forward biased, the electrons and holes are injected towards the junction region. So,
the size of junction region decreases. Also, the region around the junction contains large number of
electrons in the n-region and large number of holes in the p-region. So, population inversion is
achieved because, n-region has large number of electrons.
When the forward bias is increased, the electrons and holes will cross the junction and they
recombine with each other. i.e., if one electron meets a hole, they will recombine with each other and
due to this recombination one photon is emitted. The emitted photon will stimulate other electrons
and holes to recombine. Hence, large number of recombination takes place. Thus, we get large
number of photons and they
travel back and forth
between end faces and
reflected. So, the photons
grow in strength. After
enough strength is attained
the device emits laser beam
of wavelength 8000 A0.
P a g e 15 | 27
Advantages
1. It produces continuous wave output.
2. The Power output is very high.
3. It has high directionality and high coherence.
4. It has low threshold current density compared to homojunction laser.
5. These diodes are highly stable and has longer lifetime.
Disadvantages
1. It is very difficult to from different layers of p-n junction.
2. The cost of this laser is very high.
Applications
1. This type of laser mostly used in optical communications.
2. It is widely used in computers, especially on CD-ROMs.
OPTICAL PROCESS IN ORGANIC SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES –

ORGANIC LED [OLED]
Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) is a new type of electronic device which emits light,
consuming very less energy. It overcome the drawback of LCD, in which we suffer from poor viewing
angle. Organic LED are generally made up of many layers with organic molecules of different
conductivity levels, ranging from insulators to conductors.
Principle: An electron moves from the cathode to emissive layer and the holes moves from the anode
to the conductive layer and they recombine to produce photons. This is the principle used to emit light
in OLED.
Construction
The 2-layer OLED consists of a cathode and an anode, in
between which we have two organic layers.
1. Emissive layer
2. Conductive layer, made up of different
conductivities.
All the layers are grown over a transparent substrate,
through which the light has to be emitted. Necessary
P a g e 16 | 27
biasing is given for the OLED, in such a way that the anode is given positive and the cathode is given
negative.
Working
 Voltage is applied across the OLED.
 Due to applied voltage, the cathode gives electrons to the emissive layer.
 The anode withdraws an electron from the conductive layer and produces a hole in the conductive
layer.
 Soon the emissive layer is rich in negatively charged electrons and conductive layer is rich in
positively charged holes.
 Now due to the electrostatic forces these electrons and holes, they come closer and recombine with
each other.
 The recombination of electrons and holes occurs in the emissive layer and this produces light and
it is emitted through the transparent substrate.
Advantages of LED
 OLED is very thin and more flexible.
 They are light in weight and small in size.
 Light emission is brighter than normal LED’s
 The conductive and emissive layers can be increased to increase the efficiency of OLED.
 OLEd’s don’t require backlighting like LCD’s.
 They have large field of view[about 170]
Disadvantages of LED
 Cost of manufacturing is very high.
 OLED’s can be easily damaged when water falls on it.
 Blue OLED have less life time, when compared to red OLED.
 Maintenance cost also increases due to different life time.
Applications
1. OLEd’s are widely used in cell phones, digital cameras, etc.
2. They are also used in TV screens, computer monitors.
3. They are nowadays used in automotive dash boards and backlight in cars.
P a g e 17 | 27
4. OLED’s are used in flexible display boards, for displaying video’s in real time.
5. In future, newspapers also may have OLED displays to refresh us with the latest or breaking
news.
EXCITONIC STATE
When photons of energy less than the energy gap is made to fall on some crystals the electrons from
valence band will not go to conduction band exactly,
instead they will go to a level below the conduction
band level called excitons bands.
The bound electron-hole pairs are called excitons,
normally these exciton energy levels lies in the
bandgap, very near to the conduction band. The
excitons arise due to the pair formed by the electrons
in the exciton energy level and associated holes in
the valence band.
Types:
i) Weakly bound excitons
ii) Tightly bound excitons
Weakly bound exciton: In this exciton the electron hole interparticle distance is larger than
lattice constant [r > a].
Example: Cu2O has weakly bound excitons.
Weakly bound Exciton Tightly bound Exciton
P a g e 18 | 27
Tightly bound exciton: In this exciton the electron hole interparticle distance is less than the
atomic radius [a > r]. This type of exciton, is localized on (or) near a single atom, i.e., the hole will
also exist in the same atom as that of an electron, although the pair may be anywhere in the crystal.
Example: Alkali halide crystals such as NaCl, KBr etc. has tightly bound excitons.
NON LINEAR OPTICS
Optical properties of the materials are unaffected when an ordinary light is propagated through it. But
it has to be noted that the optical properties of the materials (such as refractive index) may be affected
when light of high intensity (laser beam) is allowed to pass through it.
The change in optical properties due to electric and magnetic field associated with light is
called nonlinear effects and those materials which possess these effects are called non-linear
materials. This phenomenon is termed as non-linear optics.
Examples:
(i) Ammonium- dihydrophosphate (ADO)

(ii) Potassium – dyhydrophosphate (KDP)
(iii) Lithium iodate (LiO3)
(iv) Lithium tantalite
(v) Barium sodium niobate
In ordinary light the electric and magnetic field associated with it is so weak and hence we could not
identify non – linear effects in it. But in LASER beam we can easily identify non- linear effects,
because of the strong electric and magnetic field associated with it.
When magnetic field is applied along the axis of propagation of light beam to a glass medium, the
plane of polarization of light beam is rotated. This is called Faraday Effect. Similarly, when electric
field is applied along the direction of propagation of light, then the light will undergo double refraction,
this is called Kerr Effect. Faraday and Kerr effect confirmed that both electrical and magnetic field
will change the optical properties of a medium.
P a g e 19 | 27
SECOND HARMONIC GENERATION
Definition: Second harmonic generation represents the generation of new frequencies with the help of
the crystals such as quartz, potassium- dihydrophosphate (KDP), etc.
Explanation
Let us consider a material media in which the light is passed through it. We know that light consists
of both electric and magnetic fields associated with it. These electric field associated with the light
will distort the atoms and molecules in the material to form oscillating dipoles.
The induced electric dipole is due to the displacement of electron cloud with respect to the centre of
the positive nucleus of an atom. This phenomenon is called electric polarization (P).
Relation between P and E for ordinary light (linear medium)

When light of low intensity (i.e. ., ordinary light) is passed through dielectric medium (i.e., glass), the
electric field has smaller amplitude and the oscillation of dipoles can follow the field exactly.
Hence the relation between the electric field E and polarization vector P can be written as,
P= ε0 χ0 E
Where,
χ0 – Electric field susceptibility
ε0- Permittivity of the medium
Relation between P and E for LASER beam (Non –Linear Medium)
When light of higher intensity (i.e. laser) is passed through dielectric medium, the electric field has
larger amplitude and the oscillation of dipoles are distorted. Therefore, some nonlinear is observed
between P and E and hence the second harmonic generator is observed.
Thus, the polarization vector can be written as,
P= ε0 ( χ0E+ χ1E2 + χ2E3 + χ3E4 +……) …………. (1)
Where,
χ0 – Linear susceptibility
χ1, χ2, χ3 - Non linear (higher order) susceptibility

