EE 309: ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (2 Credit Units) Module 2

DC machines: constructional features of prototype DC machine. Calculation of

EMF generated in armature windings. Circuit model of DC machine. Develop toque.
Ways of exciting field windings. Losses and efficiency. Armature reaction and
commutation. Flash-over, sparking, compensating windings, interpoles and brush
shift.
DC GENARATOR: Working principles, types and performances characteristics.
Built up voltage in self excited machines.
DC MOTOR: Working principles, types and performance characteristics. Starting
and braking speed regulation

In an electrical machine, the winding can be classified into two types:

1. Concentrated winding
Concentrated type of winding can be done when the total number of poles in the
armature is equal to the number of slots of the armature coil. The total coils is wound
in the single slots. All the turns of this type of winding have the same magnetic axis,
for example, the transformer winding. This type of winding gives maximum output
voltage but not exact sinusoidal because it is independent of pitch and distribution
factor.
2. Distributed winding
Distributed winding is distributed along the air gap. In this winding poles are not
equal to the number of slots. It does not have the same magnetic axis. The emf
induced in the distributed winding is less due to the presence of pitch factor and
distribution factor. Distributed windings are used in DC machine, synchronous
machine and induction machine.

Armature winding of DC machine

Armature conductors are connected in a specific manner called as armature winding.
Armature windings are classified according to the sequence of their connections to
the commutator segments. There are two basic sequences of armature winding
connections-lap windings and wave windings. In addition, there is a third type of
winding, called a frog-leg winding, which combines lap and wave windings on a
single rotor. The difference between these two is merely due to the end connections
and commutator connections of the conductor. Armature winding can be done as
single layer or double layer. It may be simplex, duplex or multiplex, and this
multiplicity increases the number of parallel paths

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Terminologies
1. Pole pitch: It is defined as number of armature slots per pole. For example, if
there are 36 conductors and 4 poles, then the pole pitch is 36/4=9.
2. Coil span or coil pitch (Ys): It is the distance between the two sides of a coil
measured in terms of armature slots.
3. Front pitch (Yf): It is the distance, in terms of armature conductors, between
the second conductor of one coil and the first conductor of the next coil.
Alternatively, it is the distance between two coil sides that are connected to the
same commutator segment.
4. Back pitch (Yb): The distance by which a coil advances on the back of the
armature is called as back pitch of the coil. It is measured in terms of armature
conductors.
5. Resultant pitch (Yr): The distance, in terms of armature conductor, between
the beginning of one coil and the beginning of the next coil is called as resultant
pitch of the coil.
6. Commutator Pitch (Yc): Distance between the commutator segments to which
the two ends of a coil are connected.
7. Winding Pitch (Y): Distance between starting of two consecutive conductors.
Y=Yb-Yf Lap winding
Y=Yb+Yf Wave winding

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The Frog-Leg Winding
The frog-leg winding or self-equalizing winding gets its name from the shape of its coils. A
frog-leg or self-equalizing winding combines a lap winding with a wave winding, so that the
wave windings can function as equalizers for the lap winding.

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 DC Machines
Introduction
DC machines are generators that convert mechanical energy to electric energy and
motors that convert electric energy to mechanical energy. DC motor operates based
on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, it experienced a force.
DC generator is a device that works based on the principle of faradays law of
electromagnetic induction. Whenever the conductor cuts by the magnetic field emf
is induced on it. Most dc machines are like ac machines in that they have ac voltages
and currents within them. They have a dc output only because a mechanism exists
that converts the internal ac voltages to dc voltages at their terminals. This is called
a commutator and is also known as commutating machinery. Commutation is the
process of converting the ac voltages and currents in the rotor of a dc machine to dc
voltages and currents at its terminals.

D.C Generator
D.C generator works based on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction.” Whenever the conductor cuts by the magnetic field emf (electro motive
force) induced on the conductor. Direction of the induced e.m.f can be determined
using Fleming’s right hand rule. Stretch the thumb, index finger and middle finger
of right hand perpendicular to each other. If index finger point out the direction of
the magnetic field and thumb represents the direction of the motion conductor means
than middle finger gives the direction of the induced e.m.f. In this way we can
identify the direction of induced e.m.f using Fleming’s right hand rule.

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 Generated EMF in a Real DC Machine
The generated voltage is given by:

Example: A six-pole DC machine has a flux per pole of 30 mWb. The armature has
536 conductors connected as a lap winding. The DC machine runs at 1050 rpm and it
delivers a rated armature current of 225 A to a load connected to its terminals,
calculate: a) Machine constant, Km b) Generated voltage, EG c) Conductor current d)
Electromagnetic torque and e) Power delivered by the machine

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Example: A D.C machines having 4 poles and flux per is 0.07 webers. Total number
of conductors in the armature are 440.The machine rotates at a speed of 900rpm.
Calculate the induced emf in the generator for lap wound machines and wave wound
machines.
Solution:
i) For lap wound machines, A = P. P = 4; Ф = 0.07wb N = 900 rpm Z = 440
Induced e.m.f is given as:

.
ii) For wave wound machines, A = 2, P = 4, Ф = 0.07wb, N = 900 rpm. Z =
440, then induced e.m.f

Classification of DC generator
The classification of generators are made based on the field how is getting excited
by the DC supply, it may be classified as
1. Separately excited DC generator
2. Self-excited DC generator

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1. Separately excited DC generator
There is no inter connection between the armature and its field. Field winding is
excited by separate DC supply, so it is called separately excited DC generator.

