CARBON AND ITS COMPOUND

1. CARBON:-
(i) It is denoted by C. (ii) Atomic Number =6 (iii) Atomic Mass = 12
(iv) Electronic configuration = K=2, L=4 (v) Valence electrons = 4 (vi) Valency = +4, -4

2. It could lose 4 electrons and form C 4+ atom. But a massive amount of energy is required to remove 4 electrons
leaving behind a Carbon Cation with 6 Protons in its nucleus holding on just two electrons together.

3. It could gain 4 electrons and can form c4- atom. But for a nucleus having 6 Protons, it would be difficult to hold on 10
electrons.

To overcome this problem, Carbon shares its valence electrons to its atoms or atoms of other elements.
This type of bonding is called Covalent bonding.

2. COVALENT BOND:-
The bonds which are formed by the sharing of an electron pair between two same or different atoms are known as
covalent bond.
Examples:
1. H 2 2. Cl 2
Total V.E = 1 X 2= 2 Total V.E=7x2=14
Electron pairs = 2/2 = 1 Electron pair = 14/2= 7

3.O2 4. N 2

Total V.E = 5x2 = 10

Total V.E = 6 x 2 = 12
Electron pairs = 10/2 = 5
Electron pairs = 12/2 =8
5.CH 4 6. NH 3

Total V.E = 4+1x4 Total V.E = 5+1x3 = 8

Electron pairs= 8/2 = 4 Electron pairs = 8/2 = 4

7.CO 2 8. S8
Total V.E =
Total V.E = 4 + 6 x 2 = 16 Electron pair =
Electron pairs = 16/2 = 8
PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS
Covalently bonded molecules are called covalent compounds.
Their important properties are
 Their constituents are molecules, not ions.
 They have strong bonds within the molecule but intermolecular forces are weak, which is responsible for low
melting and boiling forces are weak. Which is responsible for low melting and boiling points of these compounds
(except graphite and diamond)?
 These compounds are generally insoluble in water but some of them are cable to form H-bond which are
soluble in water.

Difference between covalent and ionic Compounds
 Covalent compounds have lower intermolecular force in comparison with ionic compounds.
 Covalent compounds have comparatively lower boiling and melting points than the ionic compounds.
 Covalent compounds are poor conductors of electricity while ionic compounds are good conductors of
electricity in their aqueous solution or in molten state.
 Covalent compounds are formed by the sharing of electrons whereas ionic compounds are formed but
the loss or gain of electrons.

DIAMOND
General Properties
 It is a colorless transparent substance with extraordinary brilliance due to its high refractive index.
 It is quite heavy
 It is extremely hard (hardest natural substance known).
 It does not conduct electricity (because of the absence of free electrons).
 It has high thermal conductivity and high melting point
 It burns on strong heating to form carbon dioxide.

STRUCTURE
It is a giant molecule of carbon atoms in which each carbon atom is linked to four other carbon atoms by
strong covalent bonds forming a rigid three dimensional network structure, which is responsible for its
hardness. Moreover a lot of energy is required to break the network of strong covalent bonds in the diamond
crustal, thus its melting points is very high.
USES
 Due to its hardness it is used in knives for cutting marble, granite and glass.
 It is used for the purpose of ornaments studded as precious stones.
 It is used as an abrasive and for polishing hard surface.
 Dies made from diamond are used for drawing wires from the metals
 (Diamonds can be prepared artificially by subjecting pure carbon to very high pressure and temperature. These
synthetic diamonds are small bur are otherwise indistinguishable from natural diamonds )
GRAPHITE
General Properties
 It is a grayish black opaque substance.
 It is lighter than diamond, feels soft and slippery to touch.
 It is a good conductor of electricity (due to the presence of free electrons) but bad conductor of heat.
 On strong heating, It burns to give carbon dioxide