P a g e 20 | 27
The higher order nonlinear susceptibility are very small when compared to linear susceptibilities.
But the higher order susceptibility produces so many new optical phenomena.
We know the oscillating electric field on a medium is,
E = E0 cos ωt …………….. (2)
Substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we get
P= ε0 χ0 E0cos ωt + ε0 χ1 E2cos2 ωt + ε0 χ2 E3cos3 ωt + …….
1  cos 2t cos3t  3 cost

We know cos2ωt = , cos3 ωt =
2 4
1  cos 2t cos3t  3 cost

.. . P = ε0 χ0 E0cos ωt + ε0 χ1 E 2 + ε0 χ2 E3
2 4
P= ε0 χ0 E0cos ωt + ε0 χ1 E 2 + ε0 χ1 E 2 cos2ωt + ε0 χ2 E 3 cos3ωt + 3 ε0 χ2 E 3 cos3ωt
2 2 4 4
Rearranging we get,
P= ½ ε0 χ1 E 2 + ε0 E0cos ωt χ0 + ¾ χ 2 E2
I II
+ ½ ε0 χ1 E 2 cos2ωt + ¼ ε0 χ2 E 3 cos3ωt ………(3)
III
Referring equation (3), the first term represents the dc field across the medium which has less
importance (since it doesn’t have cos ωt term). The second term represent the external polarization
which is called as first (or) fundamental harmonic susceptibility (since it has cos ωt), third term
represents the oscillation dipoles, which oscillates at a frequency 2ω and hence called second harmonic
of polarization. The forth term which has cos 3ωt is called the third harmonic of polarization etc.
When the first term and the third term is added we can get the term called optical rectification.
P a g e 21 | 27
Experimental evidence
The observation of second harmonic generation by quartz slab is illustrated in fig.
A high power ruby laser (of wavelength 6943 Å) is passed through a filter, which filters the red light
and allows the ultraviolet light to the quartz slab. The emerging light from the quartz slab is made to
pass through a UV transmission filter, which filters unwanted light and allows the ultraviolet light
alone to pass through the photo cell. In this experiment, due to second harmonic generation, the
wavelength of the incident beam is made half and hence the wave length of emerging beam is recorded
as 3471 Å.
IMPORTANT NONLINEAR MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
Important non-linear optical materials are,
1. Lithium niobate
2. Lithium tantalite
3. Barium sodium niobate
Lithium niobate (LiNbO3)

1. It is a synthetic ferroelectric material.
2. It has highest Curie temperature i.e., 1210 0 C.
3. It has high electric polarizability and low loss optical transmission.
4. It exhibits linear electro-optic effect due to the lack of an inversion centre in the structure.
5. At high temperatures it becomes electrically conductive.
6. It has multi domain structures.

P a g e 22 | 27
7. Polarization is inversely proportional to the temperature.
8. Refractive index of this material may be changed by passing laser beam of even short
wavelength. This property is called optical damage (or) photo refractive effect.
Lithium Tanalate (LiTaO3 )

2. Its curie temperature is 6600C and melting point is 16500 C.
3. It has low temperature coefficient of resistance.
4. The domain size is much smaller than lithium niobate domains. Also, the domains are
antiparallel polar domains.
5. LiTaO3 and LiNbO3 has applications of combining higher coupling factors and lower
mechanical impedance values.
Barium sodium Niobate (Ba2NaNb5015)

2. Its curie temperature is 5600C and melting point is 1500oC.
3. Phase transition takes place between the room temperature and Curie temperature.
APPLICATIONS OF NON – LINEAR MATERIALS

1. Optical grating: LiNbO3 acts as an optical grating and second harmonic generator. Optical grating
impose a periodic variation in the amplitude so that refractive index varies periodically and hence
acts as a grating. The second harmonic generation is achieved in uniaxial crystal (like calcite and
quartz)
2. Optical amplifier: Fiber losses can be completely eliminated by erbium doped silica fiber. Erbium
doped silica fiber acts as laser amplifier or optical amplifier.
3. Optical modulation and switching: Electro-optic wave guide switching fabricated by LiNbO3 is
used for direct switching of the optical signals. The electro – optic coefficient of LiNbO3 is very
high and hence the crystals can be grown with good optical quality. Therefore, wave guides can
be fabricated by titanium diffusion into the LiNbO3 substrate. The refractive index of LiNbO3 is
increased by the addition of titanium. Hence light is guided in the diffused region.
4. Optical frequency doublers: Due to high electric polarizability and low loss optical transmission,
lithium niobate, lithium tantalite and Barium sodium niobate are used in electro-optic modulators
and optical frequency doublers.
P a g e 23 | 27
5. Delay lines and memories: Delay line is a device which can delay the signals by converting
electrical signals into slowly moving surface acoustic wave by means of a transducer. This may
be reconverted into electrical signals by means of other transducer.
6. Frequency filters: These materials are used in signal processors, which prevent the unwanted
signals from the base signal entering into the signal processor.
PLASMONICS
Plasmonics (or) nano plasmonics is a very dynamic field, which refers to the generation, detection
and manipulation of signals at the range of optical frequencies along a metal-dielectric interfaces in
a nano-metre scale.
Principle: the principle used in plasmonics is “Surface Plasmon Polaritons”. The study of plasmons
is called plasmonics. Here plasmons refer to the quantum of collective oscillations of metal’s free
electrons (or plasma) in response to the electric field component of electro-magnetic wave excitation.
Explanation: in metals, there are discrete number of oscillating electrons. Just like optical and phonon
oscillations that include photons and mechanical vibrations respectively, here we can see quantum of
plasma oscillations.
Plasma is a matter full of positive and negative charges that is almost neutral. In the case of plasmonics
in which metal structures are used, we encounter with a sea of negative mobile charges inside fixed
positive ions. Here, energy loss in some kind of Ohmic loss or electron-core interactions (due to
resistance or damping) is inevitable.
Therefore, when an excitation occurs, the electrons will move (oscillate) due to the implemented
electric field, until the total field would be cancelled. Definitely, inside metal there are infinite free
electrons so we can expect the decreasing of oscillation as depth increases.
On metal’s surface the neighboring electrons will make each other to oscillate; therefore, after
excitation some waves will appear that are longitudinal and damping, so called Surface Polariton
Plasmons (SPPs). These waves are characterized by excitation’s frequency and metal’s structure and
hence these waves are termal as plasmonics waves.
PLASMONIC MATERIALS
1. Metals (or) metal-like materials that exhibit negative real permittivity are used as plasmonic
materials.
2. Plasmonics gold and silver nano-particles which have unique optical, electrical and thermal
properties are termed as plasmonic materials.
P a g e 24 | 27
APPLICATIONS
1. Plasmonic materials are used in antimicrobial coatings.
2. They are also used in molecular diagnostics.
3. Plasmonic techniques are widely used in color engineering.
4. Plasmonics are used in research areas such as food sciences, environmental sciences, biological
sciences, physical sciences, etc.
PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the wavelength of radiation emitted by an LED made up of a semiconducting

