PHYSICAL SCIENCE

MATTER AND MATERIALS

> KEYWORDS
> ATOMS
- Atoms and Subatomic particles
- Elements
- Compounds
- Mixtures of elements and compounds

> PARTICLE MODEL OF MATTER

- Concept of particle model of matter
- States of matter
- Forces and spaces
- Dissolving and diffusion
- Change of state of matter
- Phase change
- Density, mass and volume
- Density and states of matter
- Floating and sinking
- Expansion and contraction
- Pressure in gases

> CHEMICAL REACTIONS

ENERGY AND CHANGE
> STATIC ELECTRICITY

KEYWORDS:
 Atom: The smallest unit of matter, it cannot be broken down chemically
into anything simpler.
 Nucleus: Found in the centre of an atom.
 Protons: Positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom.
 Neutrons: Neutral particles found in the nucleus of an atom.
 Neutral: Having no charge.
 Electrons: Negatively charged particles found in the space surrounding
the nucleus of an atom.
 Model: A mental picture or story about an object or process that is not
easy to observe or study.
 Element: A pure substance consisting of only one type of atom.
 Periodic table: A way in which scientists classify the elements.
 Pure substance: A substance that is not mixed with any other
substance.
 Substance: A word used to describe matter.
 Ion: Charged atom.
 Solution: A mixture of two or more substances usually a solid dissolved
in a liquid.
 Evaporation: The change from a liquid to a gas.
 Impure substance: A substance which contains small amounts of other
substances.
 Particles: A term used to describe atoms and molecules that make up
matter.
 Dilute: To reduce the strength of a solution by adding water.
 Compress: The particles can be squashed closer together, the larger the
spaces between the particles, the more they can be compressed.
 Kinetic energy: Energy found in a moving object.
 Collisions: The bumping of particles, resulting in a force which causes
the change in direction of movement.
 Constantly: Without stopping.
 Attractive forces: Forces that are between particles of matter that
bring them towards each other.
 Repulsive forces: Forces that are between particles of matter that push
the particles away from each other.
 Physical change: A change in the state of a substance caused by a
change in temperature.
 Melting point: Temperature at which pure solids melt.
 Boiling point: Temperature at which pure substance boils (Bubbles of
gas form in liquid and rise to surface to escape.)
 Condensation: Gas state changing back into a liquid.
 Solidification: Heat energy is given off when a liquid changes back into
a solid.
 Sublimation: When a solid changes directly to a gas.
 Density: Ratio of mass to volume in a substance.
 Mass: Amount of matter in an object.
 Volume: The amount of space occupied by an object or substance. (cm 3)
MATTER AND MATERIAL
ATOMS
Atoms and Subatomic particles:
 Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.
- Made up of very small particles called atoms which are the smallest
unit of matter that can’t be broken down chemically simpler.
 Subatomic particles:

Protons Neutrons Electrons

- Positive charge - Neutral charge - Negative charge
- Large mass - Large mass - Small mass
- Found in the - Found in the - Space around
nucleus nucleus nucleus
- Fast moving
- Large amounts
energy
- Held in place by (+)
charge of Protons

 Nucleus is the central region of the atom.

 When the number of protons = number of electrons within an atom, the
atom itself has no overall charge.
Elements:
 118 Elements
- 24 made artificially
- Most occurring naturally
- Classified in groups based on structures + properties in periodic table.
* Groups and Periods
- Dmitri Mendeleev (1834 – 1907)
 All atoms are identical
 Can’t be changed into other elements by chemical reaction.
 Can’t be broken down to 2/more substance by chemical means.
 Elements and compounds are matter that are pure substances.
 Can’t be broken down into simpler substances.

E.g.) 5 O = 5 oxygen atoms

 Molecules of elements
- 2/more atoms chemically bonded = molecule
- 2 atoms of the same element bonded = Diatomic molecule (Chemically
unstable on its own and found naturally in pairs.)
- 7 Diatomic molecules (Have No Fear Of Ice Cold Beer)
- There are some elements consisting of more than 2 atoms. ( C 6 ; S8 )
Compounds:
o Atoms react chemically with anther to form compounds
E.g.) O2 ; CuCl2; NaCl2

E.g.) 5 H2O *5 Molecules H2O*

1) HHO ~ 10 Atoms H
2) HHO ~ 5 Atoms O
3) HHO
4) HHO
5) HHO
o Pure substances that can be broken down into simpler substances (2/more
atoms combined in a fixed ratio.)
o Decomposition of Compounds
- Compounds can be broken down  others/original element in a decomp.
Reaction
-> Heating/electrolysis
o Electrolysis
- Electricity + Break down
- Breaking down compounds using electricity
E.g.) H2O = H2 + O2
Mixtures of Elements + Compounds:
 Pure substances can’t be broken down to smaller substances by pht be
broken down to smaller substances by physical means.
 Mixtures = Pure substances mixed together.
 Solutions = Water + NaCl (E.g. Salt water solution -> Separated by
evaporation)
 Water split by electrolysis = Hydrogen + Oxygen (Different characteristics
to water)
 Impure substances = 1 main substance + small amounts of others (E.g.
Tap water)
 Elements found mixed together in nature.
 Substances in mixtures occur in any proportion.
 Molecules of compounds = fixed amounts of elements (Chemical formula
tells ratio of elements in compounds.)
E.g.) Sodium Chloride = 1 Sodium atom + 1 Chlorine atom (NaCl)
Compounds Mixtures
- Proportions of substance are - Proportions of substance vary
constant
- Can’t separate parts by physical - Separate by physical methods
 methods
- Prop. of com. differ from prop. - Components of mix. Keep individual
o/elem. form com. properties
- Chem. Change + new subst. - When made, no chem. change, no
formed(<-com forms) new substance
- When com. forms, gives off/takes in - Heat not required to form mixture
heat energy

