ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, JOSTUM.

EEE 521: SOLID STATE ELECTRONICS

LECTURE 2: PHYSICS AND PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTORS

Timovich

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 LECTURE 2: PHYSICS AND PROPERTIES OF
SEMICONDUCTORS OUTLINE
• Introduction to semiconductor materials
• Crystal structures
• Energy bands and bandgap
• Charge carriers (electrons and holes)
• Doping and extrinsic semiconductors

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 INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
• Definition of semiconductors: Semiconductors are materials that have electrical conductivity that lies between
that of conductors (such as metals) and insulators (such as glass or rubber).
• This intermediate conductivity arises due to their unique atomic structure, which allows them to conduct
electricity under certain conditions, making them essential for controlling electrical currents in electronic
devices.
• The atomic structure of semiconductor materials consists of a crystalline lattice formed by atoms of elements
from groups III-V or II-VI in the periodic table.
• These atoms are arranged in a regular pattern, with each atom sharing electrons with its neighboring atoms.
• Common semiconductor materials: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), and Silicon
Carbide (SiC).

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 INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS CONT’D
• The key property that distinguishes semiconductors from conductors and insulators is their band gap.
• The band gap represents the energy difference between the valence band (where electrons are bound to
atoms) and the conduction band (where electrons are free to move and conduct electricity).
• In conductors, the valence and conduction bands overlap, allowing electrons to move freely with minimal
energy input.
• In insulators, the band gap is large, and electrons cannot move easily from the valence band to the
conduction band.
• Semiconductors have a moderate band gap, allowing them to conduct electricity when excited by external
energy sources, such as heat or light.

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 CASE STUDY: THE DOMINANCE OF SILICON IN THE
SEMICONDUCTOR INDUSTRY
• Silicon has long reigned supreme as the cornerstone of the semiconductor industry, playing a major role in the
development of electronic devices and technologies. Take out your phones, take 3 minutes to find out reasons
behind silicon's dominance, its advantages, challenges, and potential future alternatives.

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 CASE STUDY RESULT: THE DOMINANCE OF SILICON IN THE
SEMICONDUCTOR INDUSTRY
Advantages of Silicon:
1. Abundance and Accessibility: Silicon is the second most abundant element on Earth's crust, making it readily
available for mass production.
2. Versatility: Silicon can be easily processed into wafers and integrated into a wide range of semiconductor
devices, including transistors, diodes, and solar cells.
3. Thermal Stability: Silicon exhibits excellent thermal stability, maintaining its electrical properties over a wide
temperature range.
4. Mature Manufacturing Processes: Decades of research and development have refined silicon manufacturing
processes, resulting in highly efficient and cost-effective production methods.
5. Compatibility: Silicon-based technologies are compatible with existing infrastructure, facilitating seamless
integration into various electronic systems.

Challenges:
1. Scaling Limitations: As semiconductor devices become smaller and more complex, issues related to scaling,
such as power consumption and heat dissipation, arise.
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 CASE STUDY RESULT: THE DOMINANCE OF SILICON IN THE
SEMICONDUCTOR INDUSTRY

2. Performance Plateau: Silicon's physical properties impose limits on the performance improvements
achievable through traditional scaling approaches.
3. Cost of Innovation: Developing advanced silicon-based technologies requires substantial investments in
research, development, and manufacturing infrastructure.

Future Alternatives:
1. III-V Compound Semiconductors: Gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium phosphide (InP), and other III-V
compound semiconductors offer superior electron mobility and are well-suited for high-frequency applications.
2. Silicon Carbide (SiC) and Gallium Nitride (GaN): These wide-bandgap semiconductors exhibit enhanced
efficiency and power-handling capabilities, making them ideal for power electronics and emerging
technologies like electric vehicles and renewable energy systems.
3. Two-Dimensional Materials: Materials such as graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs)
possess unique electronic properties that could enable the development of ultra-compact and energy-efficient
devices.