material with band gap energy 2.8 eV.
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝑔 = 𝜆=
𝜆 𝐸𝑔
6.625 𝑥 10−34 𝑥 3 𝑥108
𝜆=
2.8 𝑥 1.6 𝑥 10−19
𝜆 = 4436 Å
2. For InP laser diode, the wavelength of light emission is 1.55 µm. what is its band gap in eV?
ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝑔 =
𝜆
6.625 𝑥 10−34 𝑥 3 𝑥108
𝐸𝑔 =
1.55 𝑥 10−6
𝐸𝑔 = 1.28225 𝑥 10−19 Joules
1.28225 𝑥 10−19
𝐸𝑔 =
1.6 𝑥 10−19
𝐸𝑔 = 0.8014 𝑒𝑉
3. Calculate the long wavelength limit of an extrinsic semiconductor if the ionization energy is
0.02 eV.
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜐 =
𝜆
ℎ𝑐 6.625 𝑥 10−34 𝑥 3 𝑥108
𝜆𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 = =
𝐸 0.02 𝑥 1.6 𝑥 10−19
𝜆𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 = 6.210 𝑥 10−5 𝑚
P a g e 25 | 27
4. Calculate the number of photons from green light of mercury ( =4961 x 10-10m) requires
to do one joule of work.
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜐 =
𝜆
6.625 𝑥 10−34 𝑥 3 𝑥108

𝐸=
4961 𝑥 10−10
𝐸 = 3.991 𝑥 10−19 Joules
Number of photons required to do one Joule of work
1 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑁=
3.991 𝑥 10−19 Joules
𝑁 = 2.5055 𝑥 1018 / 𝑚3
P a g e 26 | 27
P a g e 27 | 27
UNIT 5 – NANODEVICES
Quantum confinement – Quantum structures – quantum wells, wires and dots –

Zener-Bloch oscillations – Resonant tunneling – quantum interference effects -
mesoscopic structures - Single electron phenomena – Single electron Transistor.
Semiconductor photonic structures – 1D, 2D and 3D photonic crystal. Active and
passive optoelectronic devices – photo processes – Spintronics – carbon nanotubes:
Properties and applications.
INTRODUCTION
Nanotechnology is a broad term used when referring to any science or technology which
manipulates things in the atomic level, which is measured in nanometres. It is used in a number of
fields, such as biology, medicine, computers, materials, manufacturing, physics and several others.
Nanophase materials are materials with a grain size in the 1 to 100 nm range as shown in Fig5.7.A
nanometre is one-billionth of a metre - approximately 100,000 times smaller than the diameter of
a human hair. For example, the width of human hair is approximately 80,000 nanometres, and
human fingernails grow roughly one nanometre per second. A nanometre-sized particle is also
smaller than a living cell and can be seen only with the most powerful microscopes available today.
These materials have created a high interest in recent years by virtue of their unusual
Mechanical, electrical, optical and magnetic properties. Some examples are given below:
I. Nanophase ceramics are of particular interest because they are more ductile at elevated
temperatures as compared to the coarse-grained ceramics.
II. Nanostructured semiconductors are known to show various non-linear optical properties.
They are used as window layers in solar cells.
III. Nanosized metallic powders have been used for the production of gas tight materials and
porous coatings. Cold welding properties combined with the ductility make them suitable
for metal-metal bonding especially in the electronic industry.
IV. Single nanosized magnetic particles have special atomic structures with discrete electronic
states, which give rise to special properties in addition to the super paramagnetism
behavior.
V. Nanostructured metal clusters have a special impact in catalytic applications.
P a g e 1 | 27
Thus nanophase materials exhibit greatly altered mechanical, optical, electrical, magnetic,
chemical and physical properties compared to their normal, large-grained counterparts with the
same chemical composition.
SIZE DEPENDENCE OF FERMI ENERGY

In terms of distribution of energy, solids have thick energy bands, whereas atoms have thin,
discrete energy states.
𝜋 8𝑚 3⁄2
The electron density in a conductor at T = 0k is 𝑛= [ ℎ2 ] 𝐸𝐹 0 3⁄2 ------------(1)
3
ℎ2 3𝑛 2⁄3
Fermi energy of a conductor at T = 0K is 𝐸𝐹 0 = [𝜋] ------------(2)
8𝑚
In the above equation ‘n’ is the only variable. The fermi energy depends on the number of free
𝑁 2⁄3
electrons 'n' per unit volume 'V’. 𝐸𝐹 0 ∝ (𝑛)2⁄3 ∝ (𝑉 )
Electron density is the property of the material, the fermi energy does not vary with
material's size. Femi energy is same for a particle of copper as it is for a brick of copper.
Hence, we can say that the energy states will have same range for small volume and large
volume of atoms. But for small volume of atoms we get larger spacing between the energy states.
The average spacing between the energy states is inversely proportional to the volume of
1
the solid. ∆𝐸 ∝ 𝑉
Thus the spacing between energy states is inversely proportional to the volume of the
solid.
P a g e 2 | 27
QUANTUM CONFINEMENT
The quantum confinement effect is observed when the size of the particle is too small to be
comparable to the wavelength of the electron.
To understand this effect we break the words like quantum and confinement. The word
confinement means to confine the motion of randomly moving electron to restrict its motion in
specific energy levels (discreteness). Quantum reflects the atomic dimensions of particles. So as
the size of a particle decrease till it reach a nano scale the decrease in
confining dimension makes the energy levels discrete and this increases or
widens up the band gap and ultimately the band gap energy also increases.
Due to this, there is significant change in the electronic and optical
materials of nano-dimensions as compared to the bulk materials.
QUANTUM STRUCTURES
When a bulk material is reduced in its size, atleast one of its dimensions, in the order of few
nanometers, then the structure is known as quantum structure. A quantum confined structure is
one in which the motion of the electrons or holes are confined in one or more directions by an
potential barrier.
Based on the confinement direction, a quantum confined structure will be classified into
three categories as quantum well, quantum wire and quantum dot.
Structure Quantum Confinement Number of dimensions confined