2. Self-excited DC generator
Part of the generated DC armature voltage is utilized for the excitation of its field
than these types of generators are called self-excited DC generators. Depends on the
way field is connected with the armature it may be classified as:
i. Shunt generator
ii. Series generator
iii. Compound generator
a. Long shunt compound generator
b. Short shunt compound generator
DC shunt generator:
The field winding of the generator is connected in parallel to its armature. Voltage
across the field winding is the same as that of terminal voltage.
DC Series generator:
The field is connected in series with its armature. In series connection all current
are same i.e., the armature current, series filed current & load current are equal.

DC Compound generator:
In this type of generator more than one field winding are used. Both fields systems
are produced more flux. Compound generator can be classified as long shunt
compound generator and short shunt compound generator depending on how these
two field coils are connected with its armature.
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DC Long Shunt compound generator
There are two field windings named shunt field and series field winding. The series
field is connected in series with armature and this combination are connected in
parallel with the shunt field winding.

DC Short Shunt compound generator

The shunt field is connected in parallel with armature and this combination are
connected in series with series field.

Voltage and Current Relations

E – induced e.m.f in volts
Vt – terminal voltage in volts
IL – load current in amps
Ia - armature current in amps
Ise -current in the series filed
Ish - current in the shunt filed
Ra - armature resistance in ohms
If - filed current in amps
Rse - series field resistance in ohms
Rsh – shunt field resistance in ohms
Vbrush – Brush drop
Voltage equation for separately excited generator can be written as

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Shunt Generator

From the diagram

The voltage equation is given as

Series Generator
From the diagram, the armature, the field and the load are connected in series

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Long Shunt Compound Generator
From the diagram, armature & series field are connected in series. So current in
both are equal.

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Example: A long-shunt compound generator delivers a load current of 50 A at 500
V and has armature, series field and shunt field resistances of 0.05 ohm, 0.03 Ω and
250 Ω respectively. Calculate the generated voltage and the armature current. Allow
1 V per brush for contact drop.
Solution. Generator circuit is shown in Fig

Ish = 500/250 = 2 A
Current through armature and series winding is = 50 + 2 = 52 A
Voltage drop on series field winding = 52 * 0.03 = 1.56 V
Armature voltage drop IaRa = 52 * 0.05 = 2.6 V
Drop at brushes = 2 * 1 = 2 V
Now, Eg = V + IaRa + series drop + brush drop= 500 + 2.6 + 1.56 + 2 = 506.16 V

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Assignment 2: An 8-pole d.c. shunt generator with 778 wave-connected armature
conductors and running at 500 r.p.m. supplies a load of 12.5 Ω resistance at terminal
voltage of 50 V. The armature resistance is 0.24 Ω and the field resistance is 250 Ω.
Find the armature current, the induced e.m.f. and the flux per pole

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 DC Motor
An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. It is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by
Fleming's Left-hand rule and whose magnitude is given by
Force, F = B I l newton
Where B is the magnetic field in weber/m2.; I is the current in amperes and l is the
length of the coil in meter.

Constructionally, there is no basic difference between a dc generator and motor. In

fact, the same dc machine can be used interchangeably as a generator or as a motor.
The basic construction of a dc motor contains a current carrying armature which is
connected to the supply end through commutator segments and brushes and placed
within the north south poles of a permanent or an electro-magnet.

Working Principle of DC Motor

Consider a two polar DC motor as shown in figure. When motor terminals are
connected to DC mains, field gets excited and alternate N-pole and S-pole is created.
Armature conductors under N-pole carry current in one direction while conductor
carry current in opposite as shown in figure.

By applying Flemings left hand rule, the armature conductors experience a force
which tends to rotate armature in clockwise direction. These forces collectively
produce a driving torque which sets armature rotating.

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 Figure: Fleming’s Left hand rule

DCDC Motor Back EMF

When armature of dc motor rotates, the armature conductors move through the
magnetic field, emf is induced in them. The induced emf acts in opposite direction
to applied voltage. This voltage is known as back emf.

Significance of Back EMF in DC Motor

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DC Machine-Types
Magnetic flux in DC machine is produced by field coils carrying current. This is
called excitation. DC machines are classified based on type of excitation.
Classification is same for DC Generator and Motor

1) Separately Excited DC Motor

Field winding is supplied from an independent external source

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 2) Shunt Wound DC Motor
 Field winding is connected in parallel with armature winding.
 Shunt field winding is generally made of large no. of turns of fine
wire having high resistance

3) Series Wound DC Motor

 Field winding is connected in series with armature winding.
 Shunt field winding is generally made of few turns of wire with large cross-
sectional area.