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 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
Unit Cell
 A unit cell is the smallest repeating unit within a
crystal lattice that, when repeated in three
dimensions, generates the entire crystal structure.
 It is characterized by its dimensions and angles,
typically represented by a parallelepiped (a three-
dimensional figure with six faces, each of which is a
parallelogram).
 There are seven crystal systems, each with its own
unique unit cell shape: cubic, tetragonal,
orthorhombic, rhombohedral (or trigonal), hexagonal,
monoclinic, and triclinic.
 The choice of unit cell depends on the symmetry of
the crystal lattice and the arrangement of atoms or
molecules within it. The crystal lattice describes the organization of the crystal,
while the unit cell describes the simplest repeating pattern
in the overall crystal.

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 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES CONT’D
Lattice Structure
 A lattice structure refers to the arrangement of points (representing atoms, ions, or molecules) in
space, forming a three-dimensional framework.
 The lattice structure dictates various properties of the material, including its mechanical, thermal, and
electrical behavior.
 Real materials often exhibit deviations from idealized lattice structures due to defects, impurities, or
the presence of multiple phases.
 Understanding unit cells and lattice structures is crucial for studying the properties and behavior of
crystalline materials, as they provide a framework for describing and predicting the arrangement of atoms in
solids.
 These concepts form the basis of various fields, including materials science, solid-state physics, and
crystallography.

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 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES CONT’D
 Lattice structures can be classified based on the arrangement of
points and the relationships between them. Common types
include:
 Simple Cubic Lattice: Atoms are located at the corners of a
cube, with one atom per lattice point.
 Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Lattice: In addition to atoms at
the corners, there is one atom at the center of the cube.
 Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) Lattice: In addition to atoms at the
corners, there is one atom at the center of each face of the cube.
This structure is often adopted by metals as it maximizes their
co-ordination number.
 Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP) Lattice: Atoms are arranged
in layers with a hexagonal arrangement, and each layer is
stacked on top of the other in an ABAB... sequence.
 Unit cells fall into seven categories, which differ in the three unit-
cell edge lengths and three internal angles, as shown in the
figure. 10
 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES CONT’D
Diamond Cubic Structure
 The diamond cubic structure is a common crystal structure found in
several elemental semiconductors, including silicon (Si) and
germanium (Ge).
 The diamond cubic structure is a face-centered cubic (FCC) lattice with
two interpenetrating face-centered cubic lattices displaced along the
body diagonal of the unit cell.
 Each atom in the diamond cubic structure has four nearest neighbors,
forming a tetrahedral arrangement.
 The coordination number (number of nearest neighbors) of each atom
in the diamond cubic lattice is 4.
Silicon (Si)
 Silicon is a semiconductor with an atomic number of 14 and a
diamond cubic crystal structure.
 In the diamond cubic structure of silicon, each silicon atom forms
covalent bonds with four neighboring silicon atoms, resulting in a
tetrahedral arrangement.
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 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES CONT’D
 Silicon is widely used in semiconductor devices due to its abundance, reliability, and compatibility with
existing manufacturing processes.
 Its electronic properties make it suitable for applications ranging from integrated circuits and solar cells to
sensors and microelectronics.

Germanium (Ge)
 Germanium is another elemental semiconductor with an atomic number of 32 and a diamond cubic crystal
structure.
 Similar to silicon, germanium atoms in the diamond cubic lattice are arranged in a tetrahedral configuration,
with each atom bonded to four neighboring germanium atoms through covalent bonds.
 Germanium was one of the first materials used in the development of semiconductor devices and played a
crucial role in the early days of electronics.
 While germanium has been largely replaced by silicon in many applications due to its lower abundance and
inferior thermal properties, it still finds niche uses in certain specialized electronic and optical devices.

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 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES CONT’D
Zincblende Structure
 The zincblende structure is characterized by a face-
centered cubic (FCC) lattice with two interpenetrating FCC
lattices, each shifted by half of the body diagonal.
 In the zincblende structure, the atoms of one element (e.g.,
gallium) occupy all the tetrahedral sites of the lattice, while
the atoms of the other element (e.g., arsenic) occupy all the
octahedral sites.
 Each atom in the zincblende structure has coordination
number 4 (tetrahedral coordination) or 6 (octahedral
coordination), depending on its position in the lattice.
 Zinc-blende crystal structure of GaAs. The crystal structure
is characterized by single lattice constant a.