Bulk 0 3
Quantum well 1 2
Quantum wire 2 1
Quantum dot 3 0
Three dimensional (3D) structure or bulk structure: No quantization of the particle motion
occurs i.e., the particle is free. Electron in conduction band and holes in valence band are free to
move in all three dimensions of space. E.g. cube
P a g e 3 | 27
Two-dimensional (2D) structure or quantum well: Quantum confinement in nanostructure-If
one dimension is confined or reduced to the nanometre ranges while other
two dimensions remain large then we get a structure called quantum well.
Electrons confined in one direction. Electrons can easily move in 2
dimensions E.g. nano wire s, nano rod, nanotube.
One-dimensional (1D) structure or quantum wire: If two dimensions are reduced in to the
nanometre range and remain large the structure to as a quantum wire. Eg.
nanoseed (Graphene). The semiconductor wires surrounded by a material
with large band gap .Surrounding material confines electron and hole in
two dimensions (carriers can only move in one dimensions) due its larger
bandgap. Radius of quantum wires, nano rods and nano tube, nano pillars
(1D structures) 1-100 nm range (Typical nano scale dimension)
Zero-dimensional (0D) structure or quantum dot: The extreme case of this process of size
reduction in which all three dimensions reach the low nanometer range is
called quantum dot. Eg. Nano dot. Electron confined in three dimensions
Quantum dot: electron can easily moves in zero dimensions.
Electron and holes are confined in all the three dimensions of space by a
surrounding material with a larger band gap. Discrete energy levels (artificial atoms) No quantum
dots has a larger band gap like bulk semiconductor. Typical dimensions: 1-10 nm
P a g e 4 | 27
BAND GAP ON NANOMATERIALS
 Very few atoms in a material not only causes the energy states to spread out but also widens
the band gap for semiconductors and insulators.
 When energy stares are discrete, the addition or removal of just a few atoms adjust the
boundaries of the band gap. This is because once two atoms are next to each other, the
sublevels split and then begin to broaden into bands.
 The broader the bands get, the smaller the band gaps between them get. Finally, the bands
reach a point where they will not get any wider no matter how many atoms are they in the
solid.
 In case of quantum dots, the smaller the particle, and the bigger the band gap.
 Once the volume is reduced from that of a solid, which has bands for sublevels, to that of
a nanomaterial, which has distict splits in each sublevel, the band gap will widen if only a
few atoms are removed.
 Thus changes in band gap allows us to tune the electronic and optical characteristics of the
material.
 Thus when material band gap energy changes there is a change in the electromagnetic
radiation it emits. This phenomenon is especially used in optical applications.
P a g e 5 | 27
ZENER BLOCH OSCILLATIONS
Definition: It denotes the oscillation of a particle confined in a periodic potential when a constant
force is acting on it.
This was pointed out by Zener and Bloch while studying the electrical properties of crystals. In
particular, they predicted that the motion of electrons under the action of a constant electrical field
is oscillatory instead of uniform. While in natural crystal this phenomenon is hard to observe due
to scattering of electrons by the presence of lattice defects. Zener-Bloch oscillations is observed in
semiconductor super lattices and in different physical systems such as cold atoms in an optical
potential and ultrasmall Josephson junctions.
DERIVATION
Consider the 1-dimensional equation of motion for an electron in an constant electric field E.
𝑑𝑃
𝐹= = −𝑒𝐸 --------(1)
𝑑𝑡
ℎ
From de-Broglie concept the momentum is given by 𝑝 = 𝜆
ℎ 2𝜋
𝑝= 𝑥
2𝜋 𝜆
𝑝 = ℏ𝑘 ---------(2)
2𝜋 ℎ
Here, 𝑘 = is a wave vector and ℏ = 2𝜋
𝜆
𝑑
Substituting eqn (2) in (1) (ℏ 𝑘) = −𝑒𝐸
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑘
ℏ 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑒𝐸
𝑑𝑘 −𝑒𝐸
= ---------(3)
𝑑𝑡 ℏ
On integration of equation (3) with function of time is
𝑒𝐸
𝑘(𝑡) = 𝑘(0) −
ℏ
1 𝑑ℇ
The velocity v of an electron is given by 𝑣 (𝑘) =
ℏ 𝑑𝑘
Where ℇ(𝑘) denotes the energy band. Suppose that the energy band has the tight-binding form
ℇ(𝑘) = 𝐴 cos 𝑎𝑘
Where a is lattice parameter and A is constant
1 𝑑ℇ 𝐴𝑎
Then 𝑣(𝑘) is given by 𝑣(𝑘) = =− sin 𝑎𝑘
ℏ 𝑑𝑘 ℏ
P a g e 6 | 27
𝑡
The electron position x is given by 𝑥(𝑡) = ∫0 𝑣(𝑘(𝑡))𝑑𝑡
𝑡
𝐴𝑎
𝑥(𝑡) = ∫ − sin 𝑎𝑘 𝑑𝑡
0 ℏ
𝑡 𝐴𝑎 𝑒𝐸
𝑥(𝑡) = ∫0 − ℏ sin 𝑎 [𝑘(0) − ] 𝑑𝑡
ℏ
𝐴 𝑎𝑒𝐸
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(0) − 𝑒𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [ ]𝑡
ℏ
This shows that the electron oscillates in real space. The angular frequency of the oscillation is
𝑎𝑒𝐸
given by 𝜔𝐵 =
ℏ
RESONANT TUNNELING
An interesting phenomenon occurs when two barriers of width a separated by a potential well of
small distance L. This leads to the concept of resonant tunneling.
The barriers are sufficiently thin to allow tunneling and the well region between the two barriers
is also sufficiently narrow to form discrete energy levels.
The analysis of the double barrier structure is essentially the same as considered as single barrier
tunneling.
The transmission coefficient of the double symmetric barrier becomes unity, when the energy of
the incoming electron wave (E) coincides with the energy of one of the discrete states formed by
𝑛2 ℎ 2
the well. 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛 =
8𝑚𝐿2
Thus, transmission probability of the double symmetric barrier is maximum and hence, the
tunneling current reaches peak value when energy of electron wave is equal to quantized
energy state of the well. This phenomenon is known as resonance tunneling.
P a g e 7 | 27
The double barrier tunnel junction has important applications to a device known as a resonant
tunneling diode. The working of these diodes can be understood by considering the influence of
bias on the energy band diagram for the double barrier system.
When incident electron of energy E is very different from the energy of a discrete state En,
transmission is low. As E tends to En, transmission will increase, becoming a maximum when E =
En. As E increases, tunnelling will increase,
reaching a peak when E = E1. After a point, a
further increase in E will result in a decreasing
current. This decrease in current with an
increase of bias is called negative resistance.
Further, peaks and valleys will occur as E
approaches, and then moves across, other
discrete energy states.
MESOSCOPIC STRUCTURES
The term ‘mesoscopic’ refers to ‘intermediate’ between long and short, and applies to
microstructures to be seen in between the atomic and the macroscopic length scales.
Definition: The structure which have a size between the macroscopic world and the microscopic
or atomic one are called mesoscopic structure.
The electrons behave like a wave. Their behavior is dependent on the geometry of the sample. For
the description of behavior of electrons it is convenient to define a series of characteristic length.
P a g e 8 | 27
CHARACTERISTICS LENGTH IN MESOSCOPIC SYSTEMS
1. de-Broglie wavelength:
It is well known from quantum mechanics that for an electron of momentum p, there corresponds
a wave of wavelength given by the de-Broglie wavelength.
ℎ ℎ
𝜆𝐵 = =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
It is relatively easy to construct semiconductor nanostructures with one or two of their dimensions
of the order of, or smaller than𝜆𝐵 .
2. Mean free path:
As electron moves inside a solid, it is usually scattered by crystal imperfections like impurities,
defects, lattice vibrations (phonons), etc.
In most cases, these scattering events or collisions are inelastic. The distance travelled by an
electron between two inelastic collisions is usually called the mean free path of the electron in the
solid. If v is the speed of the electron, then 𝑙 = 𝑣 𝜏
Where 𝜏 is called relaxation time.
3. Diffusion Length:
In a mesoscopic system of length L, the electrons can move either in the ballistic regime or in the
diffusive regime. If the mean free path l is much larger than L, the particle moves throughout the
structure without scattering.
This is so called ballistic transport regime in which the surfaces are usually the scattering entities.
If l << L, transport can be explained as diffusion process. The diffusion 𝐿𝑒 is defined as
𝐿𝑒 = (𝐷 𝜏𝑒 )1⁄2
SINGLE ELECTRON PHENOMENA AND SINGLE ELECTRON TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a fundamental building block of modern electronic devices.
A semiconductor device (usually doped-Silicon or Germanium) used to amplify or switch electronic
signals and electrical power. At least 3 terminals for connection to an external circuit. When a
voltage or current applied to one pair of the terminals, control the current through another pair of
terminals, and since the output power can be much higher than the input power, a transistor mainly
acts as a signal amplifier (or as a switch).
P a g e 9 | 27
SINGLE ELECTRON TRANSISTOR (SET)
The single electron transistor is a new type of switching device that uses
controlled electron tunneling to amplify current. An electron tunnels in two steps: source - dot –
drain. The gate voltage Vg is used to control the charge on the gate-dot capacitor. The idea of SET
was given by D. Averin and Likharev in 1985. The first SET was realized by T. Fulton and G.
Dolan at Bell Laboratories in 1987. It’s based on the Quantum Tunneling phenomenon. The
requirements for it to work is the Coulomb Blockade and the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
THE COULOMB BLOCKADE
Definition: the resistance to electron transport caused by electrostatic coulomb forces in certain
electronic structures, including quantum dots and single electron transistors is called coulomb
blockade effect.
 This prevents constant tunneling to and from a quantum dot.