4) Compound Wound
 Has both series and shunt field windings.
 Each pole carries both series winding and shunt winding.
Two types:
1. Long Shunt compound Motor
Shunt field winding is connected in parallel with series field winding and
armature winding.

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 2. Short Shunt compound Motor
Shunt field winding is connected in parallel with armature winding only.

Cumulatively Compounded: When series field aids the shunt field, motor is said
to be cumulatively compounded.
Differentially Compounded: When series field opposes the shunt field, motor is
said to be differentially compounded.

Application of DC Motors
1. Shunt Motor: Constant speed motor. Speed regulation is very good. Medium
starting torque.
Applications: centrifugal pump, machine tools, blower’s fans, reciprocating pumps,
lathe, drills, boring mills, spinning and weaving mills etc.
2. Series Motor: Variable speed motor which changes speed drastically from one
load condition to another. It has a high starting torque.

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Applications: hoists, electric trains, conveyors, elevators, electric cars, elevators,
electric traction, cranes, vacuum cleaners etc.
3. Compound Motor: Variable speed motors. It has a high starting torque and the no-
load speed is controllable unlike in series motors.
Applications: Rolling mills, sudden temporary loads, heavy machine tools, punches,
presses, reciprocating machines, etc.

Example: A 120 V shunt motor has the following parameters: Ra = 0.4 Ω, RF = 120Ω
and rotational (core, mechanical and stray) losses are 240W. On full load, the line
current is 19.5A and the motor runs at 1200 rpm, find: a) the developed power, b)
the output power, and c) the output torque
Solution:

Example: A 4-pole dc motor has lap connected armature winding. The number of
armature conductors is 250. When connected to 230 V dc supply it draws an
armature current of 40A, calculate the back emf and the speed with which motor is
running. Assume armature is 0.6 ohm
Solution:
P = 4 A = P = 4 as lap connected
 = 30 m wb = 30x10 -3 V = 230v, z = 250 Ia = 40 A
From voltage equation V = Eb + Ia Ra
230 = Eb + 40 x 0.6
Eb = PNz / 60A
206 = (30 x 10-3 x 4 x N x 250) / (60 x 4)
N = 1648 rpm

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Speed Control of DC Motor
Speed control means intentional change of the drive speed to a value required for
performing the specific work process. Speed control is a different concept from
speed regulation where there is natural change in speed due to change in load on the
shaft. Speed control is either done manually by the operator or by means of some
automatic control device.
The expression of speed control dc motor is given as,

Or

Where, Ra is armature circuit resistance.

Therefore speed (n ) of 3 types of dc motor – SERIES, SHUNT AND COMPOUND
can be controlled by changing the quantities on RHS of the expression. So speed can
be varied by changing
(i) terminal voltage of the armature V ,
(ii) armature circuit resistance Ra and
(iii) flux per pole, .
The first two cases involve change that affects armature circuit and the third one
involves change in magnetic field. Therefore speed control of dc motor is classified
as
1) armature control methods and
2) field control methods.

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Necessity for a Motor starter

es
To restrict this high starting armature current, the variable resistance is connected in
series with the armature at start. This resistance is called starter or starting resistance.
So, starter is basically current limiting device. In the beginning the entire resistance
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is in series with armature and then gradually cur off as motor gathers speed,
producing the back emf. In addition to the starting resistance, there are some
protective devices provided in a starter.
Types of starters:
1) Three-point starter
2) Four-point starter
3) Two-point starter
The starter is basically a variable resistance, divided into number of sections. The
contact points of these sections are called studs and brought out separately as OFF,
1,2…. up to RUN. There are three main points of this starter
L – line terminal to be connected to positive of supply
A – to be connected to the armature winding
F – to be connected to the field winding
Initially the handle is in the OFF position. The dc supply to the motor is switched

Fig: 3 point starter

on. Then handle is slowly moved against the spring force to make a contact with
stud no 1. At this point, field winding gets supply through the parallel path provided
to starting resistance, through NVC. While entire starting resistance comes in series
with the armature and armature current which is high at start, gets limited. Finally,
when the starter handle is in RUN position, the entire starting resistance gets
removed from the armature circuit and motor starts operating with normal speed.
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Power Flow and Losses in DC Machine
The various losses in a dc machine are
 Copper losses
 Iron losses
 Mechanical losses
Copper losses:
The copper losses are the losses taking place due to the current flowing in a winding.
The copper losses are proportional to the square of the current flowing through
armature and field winding. This loss is also called variable loss.

Mechanical losses:
These losses consist of friction and windage losses. Some power is required to
overcome mechanical friction and wind resistance at the shaft. The magnetic and
mechanical losses together are called stray losses. Thus, for a dc machine
Total losses = Constant losses + Variable losses

Efficiency of a dc Machine

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Condition for maximum efficiency:
Variable losses = Constant losses
Pi = Pcu

Pout

Figure: Power Flow in DC Motor.

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