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 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES CONT’D
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
 Gallium arsenide is a compound semiconductor composed of gallium (Ga) and arsenic (As) atoms, with a
chemical formula GaAs.
 GaAs crystallizes in the zincblende structure, where gallium atoms occupy all the tetrahedral sites, and
arsenic atoms occupy all the octahedral sites of the lattice.
 The zincblende structure of GaAs results in strong covalent bonds between gallium and arsenic atoms,
giving rise to its semiconductor properties.
 GaAs exhibits several advantageous properties for semiconductor applications, including a direct bandgap,
high electron mobility, and excellent optical properties.
 Due to these properties, GaAs is widely used in various electronic and optoelectronic devices, such as high-
frequency amplifiers, solar cells, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), lasers, and photodetectors.

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 ENERGY BANDS AND BANDGAP
Energy band formation in solids
 Atomic Energy Levels: In isolated atoms, electrons occupy discrete energy levels, with each energy level
corresponding to a specific electron orbital.
 The energy levels of atoms are quantized, meaning that only certain energy values are allowed for electrons within
the atom.
 Interaction in Solids: When atoms come together to form a solid, their electron orbitals overlap, leading to the
creation of molecular orbitals.
 In a solid, the number of atoms and the complexity of their interactions result in a large number of closely spaced
energy levels.
 The discrete energy levels of individual atoms broaden into bands of energy levels in the solid due to these
interactions.

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 ENERGY BANDS AND BANDGAP CONT’D
Valence band, conduction band, and forbidden gap
Valence Band: The valence band is the highest energy band in a
solid that is fully occupied by electrons at absolute zero temperature.
 Electrons in the valence band are tightly bound to the nuclei of
atoms and are involved in covalent or ionic bonding with
neighboring atoms.
 The valence band represents the energy range where electrons
are localized
 The electronic structure of the valence band significantly
influences the chemical and mechanical properties of the material.
Conduction Band: The conduction band is the energy band
immediately above the valence band.
 In contrast to the valence band, the conduction band contains
energy levels that are empty at absolute zero temperature.

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 ENERGY BANDS AND BANDGAP CONT’D
 Electrons in the conduction band have sufficient energy to move freely throughout the material, contributing to
electrical conductivity.
 Materials with partially filled conduction bands or overlapping valence and conduction bands typically exhibit
metallic behavior, characterized by high electrical conductivity.
Forbidden Gap (Band Gap): The forbidden gap, often simply referred to as the band gap, is the energy range
between the valence band and the conduction band where no electron states are allowed.
 It represents the energy difference between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction
band.
 In insulators and semiconductors, the band gap is a critical parameter that determines the electrical
conductivity and optical properties of the material.
 Insulators have a relatively large band gap, which prevents electrons from easily transitioning from the
valence band to the conduction band, resulting in high electrical resistance.

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ENERGY BANDS AND BANDGAP CONT’D

 Semiconductors have a smaller band gap compared to insulators, allowing electrons to move from the
valence band to the conduction band when provided with sufficient energy, such as through thermal
excitation or the absorption of photons.
 The size of the band gap influences various properties of semiconductors, including their conductivity,
mobility, and optical absorption.
Understanding the relationship between the valence band, conduction band, and band gap is crucial for
designing and optimizing electronic devices and materials for specific applications, ranging from
semiconductor devices like transistors and solar cells to optoelectronic devices like LEDs and photodetectors.

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 ENERGY BANDS AND BANDGAP CONT’D
Direct and indirect bandgap materials
Direct Bandgap Materials: In direct bandgap materials, the maximum energy point of the valence band and the
minimum energy point of the conduction band occur at the same momentum (or wavevector) in the Brillouin zone.
 This means that electron transitions between the valence band and the conduction band can occur with minimal
momentum change, typically through the emission or absorption of photons.
 Direct bandgap materials exhibit strong absorption and emission of light and are commonly used in optoelectronic
devices such as lasers, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and photodetectors.
 Examples of direct bandgap materials include gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium nitride (GaN), and indium
phosphide (InP).

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 ENERGY BANDS AND BANDGAP CONT’D
Indirect Bandgap Materials: In indirect bandgap materials, the maximum energy point of the valence band
and the minimum energy point of the conduction band occur at different momentum (or wavevector) points in
the Brillouin zone.
 This means that electron transitions between the valence band and the conduction band involve a change
in momentum in addition to energy, making them less efficient.
 In indirect bandgap materials, electron transitions typically involve the absorption or emission of
phonons (quantized lattice vibrations) in addition to photons.