 Coulomb forces are electrostatic. If we put together 2 or more negative charges (electrons),
these forces are repulsive.
 Capacitance of a quantum dot defines how much electric charge it can store.
𝐶𝑑𝑜𝑡 = 𝐺 𝜀 𝑑
Where
 - Permittivity of the material surrounding the dot
d – Diameter of the dot
G – Geometrical term
 Energy required to add negatively charged electron to the dot is known as charging energy Ec
1
𝐸= 𝐶 𝑉2
2
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑒
𝑉=
𝐶
𝑒2
𝐸𝑐 =
2𝐶
 The free electron in a solid has a certain amount of energy depending on the band it is.
 Due to thermal vibration of atoms in the lattice, these free electrons will get extra energy to go
to higher bands. The extra energy is equal to KBT
P a g e 10 | 27
 With this extra energy an excited electron might br able to tunnel through a small barrier.
 QD’s Capacitance depends on its size (d) →high EC is required to store an additional electron
 But how high must 𝐸𝐶 must be in order to block tunneling? 𝐸𝐶 ≫ KBT
 The smaller the quantum dot the easier the Coulomb blockade criterion is achieved.
OVERCOMING UNCERTAINTY
ℎ
 According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: ∆𝐸 ≈ ∆𝑡
 Tiny capacitor → Δt is the time constant, therefore for a RC circuit:

 ∆𝑡 = 𝑅𝑡 𝐶𝑑𝑜𝑡
 How to make sure that no tunneling occurs?
 Uncertainty of charging energy must be less than the charging energy.
ℎ 𝑒2 ℎ 𝑒2
∆𝐸 < 𝐸𝑐 < <
∆𝑡 2𝐶𝑑𝑜𝑡 𝑅𝑡 𝐶𝑑𝑜𝑡 2𝐶𝑑𝑜𝑡
ℎ
 Therefore, the second requirement for a SET to work is: 𝑅𝑡 ≫ 𝑒2
 To meet this last criterion it is usually enough to make sure that the insulating layer is thick
enough.
WORKING OF SET
In SET we can individually control the tunneling of electron into and out of
quantum dot. In FET the gate voltage creates an electric field and changes the conductivity of
semiconducting channel. Therefore the current flow from source to drain. In SET applying voltage
to gate creates electric field which changes the potential energy of the dot. This gate voltage
controlled Potential difference can make electron attracted from source to dot and then to drain.
For current to flow this gate bias voltage must be larger than coulomb blockade.
Coulomb blockade: It prevents unwanted tunneling when charging energy is much higher
than the thermal energy of electron.
A) OFF CONDITION
The corresponding potential energy shows it is not energetically favorable for electrons in source
to tunnel to the dot.
P a g e 11 | 27
B) ON MODE
At lowest setting, electrons tunnel one at a time, source to tunnel through the dot.
1) This is made possible by first applying proper gate voltage - Potential energy of the dot is made
low so that electrons can tunnel through the energy barrier to Quantum dot.
2) Once Quantum dot gets an electron it potential energy rises.
3) The electron then tunnels through the coulomb barrier on the other side to reach the lower
potential energy at the drain.
4) With the quantum dot empty the potential energy lowers again and the process repeats
P a g e 12 | 27
Difference between ordinary transistor and single electron transistor

 In FET semiconductor diode is placed between source and drain
 In SET quantum dot is placed between source and drain.
LIMITATIONS
 In order to operate SET circuit at room temperature, the size of the quantum dot should
be smaller than 10 nm.
 It is very hard to fabricate by traditional optical lithography and semiconductor process.
 The methods must be developed for connecting the individual structures into logic
circuits and these circuits must be arranged into larger 2D patterns.
ADVANTAGES OF SET
 It consumes less power for operation.
 The coulomb blockade effect: an alternative operating principle for nanometre-scale
devices.
 It reduces circuit power dissipation.
 It raises the possibility of even higher levels of circuit integration.
P a g e 13 | 27
APPLICATIONS OF SET
 The main fields of application of the single electron transistor is used in sensor
technology and digital electronic circuits.
 A variety of digital logic functions, including AND or NOR gates, is obtained based
on SET operating at room temperature.
 It is used for mass data storage.
 It is used in highly sensitive electrometer.
 SET can be used as a temperature probe, particularly in the range of very low
temperatures.
 SET is a suitable measurement set-up for single electron spectroscopy.
 It is used for the fabrication of a homo-dyn receiver operating at frequencies between
10 and 300 MHz.
SEMICONDUCTOR PHOTONIC STRUCTURES
Photonic crystals: Photonic crystals are spatially a periodic structures of dielectric materials with
different refractive indices. It is a medium in which refractive index varies periodically on the
order of wavelength of light. They can guide the motion of photons using the photonic bandgap.
They are mode from periodic patterns of materials with different permittivities.
When a photon travels through an interface between two materials of different permittivity, the
photon may be reflected. The reflection depends on the arrangement of atoms in a material’s crystal
lattice. The photons of certain wavelength pass through the material, while photons of a specific
range of wavelengths will be reflected. This represents the photonic band gap that is a range of
photon wavelengths (frequencies) are forbidden making them suitable for light harvesting
applications.
Examples
1. Photonic crystals usually occur in nature in the form of structural coloration and animal
reflectors which are very useful in a wide range of applications.
2. Wings of some butterflies contain photonic crystals and hence they show different colors
due to their structure, which can selectively reflect certain band of wavelength.
3. The opal in the bracelet contains a natural periodic microstructure responsible for its
iridescent color. It is essentially a natural photonic crystal.
P a g e 14 | 27
TYPES OF PHOTONIC CRYSTALS