PARTICLE MODEL OF MATTER

* Used by scientists to explain the properties of matter (theory)
* Scientific evidence shows that matter is made up of tiny particles
(atoms/molecules)
- Collected evidence from experiments to support evidence.
* P.M.M states:
- All matter is made up of particles.
- Particles too small to see even with the strongest microscope.
- Empty spaces between particles
- Particles constantly moving spontaneously.
- Forces of attraction and repulsion between particles.
* Factors causing substances to be solid, liquid or gas.
- Different size spaces between particles.
- Amount of movement of particles.
- Strength of forces.
* Solids:
- Particles are closely packed with least amount of space.
- Low amount of kinetic energy.
- Not easily compressible.
- Vibrate in a fixed position.
- Strong forces of attraction.
* Liquids:
- Particles loosely arranged.
- Not easily compressible.
- Particles move in a spontaneous manner with a high amount of kinetic
energy.
- Strong forces of attraction but weaker than those in solids.
- Move through smaller distances between collisions than gas after
collisions.
* Gases
- No particular arrangement, spontaneously disorderly manner.
- Large empty spaces with very high amount of kinetic energy, move
through large distances between collisions, with extremely weak forces of
attraction.
 - Easily compressible.

Forces and spaces:

> Forces of Attraction + Repulsion between particles
- Particles of matter move constantly.
- P.M.M called Particle Kinetic Model of Matter.
- Forces present in any substance.
* If attraction are greater than repulsion then particles move closer
together(S/L)
* Vice versa for Gases.
* Heat makes particles move faster and makes then move further away
from each other, causing liquids and gases to expand.

> Compressibility of gases

- When compressing gases, we force particles to move closer together
(Making spaces smaller)
- Not possible to compress liquid as much as a gas because the spaces
between [articles already quite small.
- Easier to compress air than liquid.
Dissolving and diffusion:
 Dissolving
- Solid particles occupy empty spaces in liquids.
- You can add energy by shaking or heating (Helps break bonds between
solid particles)
 Diffusion
- The random movement of gas/liquid particles from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration till equilibrium is reached.
(Particles spread equally throughout the area)
- Takes place faster in gases. (Which have more kinetic energy)
Change of state of matter:
 P.M.M explains the physical changes in matter.
 Heating and cooling causes a substance to change state.
 Gaining heat
- Particles are further apart
- Particles are less strong than when they were solid.
- Adding heat to liquid causes it to boil then turn to a vapour or gas. (Liquid
evaporates)
*Water vapour still water but state has just changed.
- Boiling liquid causes bubbles to form then rise up to the surface to escape.
 Losing heat
- Heat is given off when a gas changes to a liquid (Gas particles move closer
together)
 Condensation
  Forces increase
- Heat is given off when a liquid changes to a solid (Freezing/Solidification)
(Physical Change)
Phase Changes:
o Evaporation + condensation used for keeping things cool + desalination
(Extraction salt from sea water)
o How evaporation occurs
- Heat (Increases energy of particles etc.)
- Particles collide and transfer energy.
- If surface particles are bumped by 2/more others and there’s quick
succession, they can gain enough energy to escape to the air and
evaporate
*Takes energy with it as it evaporates and there is a loss of energy as the
substance cools.
o Use of evaporation
- Evaporation of sweat cools our bodies.
- Water from Earth keeps air + provides moisture for clouds (Imp. influence
on climate/weather)
- Important for air-conditioning and refrigeration.
- Instant coffee, fruit juice, blood plasma, vaccines, antibiotics.

Density, Mass and Volume:

M
|

V |
| D
|

Mass
Density =
Volume
= g/cm3
 Density gives us an indication of how tightly packed particles are in a
substance.
 The standardized volume is 1cm3/1m3
 Volume = Length x Breadth x Height

Density and states of matter:

* The change from solid to liquid to gas involves the absorption of heat.
* Gas is less dense than liquid and a liquid is less dense than a solid.
* Some materials have high density, and some have low density.
* The difference is that some objects occupy more space than the other even
though they might have the same mass. (They have different volume)
* Each substance has a specific value.
* Density is the amount of grams of substance in 1cm 3 or the amount of kg in
1m3.
* The individual particles making up one material have different masses
compared to the individual particles making up another material.
Floating and Sinking:
> The dead has a very high salt content causing it to have a much higher
density than ordinary sea water.
> The human body has a lower density than this water. (Usually water has a
lower density than our bodies)