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 CHARGE CARRIERS (ELECTRONS AND HOLES)
 Electrons and Holes as Charge Carriers: In semiconductors, electrons in the conduction band and
"holes" in the valence band serve as charge carriers.
 Electrons in the conduction band have sufficient energy to move freely throughout the crystal lattice and
contribute to electrical conduction.
 Holes, on the other hand, are vacancies left behind when electrons are excited from the valence band to
the conduction band. These vacancies act as positively charged carriers and can move through the crystal
lattice in a manner analogous to positive charge carriers.
 Carrier Concentration: Carrier concentration refers to the number of charge carriers (electrons or holes)
per unit volume in a semiconductor.
 Intrinsic semiconductors have a balanced concentration of electrons and holes due to thermal excitation
and the generation of electron-hole pairs.
 Extrinsic semiconductors are doped with impurities to intentionally increase the concentration of either
electrons (n-type doping) or holes (p-type doping), thereby altering their electrical properties.

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 CHARGE CARRIERS (ELECTRONS AND HOLES) CONT’D
 Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentration: The
concentration of charge carriers in a semiconductor is strongly
ni = B(T3/2) * exp(-Eg / 2kBT)
influenced by temperature.
Where,
 In intrinsic semiconductors, the concentration of electrons and
holes increases with temperature due to thermal excitation, which ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration
promotes electrons from the valence band to the conduction band.
B is a material-dependent constant
 The relationship between carrier concentration and temperature is
T is the temperature in Kelvin (K)
described by the intrinsic carrier concentration equation, which
depends exponentially on the bandgap energy and temperature. Eg is the energy bandgap in electron volts
(eV)
 For extrinsic semiconductors, the concentration of majority carriers
(either electrons or holes) increases with temperature, while the kB is Boltzmann’s constant (8.617 x 10-
5 eV/K)
concentration of minority carriers decreases due to increased
recombination rates.
exp() denotes the exponential function
 At very high temperatures, the intrinsic carrier concentration may
dominate, leading to the material behaving like an intrinsic
semiconductor even if it was doped initially.
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 CHARGE CARRIERS (ELECTRONS AND HOLES) CONT’D
Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
 Intrinsic semiconductors are pure semiconductor materials with no intentional impurities added. At
absolute zero temperature, intrinsic semiconductors exhibit electrical conductivity due to thermally
generated electron-hole pairs. In an intrinsic semiconductor:
a) Electrons in the valence band can be thermally excited to the conduction band, leaving behind holes in
the valence band.
b) The concentration of electrons (n) is equal to the concentration of holes (p), and the material is said to
be electrically neutral.
 The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors increases with temperature due to increased thermal
excitation of charge carriers. Examples of intrinsic semiconductors include pure silicon (Si) and germanium
(Ge).

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CHARGE CARRIERS (ELECTRONS AND HOLES) CONT’D

 Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductor materials intentionally doped with impurities to modify their
electrical properties.
 Doping introduces additional charge carriers into the semiconductor lattice, significantly altering its
conductivity and other electronic characteristics.
 The conductivity of extrinsic semiconductors is significantly higher than that of intrinsic semiconductors
due to the increased concentration of charge carriers introduced by doping.
 Extrinsic semiconductors are widely used in electronic devices and integrated circuits, where precise
control of electrical properties is essential.

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 CHARGE CARRIERS (ELECTRONS AND HOLES) CONT’D
Example 1: Find the intrinsic carrier concentration (ni) for a silicon-based intrinsic semiconductor at a
temperature of 300K.
Take B (for silicon) ≈ 5.23 x 1015 cm-3K-3/2, Eg (for silicon) ≈ 1.12 eV, kB ≈ 8.617 x 10-5 eV/K
Solution:
ni = B(T3/2) * exp(-Eg / 2kBT)
ni = (5.23 x 1015 cm-3K-3/2)(3003/2) * exp(-1.12 eV / (2 * 8.617 x 10-5 eV/K * 300 K))
ni ≈ (5.23 x 1015 cm-3K-3/2)(3003/2) * exp(-1.12 / 0.0517)
ni ≈ 1.0 x 1010 cm-3
Thus, the intrinsic carrier concentration (ni) for silicon at 300K is approximately 1.0 x 1010 cm-3.