There are 3 types of photonic crystals. They are
i. 1D Photonic crystal
ii. 2D Photonic crystal
iii. 3D photonic crystal
1D PHOTONIC CRYSTAL
A 1D Photonic crystal is a one-dimensional virtual medium, whose refractive

index has periodic modulation in one dimension.
To produce a one-dimensional photonic crystal, thin film layers of different

dielectric constant may be periodically deposited on a surface which leads to
a band gap in a particular propagation direction (such as normal to the surface)
EXAMPLE: A Bragg grating is an example of this type of photonic crystal. One-dimensional

photonic crystals can include layers of non-linear optical materials. The non-linear behavior is
provides field enhancement at wavelengths near degenerate band edge.
APPLICATIONS
1. A graphene-based Bragg grating (one-dimensional photonic crystal) supports excitation of

surface electromagnetic waves in the periodic structure by using 633 nm He-Ne laser as
the light source.
2. A one-dimensional graphene-dielectric photonic crystal can act as a far-IR filter and can
support low-loss surface plasmons for waveguide and sensing applications.
3. 1D photonic crystals doped with bio-active metals (i.e. silver) have been also proposed as
sensing devices for bacterial contaminants.
4. A planar 1D photonic crystals made of polymers have been used to detect volatile organic
compounds vapors in atmosphere.
5. 1D Photonic crystals are used in antireflection coatings by decreasing the reflectance and
improving the quality of the lenses.
P a g e 15 | 27
2D PHOTONIC CRYSTAL
A 2D Photonic crystal is a two-dimensional virtual medium, whose refractive

index has periodic modulation in two dimension.
To produce a one-dimensional photonic crystal, holes may be drilled in a substrate that is

transparent to the wavelength of radiation and the bandgap is designed to block the modes.
Triangular and square lattices of holes have been successfully employed.
EXAMPLE: The Holey fiber or photonic crystal fiber can be made by taking cylindrical rods of
glass in hexagonal lattice, and then heating and stretching them, the triangle-like air gaps between
the glass rods become the holes that confine the modes.
APPLICATIONS
1. 2D photonic crystals show total internal reflection in the hollow core inorder to propagate
light which you cannot see in normal fiber optics.
2. They are also used in non-linear devices and to guide exotic wavelengths.
3D PHOTONIC CRYSTAL
A 3D Photonic have periodic modulation along three different axes. They

reflect light that incident from any direction and behave as a highly
directional reflective. Further theses crystals will control and manipulate
the light flow.
In a 3D photonic crystal, the dielectric constant is a tailor made to vary periodically in three
dimensions, giving rise to the so called photonic bandgap which prohibits electromagnetic wave
propagation and substantially modifies the dispersion around a specific wavelength region.
The woodpile structure – “rods” are repeatedly etched with the beam lithography, filled in, and
covered with a layer of new material. As the process repeats, the channels etched in each layer are
perpendicular to the layer below and parallel to and out phases with the channels two layers below.
P a g e 16 | 27
The process repeats until the structure is of desired height. The fill-in material is then dissolved
using an agent that dissolves the fill-in material but not the deposition material. It is generally hard
to introduce defects into this structure.
EXAMPLE: The three dimensional woodpile structure and Spheres in a diamond lattice
APPLICATIONS
1. A 3D optical microchip can guide light through air regions in a 3D circuit such as the
sunlight is trapped and absorbed as it flows indifferent patterns.
2. 3D metallic photonic crystals are used to investigate various photonic transport
phenomenon and has a wide range of applications in thermophoto voltaics.
OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES
Optics and electronics form a new branch of study called as optoelectronics, which includes the
design and manufacture of a hardware device that converts electrical energy into light energy and
vice-versa through semiconductors.
TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONICS DEVICES

There are two types of optoelectronic devices
(i) Active optoelectronic devices
(ii) Passive optoelectronic devices
ACTIVE OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES

In active optoelectronic devices, the light intensity can be directly varied in accordance with
applied input voltage source the external light is not needed for its working.
Example:
1. Light Emitting Diode (LED)
2. Laser Diode
3. Quantum well modulator
4. Self-electro optic effect switches
P a g e 17 | 27
PASSIVE OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES
In passive optoelectronic devices, the light intensity is not changed by controlling voltage. On the
other hand, the plane of polarization is turned by the application of control voltage. In passive
optoelectronic devices, the external light source such as polarizer and analyzer are required.
Example:
1. Kerr cell
2. NLO crystals
3. Laser Doppler velocimetry
4. Displacement sensor
PHOTO PROCESSES
The operation of almost all optoelectronic devices is based on the creation
or annihilation of electron – hole pairs so called photo process. Pair
formation essentially involves raising an electron from the valence band
to the conduction band thereby leaving a hole behind the valence band.
In principle, any energetic particle with energy equal to the band

gap, when incident on a semiconductor, will make the valence electron to
move to the conduction band, thereby creating electron-hole pairs. The
simplest way to create electron-hole pair is to irradiate the semiconductor.
Photons with sufficient energy are absorbed and these impart their energy
to the valence band electrons and raise them to the conduction band. This
process, is therefore called absorption.
The reverse process is electron-hole recombination, give up its excess energy. The
recombination may be of two types. They are
(i) Non-radiative transition process
(ii) Radiative transition process
NON-RADIATIVE TRANSITION PROCESS: In a non-radiative transition process, the excess
energy due to recombination is usually imparted to photons and dissipated in the form of heat.
P a g e 18 | 27
RADIATIVE TRANSITION PROCESS: In a radiative transition process, the excess energy is
dissipated as photons usually having energy equal to bandgap energy. This is called as luminescent
process and hence emits light.
Examples:
1. Photo-luminescence is the process in which electron-hole pairs are created by injection of
photons.
2. Cathode-luminescence is the process in which electron-hole pairs are created by electron
bombardment.
3. Electro-luminescence is the process in which electron-hole pairs are created in a p-n
junction.
SPINTRONICS - SPIN-BASED ELECTRONICS
Spintronics is a NANO technology which deals with spin dependent

properties of an electron instead of charge dependent properties
Spintronics uses electron spins in addition to or in place of the electron