STRUCTURE
Graphite crustal consists of layers of carbon atoms or sheets of carbon atoms b strong covalent bonds to form
flat hexagonal rings. However, the fourth electron of each carbon atom is free which makes it good conductor
of electricity. The various layers of carbon atoms in graphite are held together by weak Vander Waals’ forces
so these can slide over one another.
 It is used as a powdered lubricant for the parts of machinery.
 It is used for making electrodes of cells.
 It is used for making lead for pencils as it can mark paper black. It is therefore called black lead or
plumbago
 It can withstand high temperature so it is used making crucibles to melt substances with high melting
points and tiles on the nose cone of space shuttle.
FULLERENES
These are recently discovered allotropic forms of carbon which were prepared for the first time by HW KROTO
Smalley and Robert Curt by the action of laser beam on the vapours of graphite. Most commonly known
fullerenes traces of compounds containing even up to 370 carbon atoms . C 60 Fullerene was named
Buckminster Fuller because its structure by Fuller for the large international exhibitions.
General Properties
 These are dark solids at room temperature.
 These are neither too hard nor too soft.
 These are the purest allotropic forms of carbon dioxide gas other properties of fullerene are still being
investigated
C60 :-
STRUCTURE-.C 60 is a football shaped spherical molecule in which 60 C atoms are arranged in
interlocking hexagonal and pentagon hexagons and 12 pentagons of carbon atoms.
Uses
 In pure form, these behave as insulators. However, these can be coverte3d into semiconductors under
suitable conditions.
 C 60O, a molecule formed when C 60 traps O atoms, is used in cancer as well as AIDS
therapy.
 In small amounts, these are used to catalyse the photochemical refining in industry.
 Topic 2 :- CARBON AND ITS COMPPOUND
VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON
The main reason for this huge number of carbon compounds are :
1. CATENATION
The property of self linking of elements mainly carbon atoms through covalent bonds to form long, straight or
branched chains and rings of different sizes is called catenation. l Carbon shows maximum catenation in the
periodic table due ti its small size, and high straight of carbon-carbon bonds.
2. Tetravalency of carbon
Carbon belongs to group 14 of the periodic table. Its atomic no. is 6 and the electronic configuration is 2, 4.
Thus, it has four electrons in the outermost shell. Hence, its valency is four. i.e., it is capable of bonding or
pairing with 4 other carbon atoms or with the atoms of some other monovalent elements like hydrogens
(chlorine, bromine), etc.
3.TENDANCY TO FORM MULITIPLE BONDS
Due to its small size Carbon
Has a strong tendency to form multiple bonds (double and triple bonds) by sharing more than one electron
pair with its own atoms or with the atoms of elements like oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur etc. As a result, it can
form a variety of compounds.
For example,
1.Ethane 2. Ethane and Ethyne

HydroCarbons
  The organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.
These are the simplest organic compounds and are regarded as parent organic compounds. All other
compounds are considered to be derived from them byu the replacement of one or more hydrogen atoms by
other atoms or groups of atoms. The major source of hydrocarbon is petroleum.

The hydrocarbons can be classified as

i) Saturated hydrocarbon
ii) Unsaturated hydrocarbon

Saturated hydrocarbon
The hydrocarbons in which all the carbon atoms are connected by only single bonds are called saturated
hydrocarbon or alkanes or paraffins.

The general formula of these compounds is C n H 2 n +2

Where , n= no. of Carbon atoms in one molecule of a hydrocarbon.

UNSATURATED HYDROCARBON
1. Alkenes
2.Alkynes

 How to draw the Structure of Saturated and unsaturated compounds ?

Step 1 First connect all the carbon atoms by single bond .
Sstep 2 After that satisfy the tetravalney of carbon with available hydrogen atom.
Step 3 Is number of available H- atoms are less than that required, satisfy the remain valency by uusing double
or triple bond.

i) Structure of Ethane (C 2 H 6)
ii) Structure of propane (C 3 H 8 )
iii)Structure of Ethene (C 2 H 4 )
iv) Structure of Ethyne (C 2 H 2)

How to draw Structure of Cyclic Compounds ?

Step 1 First connect the available carbon atoms by a single bond in the cyclic form.
Step 2 Try to satisfy the tetravalency of each carbon with the available hydrogen atoms.