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 DOPING AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
N-Type and P-Type Doping:
Extrinsic semiconductors can be classified into two types based on the type of dopants added:
 N-Type Doping: In n-type doping, donor impurities are added to a semiconductor crystal. Donor impurities
have one more valence electron than the host semiconductor atoms. Common donor impurities include
phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), and antimony (Sb).
 P-Type Doping: In p-type doping, acceptor impurities are added to a semiconductor crystal. Acceptor
impurities have one less valence electron than the host semiconductor atoms. Common acceptor
impurities include boron (B), aluminum (Al), and gallium (Ga).
 The introduction of donor impurities in n-type doping increases the concentration of free electrons
(negative charge carriers) in the semiconductor, while the introduction of acceptor impurities in p-type
doping increases the concentration of holes (positive charge carriers).

Donor and Acceptor Impurities:

 Donor Impurities: Donor impurities contribute additional electrons to the semiconductor crystal,
increasing the concentration of negative charge carriers. Donor atoms have energy levels very close to the
conduction band of the semiconductor, making it relatively easy for them to donate electrons.
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 DOPING AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
 Acceptor Impurities: Acceptor impurities create "holes" in the valence band of the semiconductor crystal,
increasing the concentration of positive charge carriers. Acceptor atoms have energy levels very close to
the valence band of the semiconductor, making it relatively easy for them to accept electrons, leaving
behind holes.

Dopant Atoms and Energy Levels:

 Dopant atoms introduce energy levels (also known as donor or acceptor levels) within the band gap of the
semiconductor material.
 In n-type doping, donor energy levels are located close to the conduction band, allowing electrons to be
easily excited from these levels into the conduction band, increasing the concentration of electrons.
 In p-type doping, acceptor energy levels are located close to the valence band, making it easy for
electrons to transition from the valence band to these levels, leaving behind holes and increasing the
concentration of holes.

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CASE STUDY: THE IMPACT OF DOPING ON THE ELECTRICAL
PROPERTIES OF SILICON
We established that Silicon is fundamental semiconductor material that plays a central role in modern
electronics in the first case study. Now lets quickly explore the impact of doping on the electrical properties of
silicon and its crucial role in semiconductor device technology.

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CASE STUDY RESULT: THE IMPACT OF DOPING ON THE ELECTRICAL
PROPERTIES
 OF SILICON
Silicon's intrinsic properties make it a poor conductor at room temperature. By introducing controlled amounts of
specific impurities, its conductivity can be greatly enhanced. This process is fundamental to the production of
various semiconductor devices.
N-Type Doping:
 N-type doping involves introducing donor impurities, such as phosphorus or arsenic, into the silicon crystal.

 Donor impurities have one more valence electron than silicon atoms, leading to excess free electrons in the
crystal.
 These additional electrons increase the conductivity of silicon, making it an n-type semiconductor.

 N-type silicon is commonly used in applications requiring high electron mobility, such as in transistors and
integrated circuits.
P-Type Doping:
 P-type doping involves introducing acceptor impurities, such as boron or gallium, into the silicon crystal.

 Acceptor impurities have one less valence electron than silicon atoms, creating "holes" in the crystal lattice.

 These holes act as positive charge carriers and increase the conductivity of silicon, making it a p-type
semiconductor. 29
CASE STUDY RESULT: THE IMPACT OF DOPING ON THE ELECTRICAL
PROPERTIES OF SILICON
Impact on Electrical Properties:
 Conductivity: Doping significantly increases the conductivity of silicon by introducing additional charge
carriers (electrons or holes) into the crystal lattice.
 Carrier Mobility: The mobility of charge carriers in doped silicon depends on the type and concentration of
dopants. N-type silicon typically exhibits higher electron mobility, while p-type silicon may have higher hole
mobility.
 Band Structure: Doping alters the energy band structure of silicon, affecting its electronic properties such as
the band gap and Fermi level position.
 Device Functionality: Doping enables the creation of semiconductor devices with tailored electrical
properties, allowing for the design of transistors, diodes, solar cells, and other electronic components.

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