charge. The rotational moment creates a small magnetic field. Key
concept is controlling the spin of electrons. Spintronics is intrinsic spin of the electron + its
associated magnetic moment + its fundamental electronic charge.
PRINCIPLE:
 Origin of the spin is electron’s intrinsic property “angular momentum”
 Every electron exists in one of the two sates – spin up and spin down, with spins either
positive half or negative half.
 In other words, electrons can rotate either clock wise or anti-
clockwise around its own axis with constant frequency.
 The two possible spin states represent ‘0’and‘1’ in logical
operations.
EXPLANATION: Spin is a characteristic that makes an electron a tiny magnet with north and
south poles. The orientation of north-south axis depends on the particle’s axis of spin. Every
electron exist in one of the two states spin- up and spin-down, with spins either positive half or
negative half.
P a g e 19 | 27
In ordinary materials, the up magnetic moments cancel the down magnetic moment so no
surplus moment piles up. Ferro-magnetic materials like iron, cobalt and nickel is needed for
designing of spin electronic devices.
These have tiny regions called domains in which an excess of electrons have spins with
axis pointing either up or down. The domains are randomly scattered and evenly divided between
majority-up and majority-down. But, an externally applied magnetic field will line up the domains
in the direction of the field. This results in a permanent magnet.
WORKING
All Spintronics devices acts according to the simple scheme.
1. The information is stored into spins as a particular spin orientation (up or down).
2. The spins, being attached to mobile electrons, carry information along a wire and the
information is read at the terminal.
3. Spin orientation of conduction electrons survives for relatively long time (nanoseconds,
compared to tens of femto seconds during which electron moment decays) which makes
spintronic device useful for memory storage and magnetic sensor applications.
4. They are used for quantum computing where electron spin will represent a bit of
information. When electron spins are aligned, this creates a large scale net magnetic
moment.
APPLICATIONS OF SPINTRONICS
GIANT MAGNETORESISTANCE
Definition: Giant magnetoresistance is a quantum mechanical phenomenon in which electrons

travelling in ultra-thin magnetic film multilayer structures experience large scattering according
to their spin states which give rise to correspondingly large changes in electrical resistance.
The basic GMR device consists of a layer of non -magnetic metal between two magnetic layers.
A current consisting of spin-up and spin-down electrons is passed through the layers. Those
oriented in the same direction as the electron spins in a magnetic layer pass through quite easily
while those oriented in the opposite direction are scattered.
P a g e 20 | 27
WORKING
Each ferromagnetic layer has a magnetization vector M, and when these vectors are parallel, an
electric current can pass through the device. This is due to serval reasons.
1. First, since the spacer layer is thin, spin can be diffuse across the spacer to read, the other
ferromagnetic layer.
2. Since that material’s magnetization is parallel to the magnetization of the first layer, the
density of states for those spin electrons is relatively high, and so there is low scattering.
3. Thus, the flow of electrons can occur, resulting in a low electrical resistance. However, if
the magnetization vector of the second ferromagnetic material is antiparallel with that of
the first material, the majority spin electrons and spin scattering is high.
4. This is reflected by a much larger resistance to current flow.
5. The resistance to the current flow is magneto resistance, and the percentage ratio of the
large and small resistance values is called GMR ratio.
SPIN VALVE
A spin valve is a device which provides the
Giant Magneto resistive effect. The device can
be made to be highly resistive or highly
conductive depending on the direction of the
applied magnetic fields in the conducting
layers. This technology offers very fast
switching speeds and reduced power
consumption.
P a g e 21 | 27
ADVANTAGE OF SPINTRONICS
 Low power consumption.
 Less heat dissipation.
 Spintronic memory is non-volatile.
 Takes up lesser space on chip, thus more compact.
 Spin manipulation is faster, so greater read & write speed. Spintronics does not require
unique and specialized semiconductors. Common metals such as Fe, Al, Ag, etc. can be
used.
CARBON NANOTUBES (CNT)

CNTs are long, thin cylinders of carbon. They can be thought of as a sheet of
graphite (a hexagonal lattice of carbon) rolled into a cylinder. Nanotubes have been constructed
with length-to-diameter ratio of up to 132,000,000:1. CNTs were discovered in 1991 by Sumio
Iijima. The structure of CNT is formd by a layer of carbon atoms that are bonded together in a
hexagonal (honeycomb) mesh. This one-atom thick layer of carbon is called graphene, and it is
wrapped in the shape of a cylinder and bonded together to form a carbon nanotube.
TYPES OF CARBON NANOTUBES

Nanotubes can have a single outer wall of carbon, or they can be made of multiple walls
(cylinders inside other cylinders of carbon). Accordingly they are called:
 Single-walled carbon nanotube
 Multi-walled carbon nanotube
P a g e 22 | 27
STRUCTURE OF CARBON NANOTUBES
The CNT’s have many structures on the
basis of their length, type of spiral and
number of layers. Their electrical properties
depends on their structure and they act as
both a metal and a semiconductor. There a
variety of structures of carbon nanotubes
with different properties.
Three types of nanotube structures are considered by rolling a graphite sheet with different
orientations about the axis. They are
 Armchair structure
 Zig-Zag structure
 Chiral structure
Armchair structure – when the axis of the tube parallel to C – C bonds of the carbon hexagons,
it is referred to as “armchair” structure.
Zig-zag structure – when the axis of the tube is perpendicular to C – C bonds of the carbon
hexagons, it is referred to as “Zig-zag” structure.
Chiral structure – when the axis of the tube is inclined towards C – C bond, it is referred to as
“Chiral” structure.
PROPERTIES OF CNT’S
1. Mechanical Properties: The Carbon nanotubes are highly elastic. The Young’s modulus is
directly a measure of the elasticity. The Young’s modulus of carbon nanotubes is about 1800
GPa whereas it is about 210 GPa for steel. CNT’s exhibit large strength in tension. They are
about twenty times stronger than steel. The yield strength is a measure of the strength. Carbon
nanotubes can withstand larger strains than steel. They can be bent without breaking.
2. Electrical Properties: The electrical properties of CNT’s depends on their diameter and
chirality. They show electrical properties ranging from semiconductors to those of good
conductors. The energy gap decreases as the diameter of the CNT is increased. Due to very
low resistivity, the heat dissipation in the CNT is very small and hence they can carry very
P a g e 23 | 27
larger current than metals. The conductivity of the CNT is maximum along its axis and very
low in a perpendicular direction. Hence they are very equivalent to one dimensional
conductors. At low temperatures, the resistance decreases with increasing magnetic field
applied across the CNT. This effect is known as magnetoresistance.
3. Thermal Properties: Carbon nanotubes are very good conductors of heat. Their thermal
conductivity is more than twice that of diamond. The thermal conductivity also varies with
direction. The conductivity is very good along the axis of the tube and very low in a
perpendicular direction.
4. Physical Properties: CNT’s have very high strength to weight ratio. They have low density.
5. Chemical Properties: CNT’s are more chemically inert compared to other forms of carbon.
APPLICATIONS OF CNT’S
1. Carbon nanotubes can store lithium due to which they can be used in batteries. CNT’s also
store hydrogen and find potential applications in fuel cells.
2. They are use in tips for atomic force microscope probes.
3. They are being used to develop flat panel displays for television and computer displays.
4. They are being used to develop light weight shield for electromagnetic radiation.
5. Field effect transistors are being developed using semiconductor CNT’s which can be used to
build faster processors for computers. It is estimated that these processors will be 104 times
faster than the present processors.
6. CNT’s are being used to produce lightweight materials with higher strength than steel. These
can be used in automobile, aircraft and rocket parts.
7. They are used in chemical sensors to detect gases.
OPTICS IN QUANTUM STRUCTURES