Step 3 Now check the valency of each carbon. I it is found unsatisfied, use double or triple bond to satisfy it.

i) Cyclohexane (C 6 H 12)

ii) Benzene (C 6 H 6 )
ISOMERISM

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

Homologous Series
Characteristics of a Homologous Series
NOMENCLATURE OF CARBON COMPOUNDS

Writing IUPAC Name of a Compund

Step 1 Count the no. of Carbon atoms in the given compound and write the rot word for it
(Root word upto 10 carbon atoms are tabulated below)

Step 2 If the compounds is saturated, add suffix ‘ane’ to the rot word, but if is unsaturated,
add suffix ‘ene’ and ‘yne’ for double and triple bonds respectively.

Step3 If functional group is present in the compound, it is indicated by adding its suffix.

TOPIC 3 :- CHEMICAL PROPERTIESS OF CARBON COMPOUNDS

(i) COMBUSTION
All the Carbon compounds burn in oxygen and yield carbon dioxide and wat5er vapous, Heat and ligtht are
also released during this process. This reaction is called combustion.
For example,

(ii) OXIDATION
Oxidation is the process of intake of oxygen and removal of hydrogen. Reagents used for this purpose are
alkaline KMnO4 + heat or acidified K2Cr2O7 + heat

Substances that are capable of providing oxygen to other substances are call oxidizing agents in general
Alcohol Aldehyde Acid

(iii) ADDITION REACTIONS

The reaction in which a reagent adds completely on a substance without the removal of small molecules are
called addition reactions.
For example,
Addition of hydrogen (in the presence of catalysts like palladium or nickel) to unsaturated hydrocarbons,
yields saturated hydrocarbons (Hydrogenation).

Hydrogenation addition hydrogen of vegetable oil (which are unsaturated carbons) in the presence of nickel
catalyust gives ghee(saturated compounds) this process is called hardening of oils.

Vegetables oils Ghee

 A catalyst is that substance which alters the rate of a reaction without being consumed.
 Saturated fatty acids which are generally present in animal fats are harmful for health.
 Unsaturared compound dischare the pink colour of alkaline KMN)4. This is known as test of
unsaturation.

(iv) SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS

The reactions in which a reagent substitutes (replaces)an atom or a group of atoms from the reactant
These are generally shown in These are generally shown by saturated compounds and benzene.

Most of the saturated hydrocarbon are fairly inert and uncreative in the presence of most reagents So,
presence of sunlight is necessary for their substitution reactions.
When chlorine is added to hydrocarbons at a rapid rate in the presence of sunlight, Cl replaces H atom one by
one.
FUELS AND FLAMES
FUELS

Those carbon compounds which have stored energy inn them and burn with heat and light are called fuels.
The released energy (heat and light ) is utilized for various purpose like for cooking food, running machines I
factories, etc.

In fuels, the carbon can be in free state ads present in coal, coke and charcoal or in combined state as present
in petrol, LPG , CNG gas kerosene petroleum, natural gas, etc.
Those fuels which were formed by type decomposition of the remains of the pre historic plants and animals
(fossils) buried under the earth long ago, are called fossils fuels.
For example, coal, petroleum ands natural gas.

COAL
It is a complex mixture of compounds of carbon hydrogen and oxygen and some free carbon along with traces
of nitrogen and sulphur.
It was formed by the decomposition of planes, ferns and trees buried under the earth millions of years ago.

PETROLEUM
It is a dark viscous foul smelling oil and is also known as rock oil or black gold, It was formed by the
decomposition of the remains of extremely small plants and animals buried under the sea millions of years
ago.

FLAME
A flame is the region where combustion of gaseous substances takes place.
Depending upon the amount of oxygen available and burning of fuels, flames are of the following two types –

1. Blue or Non-luminous Flame

When the oxygen supply is sufficient, the fuels burn completely producing a blue flame, Since, light is not
produced during this type of combustion, so the flame is called non-luminous (non light giving flame), e.g.
burning of LPG in gas stove.
2. Yellow or Luminous Flame
In the insufficient supply of air, the fuels burn incompletely and produce yellow flame. The colour of the flame
is yellow because of the presence of unburnt carbon particles. This flame produces light so also known as
luminous flame.
e.g., burning of wax vapours

Dehydration
Removal of water molecules from a compound is known as dehydration reaction
For example, when ethanol is heated at 443k with excess conc.
H2SO4 the water molecules get removed from it and ethane is obtained.

CH3 +CH2OH (hot conc) CH2 = CH2 + H2O

USES
Uses of ethanol are
 It is used as active ingredient in all alcoholic drinks.
 It is useful in medicines likje tincture of iodine, cough syrups and many other tonics.
 Alcoho is used as and additive in petrol, since it is a cleaner fuel and gives rise to only CO2 and H2O
when burnt in sufficient air.
 It is used as hypnotic (induces sleep)

DENATURED ALCOHOL
In order to stop the misuse of ethanol, it is made unfit for drining by adding poisonous substances like
methanot, copper sulphate, pyridine etc and coloured substances like dyes. Suce alcohol is called DENATURED
ALCOHOL.
In liver, methanol is oxidized to methanol which reacts readily with the components of cells and causes
coagulation of protoplasm. It also affects optic nerves, causing blindness.

ETHANOIC ACID OR ACETIC ACID

It is commonly known as acetic acid. Its formyla is CH3COOH
5-8% solution of ethanoic acid in water is known as vinegar.

Physical properties
Physical properties of ethanoc acid are
Its melting point is 390k
During winter in cold climates it often freezes and forms ice flakes, so it is also called glacial acetic acid

Chemical Reactions
(i) Acidity-It is a weaker acid than HCl but stronger than alcohol. It evolves hydrogen when reacts with sodium
metal or sodium hydroxide, which shows its acidic nature.
2C H 3 COOH +2Na 2CH 3 COONa + H 2
H
C 3 COOH + nAoh CH 3 COONa + H 2 O
ESTERIFICATION
When ethanol (an alcohol) reacts with acetic acid
(a carboxylic acid) a fruity (sweet) smelling liquid called ester obtained. This reactiuon is called esterfication

CH 3 COOH + CH 3 CH 2OH (Acid –H2O)

CH 3 COOC H 2 C H 3 (ESTER)

The ester converterd back into alcohol and sodium salt of acid when treated with alkali like sodium is used for
the preparation of soap

.CH 3 COO C 2 H 5 C2H5OH + CH3CONa

Ethyle acetate Ethyl sodium
Alcohol acetate
Reaction with carbonate and hydrogen carbonates
In the reaction of acetic acid and carbonates or hydroigenn carbonates, carbon dioxide gas is obtained It is an
example of acid base reaction

C H 3 COOH + NaHCO3 CH3COONa + H2O +CO 2

C H 3 COOH + Na2CO3· 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

Uses of acetic acid

i) It is used for making vinegar
ii) It is used widely as preservative in pickles.
iii) Itr is used for the synthesis if other compounds lie esters.

ETHANOIC ACID OR ACETIC ACID

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

TOPIC 4
Cleansing agent
Soaps and Detergents
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids and have general formula RCOONa.
Where, R=C15H31, C17H35 , etc
C15H31COOH is called palmitic acid.
Detergents are usually ammonium or sulphonate salts of ong chain carboxylic acids.

Manufacturing of Soaps and Detergents

Soaps are made from animal fat or vegetable oils by heating it with sodium hydroxide.
Fat or Oil + Alkali (heat) Soap + Glycerol
(Ester) Sodium sodium (alcohol)
Hydroxide salt of fatty acid
This prococess of preparation of soap by the hydrolysis of fats and oil with aljalies is called saponification

Structure of a Soap Molecule

A soap molecule is made up of two parts – a long hydrocarbon part and a short ionic part containing –COONa
group. The long hydrocarbon part is hydrophobic and therefore insoluble in water but soluble in oil. The ionic
portion of the soap molecure is hydrophilic so soluble in water and insoluble in oil.