Quantum Structures: Quantum structures are the structures in which the electrons are confined
to move in one, two or three dimensions which led to new physical discoveries and technological
applications.
Semiconductor quantum structure \s with their unique properties make it possible to observe
many optical effects in low dimensional electron system and to discover their novel features.
P a g e 24 | 27
Optics in quantum structures
Optical experiments are the powerful tools for the characterization of heterostructure. Further,
heterostructure will enhance a set of new effects which do not occur in the bulk materials. The
electronic properties, lattice parameters, surface quality, optical and electrical properties are most
important in the field of modern solid-state devices. Many of these properties shall be
microscopically analyzed with the help of modern optics as a tool in the study of quantum
structures.
These specific features of optical processes originate from two basic physical peculiarities, viz.,
(i) The behavior of the electromagnetic waves in hetrostructures is different from bulk
materials. The spatial non-uniformity affects the specific characterization of interaction
of light with matter like light propagation, absorption etc.,
(ii) Electron in the quantum structure have energy spectra which are different from those
of electrons in the bulk materials.
APPLICATIONS
1. Quantum optics is useful in quantum information processing and quantum
communication.
2. It is also used to demonstrate quantum teleportation between atomic systems over
longer distances.
3. Quantum optics is a key for all emerging technologies like sensing, imaging, simulation
computation etc.,
QUANTUM WELL LASER

A quantum well laser is a laser diode in which the active region of the device is very narrow so
that quantum confinement occurs. Laser diodes are formed in compound semiconductor materials
and it can emit light efficiently. The wavelength of light emitted by quantum well laser depends
on the width of the active region rather than the bandgap of the materials.
Types or Quantum Well Laser
There are two types of quantum well laser based on the number of active regions.
1. Single-quantum-well Laser (SQWL) – consists of one active region
2. Multi-quantum-well Laser (MQWL) - consists of multiple active region
P a g e 25 | 27
A quantum well laser is shown in fig. The active laser (GaAs) is in between p-type AlGaAs and
n-type AlGaAs. The metal contacts are provided to bias the QWL. In this laser the current is
confined to narrow strip. It will limit the amount of current flowing in the laser, and thus prevent
thermal damage to the semiconductor.
This, also limit the laser gain region and in turn the dimension of the laser mode in the lateral
direction. So, when the current flows through the layers of the semiconductor into the active region,
it produces gain only in a narrow Gaussian-shaped stripe.
WORKING: In quantum-well lasers, the active layer is made thinner than 10 nm. Therefore, the
electronic and the optical properties are drastically altered due to the reduced dimensionality. Thus,
the motion of the free electrons are confined in one direction and free other two mutually
perpendicular directions. The electron confinement results in a quantization in the permitted
𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
energy levels. 𝑬𝒏 =
𝟖 𝒎𝑳𝟐
Here, h is Planck’s constant, m the effective mass of the electrons, n an integer and L, the thickness
of the quantum well. The valence band also can have discrete energy levels. The variation of
spacing of the band-gap in semiconductor materials can vary the wavelength of laser emission. It
can be made by using different bandgap semiconductor in active region.
The wavelength of the laser can be changed by:
(a) Varying the thickness of the quantum-well.
(b) Varying the composition of the quantum-well. This happens due to the .change in the
energy band-gap.
P a g e 26 | 27
ADVANTAGES OF QUANTUM WELL LASERS
Quantum well lasers have attracted a great deal of attention by their many advantages such as
 Higher efficiency
 Low threshold current density.
 Excellent temperature feature
 High modulation bandwidth and
 Wavelength adjustability etc.
APPLICATIONS OF QUANTUM WELL LASER
Quantum-well (QW) active semiconductor lasers enjoy widespread commercial use in
 Optoelectronic applications ranging from high-power sources for medical therapy

 Material processing
 Laser printing, and pumps for solid-state laser to lower output power single-mode
 Single-mode single-frequency sources for telecommunications.
P a g e 27 | 27

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PH3251- MATERIAL SCIENCE

HOLY CROSS ENGINEERING COLLEGE

TUTICORIN - 628 851

UNIT II ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 9

UNIT III SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSPORT PHYSICS 9

UNIT IV OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 9

UNIT V NANOELECTRONIC DEVICES 9

FUNDAMENTALS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC TERMS

2 dimensional form of space lattice 3 D form

Space lattice + Basis  Crystal Structure

THE CRYSTAL SYSTEMS & BRAVAIS LATTICES

6. RHOMBOHEDRAL SYSTEM (TRIGONAL): In this system, three axial

l. No. Crystal System Bravais lattice

Axial lengths Interfacial angles (α,

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE UNIT CELL

CRYSTAL STRUCTURES (SC, BCC, FCC, HCP and DIAMOND CUBIC)

1. Number of atoms per unit cell:

Thus, the simple cubic is a primitive cell.

6 other atoms. So, Coordination number is 6.

BODY CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (BCC)

1. Number of atoms per unit cell:

Substitute (2) in (1), we get

68% of the volume is occupied by atoms and 32% volume is

1. Number of atoms per unit cell:

From the figure,

HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED STRUCTURE

are present totally inside the unit cell.

Each face centered atom is shared by 2 adjacent unit cells.

total there are 12 nearest neighbors.

In the ∆SOP, 𝑂𝑃2 = 𝑂𝑆 2 + 𝑆𝑃2 --------------(4)

(ii)To find the volume of the unit cell, V:

Base of the hexagon has 6 similar triangles so,

Substitute (4) in (3) we get,

Substitute (5) in (2) we get,

Height of the hexagon = c

Substitute (1) and (6) in (7) we get,

Example: Magnesium, Zinc, Titanium, Zirconium, Beryllium and Cadmium.

DIRECTIONS AND PLANES

PROCEDURE FOR FINDING MILLER INDICES:

the Miller indices for that axis is zero.

d – SPACING IN CUBIC LATTICE

expressed in reciprocals of miller indices.

From the figure,

By the law of direction cosine is

Substituting the values

This is the relation between d and hkl.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

The different types of point defects are a. Vacancies b. Interstitial c. Impurities

Two kinds of vacancies – a) Schottky defect b) Frenkel defect

Schottky Defect Frenkel Defect

Self-interstitial Foreign interstitial

Substitutional impurity Interstitial impurity

2. LINE DEFECTS OR DISLOCATIONS

GRAIN BOUNDARIES: A polycrystalline material

Tilt Boundaries Twin boundaries

ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY

The assumption for Strain Energy Formula

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Classification of conducting materials: